
Qass. 
Book 



Dti|i.09. 
D. of D 



^^^^^^^ 



EIGHTH ANNUAL REPORT 



OF THE 

S 



LL^. Bv.-.-.. 



COMMISSIONER OF LABOR 



18 9 3. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 



WASHINGTON: 

GOTEENMENT FEINTING OFFICE. 
1893. 

3(i se^ 






B ±1 ISll 



OONTENTTS. 



Page. 

Message of the President 5 

Letter of Transmittal 7-11 

Introduction 13-19 

Chapter I. — Present status of industrial education in the United 

States '- 21-139 

Manual training 24-79 

Trade and technical schools 79-112 

Agricultural colleges 112-131 

Institutes of technology 132-139 

Charter II.— Present status of industrial education in Austria 141-160 

Manual training 143-148 

Continuation and trade schools 148-160 

Chapter III. — Present status of industrial education in Belgium . . . 161-216 

The public school sj^stem 163-170 

Manual training 164-170 

Special, industrial, and technical schools 170-216 

Apprenticeship schools 176, 177 

Schools of agriculture and horticulture 177-179 

Housekeeping schools for girls 179-182 

Trade schools for girls 182-188 

Parochial trade schools 188, 189 

Trade schools founded by guilds and trades 189-193 

Trade schools 193-198 

Industrial schools 198-211 

Drawing schools 212-214 

Commercial institutes 214-216 

Schools of industry and mines 216 

Chapter IV. — Present status of industrial education in France 217-302 

The public school system 219-260 

Infant schools 220, 221 

Elementary primary schools 221-233 

Advanced primary schools 233-243 

Manual apprenticeship schools 243-260 

Book work in relation to manual training 260 

Education of a purely industrial character 260-302 

Primary industrial schools 262-286 

Secondary industrial schools 286-291 

Superior industrial schools 29 L-297 

Industrial art education 297-302 

Travelling scholarships to graduates of industrial schools 302 

CiLAPTER V. — Present status of industrial education in Germany 303-371 

Manual training 305-328 

Higher institutions for industrial education 328-336 

3 



4 CONTEIS^TS. 

Chapter V. — Present status of industrial education in Germany — 

Concluded. Page. 

Industrial trade schools and continuation schools in Prussia 336-350 

Industrial trade schools and continuation schools in Saxony, Hamhurg, 

and Bremen 350-362 

Industrial trade schools and continuation schools in Bavaria 362-366 

Industrial trade schools and continuation schools in "VViirtemherg 366-370 

Alsace-Lorraine 371 

Chapter VI. — Present status of industrial education in Great 

Britain 373-440 

Beginning of the movement 375 

Technical instruction acts 376, 377 

Means of support of industrial education 377-384 

National association for the promotion of technical education 384 

Elementary manual instruction 384-386 

Secondary and higher institutions 386-434 

Results of technical education 434-437 

Schools of agriculture ■ 437-440 

Chapter VII. — Present status of industrial education in Italy 441-457 

Chapter VIII. — Present status of industrial educa^tion in Eussia .. 459-483 

Finland 464-469 

Technical and trade education 470-479 

EeguJations for industrial schools 479-483 

Chapter IX. — Present status of industrial education in Scandinav- 
ian countries 485-498 

Manual training in Sweden 490-492 

Manual training in Denmark ' ,.. . 492-498 

Chapter X. — Present status of industrial education in Switzerland . 499-586 

National subsidies 501-505 

Classification of schools 506 

Kindergartens 506,507 

Manual training 507-509 

Kindergartens and manual training, Geneva 509-513 

Trade schools 513-568 

Industrial art schools 568-571 

lustitutions for the education of working people 571-577 

The Technikum, Winterthur , 577-584 

The Polytechnic school, Zurich 584-586 

Chapter XI.— The kindergarten in relation to manual training 587-598 

The public schools of Mont Clair, New Jersey 589-593 

Public schools of the District of Columbia 593-598 

Chapter XII. — Manual training in conjunction with book work ..... 599-620 

Chapter XIII. — ^Manual training and trade instruction in reforma- 
tories 621-650 

Chapter XIV. — The effect of manual training and trade instruction 

UPON THE individual 651-662 

Results of manual training schools 653-657 

Results of trade schools 657-660 

Training in sewing and cooking in the public schools of Philadelphia.. 660-662 

Chapter XV. — Bibliography 663-686 



MESSAGE OF THE PRESIDENT. 



To the Senate and House of Representatives: 

I trausmit lierewitli the Eighth Annual Eeport of the Commissioner 
of Labor. This report relates to industrial education in the United 
States and foreign countries. 

Benj. Haeeison. 
ExECUTiYE Mansion, 

Washington, D. C, Fehniary 8, 1893. 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



Department of Labok, 
WasMngt07i, JD. 6\, February 7, 1893. 

Sm : I liavc tli€ honor totraBsmitLerewitli the Eighth Annual Eeport 
of the Commissioner of Labor, which report relates entirely to industrial 
education in its various forms in the United States and foreign countries. 

In the act making appropriations for the legislative, executive, and 
judicial expenses of the government for the fiscal year ending June 30, 
1891, under the appropriation for this Departm-ent, was the following 
item: ^Tor the investigation of, and report upon, the various industrial 
school systems, and also technical school systems, of the United States and 
foreign countries, five thousand dollars." The plans which were adopted 
for the prosecution of the inquiry, indicated by this special clause in an 
appropriation act. comprehended a very wide and searching inquiry into 
the effects of manual training and trade instruction upon the in- 
dividual, the intention being to ascertain where the graduates of 
manual training, trade, and technical schools, or those who have 
received partial courses in such schools, were employed, and from 
their surroundings and their employers to learn aU the facts relative 
to their economic and moral condition. The schedule which was 
adoi)ted for the collection of the desired information included in- 
quiries con^yerning the age of the student workman, the various occu- 
pations he had followed, whether he had been trained conjointly by the 
study of. books and the use of tools, his proficiency in the actual use 
of tools and materials relative to the i)roficiency of other workmen, 
whether he attained an average degree of skill and efficiency in the use 
of tools quicker than those who had not had manual or trade training, 
whether he had acquired greater economy in the use of materials than 
others, whether he is more proficient in the things that indicate mental 
cultivation — such as methods of work, planning, arranging, etc., his 
promise of becoming a more intelligent worlonan than those not receiv- 
ing special training, his moral qualities relative to the average work- 
man, his faculty for managing men, his interest in the welfare of the 

7 



8 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 

establishment, whether he received greater couipensation than that 
giveu. to persons not coming from the technical schools, and various 
other general facts which would go to indicate the exact results of 
m auual and trade training. The plan was to make this report the result 
of original inquuy, and it was expected that under the general powers 
of the Department, as outlined in its organic law, the investigation 
could be carried beyond the cost stated in the act quoted. Under a 
former ruling of the accounting officers of the treasury department, this 
exi^ectation was justified. But after the work was well under way a 
new ruling was made (and I believe a proper one), which limited the 
Department in this particular investigation to the sum of $5,000. 
Originally, the intention was to give most prominence to the chapters 
on manual training in conjunction with book work, the kindergarten 
in relation to manual training, manual training and trade instruction in 
reformatories, and the effect of industrial education upon individuals as 
shown by special investigation. All these subjects were to havebeen the 
result of original inquiry, and the material drawn from other sources 
was to have been subordinated to the Department's own efforts. The 
treasury ruling referred to made a reversal of this plan necessary. The 
cliaiDters relating to the present status of industrial education in this 
and other countries have been made most prominent, and those giving 
the 'results of original inquiry the least so, although perhaps the more 
important part of this report. The chapters on the present condition 
of industrial education, while they are to a considerable extent the 
results of careful compilation, could not have been made as comprehen- 
sive as they are without the original work of the exx^erts of the Depart- 
ment. In making the general chapters only the most trustworthy 
information has been accepted. This change of the plans of the De- 
partment results in a report which may appear in some respects to du- 
plicate matter published by the bureau of education under, the title 
of Industrial and Manual Training in Public Schools in the United 
States, being Part II of the work on Art and Industry. This exhaus- 
tive volume, prepared by Dr. Isaac Edwards Clarke, of the bureau 
of education, comes to me after this report is ready for the press. A 
careful examination of it shows that the two reiDorts practically sup- 
plement each other, and that they do not to any considerable extent 
cover similar lines. The report of the bureau of education enters more 
largely into historical matter and into the theory of industrial education 
from the standpoint of the teacher. Our own, so far as the chapters 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 9 

on education in the United States and foreign countries are concerned, 
gives condensed statements of the exact status of dilfereht institutions 
for manual training and industrial instruction, while, of course, the 
original matter in the other chapters is not canvassed at all in the doc- 
ument just published by the bureau of education. Where the reports 
touch most closely is in what each has to say concerning what has 
actually been done in some American cities. Otherwise, as stated, the 
reports are supplemental each to the other, and the fact that they reach 
widely different constituencies renders the little duplication occurring 
of no practical importance. 

In its original work the Department has been fortunate in securing 
the assistance of men not generally employed by it. Through the 
kindness of the honorable secretary of war, the Dei3artment was able to 
avail itself of the services of Lieut. Henry T. Allen, second United 
States cavalry, military attache of the United States legation at Saint 
Petersburg, and the services of Mr. Charles W. Hills, of the quarter- 
master general's department. Through the courtesy of the honorable 
secretary of the treasury, Mr. J. Fred. Meyers, a gentleman thoroughly 
acquainted with the German language and Germany, and greatly inter- 
ested in the cause of industrial education, gave his services to the 
Department in connection with our inquiries in Germany. Dr. Henry 
H. Beliield, the director of the Chicago Manual Training School, vras 
of great service to the Department in ascertaining the results of man- 
ual training in connection with book work. Dr. Homer T. Fuller, 
of the Worcester Polytechnic Institute, contributed important mate- 
rial in explanation of the so-called Eussian method of manual training. 
Dr. Azel Ames, jr., of Boston, temporarily residing in London, furnished 
the Department with a valuable preliminary report on industrial edu- 
cation in Great Britain, which greatly assisted our experts in prosecut- 
ing their special inquiries. Mr. John Koren, a gentleman thoroughly 
conversant with the Scandinavian languages and familiar with the habits 
and customs of the people of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, rendered 
efficient service in the Department's inquiries in those countries. The 
valuable services of all these gentlemen were secured at a minimum cost 
through their i)atriotic endeavor to assist in so important an inquiry 
as that relating to industrial education. Their labors were supple- 
mented by various members of the regular force of the Department. 

The tabulations have been carried out under the direction of the 
chief clerk, Mr. Oren W. Weaver, and by Mr. G. Wallace W. Hanger, 



10 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 

of this Department, wlio lias general cliarge of tlie tabulating force. 
To these gentlemen and the members of the force assisting in the 
production of this report, I am under great obligation. Especially do I 
wish to thank Dr. William H. Eand, of this office, who has had special 
charge of the comi)ilation of all material not resulting from the original- 
TTork of the Department, and Mr. Charles H. Yerrill, who has been 
engaged in the revision of the report. I am also under special obliga- 
tion to Hon. Horace G. Wadlin, chief of the bureau of statistics of labor 
of Massachusetts. 

In addition to this regular annual report of the Department there 
have been prepared two special reports, one relating to the compulsory 
insurance laws of Germany and the other to the Gothenburg system 
of liquor traffic, while an investigation relating to the housing of labor 
in different countries is in prosecution. A portion of the force has also 
been engaged upon the collection of data relative to the phosphate 
industry of the United States, in accordance with a resolution of the 
Senate. Much time has also been occupied in completing and perfect- 
ing the Department's share in the work of the Senate committee on 
finance, especially in relation to wholesale i)rices and wages for the 
period from 1840 to 1891, inclusive, and for the supplementary period 
including October 1892. This report of the Senate finance committee, 
contemporaneous with this annual report of the Dei^artment, is an 
exceedingly important one, giving as it does the rates of wages paid 
in leading industries for the long period named. All these rates of 
wages, in accordance with the general practice of this Department, 
have been collected from the actual payrolls, and not from statements 
made to the Department. Access has been obtained in nearly all 
cases to the payrolls themselves, and transcriptions made therefrom 
for use in tabulation and in classification. The collection of data, 
therefore, is most trustworthy in following the rates of wages from 
1840 down to the present time. The Department also prepared for the 
committee on interstate and foreign commerce of the House of Eepre- 
sentatives a compilation of the labor laws of the various states and 
territories and the District of Columbia, which compilation accom- 
panied a report submitted by Hon. John J. O'Keill, of that committee, 
July 20, 1892, and has since been printed. It is a work of about six 
hundred pages, giving quite in extenso the specific labor laws of all the 
states that had been enacted up to and including the legislative ses- 
sions of the different states for the year 1890-'91. 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 11 

111 the Seventli Animal Eeport I called attention to a provision in tlie 
organic la\r of the Department relating to the establisliment of a system 
of reports by wliicli, at intervals of not less than two years, the gen- 
eral condition, so far as production is concerned, of the leading indus- 
tries of the country could be rei)orted. The object of this provision 
of law was to secure information at brief intervals concerning the vol- 
ume of production of the country, so that conclusions might be drawn 
as to whether production was increasing or decreasing, and in either 
case as to what leading industries were more especially affected. The 
provision of law cited could not be carried out except by thorough 
cooperation with the census office, because the statistics of manufact- 
ures for 1890 must furnish .the basis for any such system. During 
the past summer an attempt was made to establish the system indi- 
cated by law, and to this end the superintendent of census heartily 
cooperated with this Department. It was soon found, however, that 
the means at the disposal of the Department of Labor were quite in- 
adequate to the carrying out of the provision of the organic law. 
Furthermore, the question of the establishment of a i)ermanent census 
office had been raised by CongresSj and the proper committees were 
considering the i3ropriety of creating a permanent census bureau. 
These two reasons — a lack of means and the prospect of a permanent 
census office — caused me to suspend the preliminary labors necessary 
for the establishment of the system of reports provided for in the 
organic law of the Department. Should a permanent census office be 
established" this work would be more especially its duty than that of 
this office. 

I am, very respectfully, your obedient servant, 

Carroll D. Wright, 

Commissioner, 

The Preside]N^t. 



INTRODUCTION 



13 



INTRODUCTION 



' The investigatioDj the results of which are smnmarizecl in the follow- 
ing pages, was undertaken by this Department, pursuant to an act ot 
Congress appropriating 85,000 "for the investigation of, and report 
upon, the various industrial school systems, and also technical school 
systems, of the United States and foreign countries." 

Tlie terms of this act have been construed to include the systems 
of manual training, of apprenticeship, and of technical instruction, in 
vogue in the several classes of special schools as well as the public 
schools, at home and abroad^ and the Department has endeavored to 
execute its commission with full fidelity, so far as the limitation im- 
posed by the amount of the appropriation would permit. 

The object kept steadily in view throughout this inquiry has been 
to compare foreign systems of industrial education with our own, and 
by this means to obtain from the older civilization of Europe some use- 
ful hints for the improvement of American schools; but above all, to 
ascertain the precise effects of manual and technical training upon 
local and national industries, upon the pupil, upon the quality of his 
work, his capacity for wage earning, his value to his emx)loyer, etc. 

To define some of the terms which will frequently recur in this report, 
it may be said that manual training signifies instruction in tool work 
as an edncational disciidine. This definition distinguishes and dif- 
ferentiates it from trade school teaching, the sole or primary aim of 
which is to give the apprentice a thorough and practical knowledge of 
some handicraft. It is true, the apx)rentice may incidentally acquire 
much general information in a trade school; but education is not the 
main €nd sought in the apprenticeship school, whereas in the manual 
training school it is the paramount object. The difference may be illus- 
trated by contrasting the course pursued in the ISTew York Tra<le Schools, 
for examx)le, with that of the Saint Louis Manual Training Schqol. In 
one, the course is of short duration, and is limited to a severe drill in 
the theory and practice of a trade. The course in the other lasts three 
years, comprising high school studies, with manual practice in Avood 
and iron work as a coordinate branch of education. 

The technical school is a high grade trade school, or a school in 
which, while a craft is taught, the scientific j)rinciples upon which it 
is grounded are also fully explained and demonstrated in their apx)li- 
cations to art and industry. Schools of this class are the weaving 
schools of Philadelphia, Grefeld, Glasgow, Berlin, etc. 

15 



16 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Institutes of tecbuology are of university rank, and tlieir courses of 
study lead .to a professional degree, generally to tliat of civil, mining, 
or electrical engineer. To this grade belong the Massachusetts Insti- 
tute of Technology, the Eensselaer Polytechnic Institute, the Worcester 
Polytechnic Institute, the Stevens Institute of Technology, etc. 

Manual training is of modern origin. For while many theorists and 
scholars during the past four hundred years have declared themselves 
in favor of such instruction, and while some fitful attemiits had been, 
made at intervals to incori)orate manual labor with scholastic educa- 
tion in isolated instances, it was not until the year 1860 that a man of 
sufficient courage and force of character ax^peared and undertook to 
reconstruct the educational system of his native land in accordance 
with the i)rinciples of Pestalozzi and Froebel. This was Uno Gygnaeus, 
of the Helsingfors Teachers' Seminary, who, after long and diligent 
study of Swiss and German educational authorities, devised an ad- 
vanced system of manual exercises adapted to pui)i]s beyond the kin- 
dergarten age. This is sometimes called the Eussian system of tool 
instruction, though the term Eussian system is now generally used 
to designate that plan of shop instruction under which the pupil pro- 
duces no finished article, but merely makes component parts of an 
object, or manix)ulates the material used, as an educational exercise. 

The so-called Eussian method of manual training, whether practised 
in apprentice schools, or trade schools, or in technical schools, is really 
a misnomer, for there is no one method exclusively in vogue in Eussia, 
either for the training of artisans or for ijurposes of education for 
superintendence. Take, for example, the two largest technical schools 
in the empire, one at Saint Petersburg and the other at Moscow. In 
the former the course of theoretical training, including drawing, covers 
four years, then in the mechanical department there is an additional 
j^ear which is devoted almost solely to shop practice. This embraces a 
brief course in wood work, iron fiUng and chipping, use of lathes and 
planes and other machiue tools, and a slight amount of forging. But 
here there is no aim to construct a machine for actual use. A few have 
been erected for illustration and these are in the museum of the insti- 
tute. The purpose here is purely to educate, and the form and finish 
of the product, as judged by the eye or estimated by the calipers, is the 
objective result. 

On the contrary, the whole x>lan of the corresponding department of 
the Moscow Tf^^^hiiical Institute is quite different. The course is six 
years long. L ing the first year there is given about thirty hours 
weekly of instruction in mathematics, physics, and free-hand and 
mechanical drawing. In the second year fifteen hours weekly are de- 
voted to recitations, lectures, and drawing, while eighteen hours weekly 
are given to shop work, viz., six to carpentry, six to wood turning, and 
six to lathe work in metals. Very little time is given to bench work 
in metals, very much to the use of machines. In the third year twelve 



INTRODUCTION. 17 

hours weekly are ailoted to practical work, tliis being chiefly the cou- 
structioii of locks, the manufacture of which involves the use of both 
machine and hand tools. A part of the students may employ the prac- 
tice time of this year in pattern work. In the fourth year twelve hours 
weekly are employed in shop work. The construction of locks or pat- 
tern work is continued, and about half the time is equally divided be- 
tween forging and foundery work. In the fifth year the students work 
twelve hours weekly in the machine shop, and become accustomed to 
manage all the machines used in any ordinary shop. In this machine 
shop, besides the 40 to 60 students in each class, there are about 
35 journeymen, and the purpose is to manufacture a great variety of 
articles for sale. So in the foundery 30 journeyman workmen are em- 
ployed and a great deal of job work and government work is executed. 
During the last year considerable time is given to designing machinery 
and, to excursions to manufactories in the city. 

What Prof. Runkle calls the Eussian method is essentially the method 
of the Saint Petersburg Institute of Technology and of the ]tsovgo- 
rod School, an exhibit of the work of which is made at the Chicago 
exposition. This is the method adopted in shops of the Massachusetts 
Ii^stitute of Technology at Boston. But the Moscow method differs 
from the former in three respects : Pirst, the i)ractice is distributed over 
five years' time instead of being all crowded into one year; second, 
it is much more largely machine work rather than bench work with 
hand tools; third, as much as possible of the i^ractical work is done 
with a view to the use and sale of the products. The Moscow method 
iy best represented in this country by the shop work of the Worcester 
Polytechnic Institute, though the latter school carries the idea of con- 
struction for use still farther. This method might almost as properly 
be called Eussian as the other. 

From Piiiland the educational reform extended to Sweden and all 
Scandinavian countries, and thence to the whole. world. In adopting 
the new method, however, each nation has given to it a distinctive 
name. In Sweden it is known as sloid; in Germany, manual dex- 
terity, though instead of this term many German writers now use the 
n.ame adopted by the Strasburg congress, viz.,. workshop instruction; 
in France, manual labor; in the United States, manual training, etc. 
The one characteristic common to all these systems is that the manual 
work subserves a purely educational purpose. As M. Salomon says of 
sloid, it is to be used in the service of the Scu-^oljjrJiot^that the school 
should be subordinated to sloid. Swedish sloid, !^ .^ihe way, as ex- 
pounded by the principal of the Xaiis Seminary, consists mainly of 
wood carving and simple cabinetmaking. A series of one hundred 
models is placed before the pupil and he is taught how to reproduce 
each of them with hand tools. The Naas Seminary, however, does not 
represent all phases of so-called sloid systems, but only one. The 
Swedish models do not satisfy the aesthetic tastes of all nations. 
S. Ex. 65 2 



18 KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Tlie Belgian people, for example, wliile einploying wliat tliey call a 
sloid system in tlieir scliools, reject tlie sloid models of Sweden as 
uncontli, and make use of an entirely different set of tlieir own inven- 
tion. Denmark, too, lias adopted sloid into lier educational system. 
But, as may be seen from tlie detailed description of Danish sloid by 
Prof. Mikkelsen, there is but a slight reseaiblance between its methods 
and those in vogue in Sweden. In Scandinavia Avood sloid i>revails, 
but metal sloid and poly sloid systems exist elsewhere. There is, 
therefore, no single sloid S3^stem, but there are many systems of sloid. 
It must never be forgotten that the mode of educational organization 
in Europe dift'ers widely from that of the United States. In several 
continental states, for example, a mannal training system is established 
bylaw and the schools themselves are aided by direct subventions from 
the government. The same thing is true of trade and technical stihools 
also. With us, on the contrary, whenever public manual training 
schools are founded, the work is usually done by local boards, by munic- 
ipal authority, or by private enterprise, and the undertaking assumes 
the character of a tentative experiment. Hence, we have no uniform 
system of manual training in this country, but only a number of inde- 
pendent, heterogeneous ventures, some of whicli, however, have already 
demonstrated their right to exist. 

But there are several incorporated manual training schools in the 
United States wbich surpass anything of the kind to be found abroad. 
In these, something more is taught than the use of mere hand tools. 
Machine tools for wood and metal work abound, and the colossal 
mechanical appliances for testing the strength of materials, etc., (to be 
seen in the Chicago, Saint Louis, Toledo, and Philadelphia schools) 
dwarf into insignificance the relatively meagre equipments of the foreign 
schools of this class. In short, Europe has nothing in the nature of a 
manual training school equal to any of these great American institu- 
tions; nor has the Old World a single institute of technology that can 
bear comparison with the best of our own. 

In resi:>ect to technical and trade scliools tbe conditions are, with a 
few exceptions, exactly reversed. There is nothing more admirable than 
the European systems of trade and technical teaching. Their thorough- 
ness is proverbial, and the specialization of their training comi)rehends 
the minutest details. The German Fachsclmle, where a single specialty 
is taught — -upholstering, for example — turns out, at the end of the course, 
a thoroughly comx)etent workman. The dyer who learns his art in the 
Orefeld laboratories is versed in all the subtile chemistry of colors j and, 
from his knowledge of the comx)osition of fabrics, understands how to 
compute, to the fraction of a pfennig, the cost of dyeing a given number 
of yards blue or yellow. 

A like thoroughness characterizes the instruction given in the horo- 
logical schools at Besangon, Geneva, and Coventry, great centres of the 
watchmaking industry. It is a distinguishing feature, also, of the pro- 



INTRODUCTION. 19 

fessioiial scliools of tailoring, dressmakiDg, and artificial flower malving 
in France, Belgimu, and Switzerland^ of the Anstrian wood carving 
and cabiiietmaking schools; of the German schools for locksmiths and 
horseshoersj and even of the fishing schools of the Scandinavian 
penijQSula. 

In the fishing school, for example, the topography of the coast-line is 
minntely tanght by means of charts and maritime excursions, and the 
youth becomes as well acquainted with every headland and bay of his 
native country as with the physiognomy of his teacher. He studies the 
tides, winds, and currents. He is made full sailor. He learns the habits 
of fishes, the season for catching, the proper bait for diflerent species, the 
best methods of curing his catch and preparing it for market. Besides 
all this, he acquires a knowledge of French and English nautical and 
commercial terms, and familiarizes himself with the prices current of 
various lands. His training, if not equal to a liberal education, is an 
excellent preparation for his vocation in life. 

A few of the trade and technical schools of the United States take 
rank with their European i:)rototypes. Of these, the 'New York Trade 
Schools, the Pratt Institute, the textile department of the Pennsyl- 
vania Museum and School of Industrial Art, and the 'New York Institute 
for Artist- Artisans are examples. But the most of our schools of this 
class are far inferior, in respect to the fulness and completeness of 
their teaching, to the foreign models. 

Yet, in our half-developed state colleges of agriculture and the me- 
chanic arts we have the foundation for a better system of technical 
instruction than exists anywhere today; and in the establishment of 
such noble Institutions as the Drexel Institute, the Williamson Free 
School of Mechanical Trades, the Armour Institute, etc., one may dis- 
cern the promise of future American primacy in the industrial arts. 

However, it is not with the prospective, but with the present condi- 
tion and effects of industrial education that we now have to do; and we 
purpose to consider this subject in the following chapters. 

In considering the subject of the present status of industrial training 
in the succeeding chapters, no attempt has been made to take a census 
of the various institutioos in this and other countries in which industrial 
training in any form constitutes a feature. At the present time the 
number of institutions equipped for manual and trade training is of no 
gre;it consequence. It is rather the organization and methods of rex>re- 
sentative schools which are something more than experiments that we 
wish to know. The chief object, therefore, has been to draw from 
original and other sources the facts which should most clearly show 
the actual progress which has been made relative to the introduction 
and prosecution of studies in manual training and in trade schools, and 
their influence on the individual. Only those sources which are con- 
sidered most authentic have been used to suj^plenient the origiDal 
inquiries of the HeiDartment. 



CHAPTER I. 



PRESENT STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN 
THE UNITED STATES. 



21 



CHAPTER I. 

PEESEI^T STATUS OF IITDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IF THE UNITED 

STATES. 

The present status of the industrial education moveuient in the United 
States is peculiar. Perhaps not more so, however, than its develoi)- 
ment from its inception. It is one outcome of the feeling of dissatis- 
faction with the older methods of education and the effort to make 
Xmblic education more practical. The same feeling has manifested 
itself in the reform of the college course by reducing the amount of 
classical study required, by the introduction of elective courses, the 
adoption of the seminary method, and the extension of the laboratory 
method in scientific study. As far as industrial education is concerned, 
this movement made its beginning and has reached its highest develop- 
ment in schools of a scientific or technological character. These schools, 
the first of which is only about thirty years old, now rank in their kind 
with any in the world, and taken all in all, as educational institutions, 
they are of equal rank with the best universities. From these schools the 
movement has extended through the agricultural colleges until it has 
reached, and is now transforming, the methods of instruction in the pub- 
lic schools. Its immediate influence on the public schools has in many 
instances been through schools established by luivate enterprise for 
manual education. The success of these exx^eriments has determined 
the fate of the new education. Some of the larger public schools have 
carried the experiment to success and have been eagerly followed in 
the work by the more ambitious of the smaller ones. Several states 
have indorsed the movement by appropriations and others by legisla- 
tion permitting its adoption in i)ublic schools. 

The schools which would properly be included in any consideration of 
the subject of industrial education differ very much in character. From 
the school which aims to give the pupil simi)le educational exercises in 
drawing, modelling, and wood working, to the schools which turn out the 
skilled designer, dyer, or mechanical engineer, is a long stej). Between 
these two extremes are schools of various grades and characters. To pre- 
sent all these without some attempt at classification would give but a con- 
fused idea of the progress that has been made by the industrial movement 
in education. The line of demarcation between schools of such various 
aims and methods as those considered is not sharply drawn; but we 
could hardly expect to find it otherwise. Many of the courses of 
instruction offered by the schools are coafessedly experimental and 

23 



24 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

quite naturally follow widely different lines. Manual training, simi)ly 
as an educational feature, is found more commonly in courses of the 
grammar and higb. school grades. The best schools are not all, how- 
ev;er, under i^ublic management. Some of the earliest schools were 
established, and are still successfully carried on, entirely by x)rivate 
enterprise. The simple exercises in drawing, modelling, and wood 
working, which have characterized the beginnings in some of the pub- 
lic schools, are quite different from such complex courses as are offered 
in the Saint Louis, Chicago, or Baltimore manual training schools. Some 
of the higher grade schools, too, of more complex organization will be 
found with departments that might be classed as strictly manual train- 
ing, while having also the technological department. The line between 
the trade and technical schools will in some cases be more difficult of 
definition. The so-called trade schools may be said, in general, to train 
apprentices, while the technical schools turn out men thoroughly 
instructed and trained in all that science as well as manual skill has 
accomi)lished. Any classification that might have been made would 
be arbitrary and probably open to criticism. The classification that 
has been adoi)ted had. for its aim the bringing together of schools of 
the same general xDurposes and character. It was thought that a much 
clearer idea could thus be gained of what has been accomplished along 
the different lines followed by the various schools. 

As presented in this chapter the schools are separable into four 
classes, viz., manual training schools, trade and technical schools, 
agricultural colleges, and institutes of technology. 

MAls^UAL TEAmiNG. 

Manual training in the public schools will be found to have been 
more often the subject of experiment in the northeastern states, perhaps, 
than anywhere else. Massachusetts, J^ew Jersey, and ]N"ew York seem 
to have led in the number of experiments, though it certainly can not 
be said that any single one of these experiments, or the results attained 
by any one, overshadovv^s in importance those that have been made in 
Baltimore, Chicago, Omaha, Philadelphia, or Toledo. But in these 
states the movement seems to have made more progress in the smaller 
cities and towns. In Kew Jersey the reason is clear. The encourage- 
ment which the state has officially given by duplicating any sum be- 
tween $500 and $5,000 which might be subscribed or appropriated has 
tempted some of the smaller i)lftces to give the work a trial where it 
probably would not have been thought of without the state's offer. In 
several other states there has been state action in the line of permissive 
legislation — either authorizing taxation or allowing school boards to 
take measures to incorporate manual training with the branches already 
taught in the x)ublic schools. So that whatever may have been done 
in these states is the result of local legislation and may be assumed to 
represent local sentiment. It may probably be said, too, that if the 



CHAP. I.— INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 25 

manual traming iustriiction Las been retaiuecl in most of tliese places, 
it has been from a feeling of satisfaction Avitli the results of the trial. 

In the South different conditions prevail. But here, too, the move- 
ment has made a good deal of progress. The industrial element has 
been incorporated in very many of the schools established for the 
benefit of the colored people. These schools are not generally of a 
public character, though in many cases the state has freely voted funds 
for their support. The expenses of attendance are small, hovvever, and 
frequently tuition can be obtained free of charge. The schools usually 
otter instruction for all grades from the preparatory to the theological 
student. The normal and agricultural courses will be found x)rominent 
features. The John F. Slater fund divides its income of about $45,000 
among forty-four different schools for the colored race. The fund as 
now administered is doing much to advance the cause of industrial 
training. Whatever the result of this training upon the graduates, it 
offers, under the xilans adopted in many schools, the opportunity to the 
students of paying in great j)art the exi)enses of their education in work. 
Generally it is not possible to point to positive results of the industrial 
training upon the occupations of the graduates. The demand for 
teachers and ministers of the colored race all over the South seems to 
take up nearly all the better and more proficient of the graduates. 

In the adaptation and application of manual training princii3les to 
the needs of different schools, it often happens that the methods and 
extent of the work are greatly modified by varying local conditions. 
The public schools, for example, in whose curricula the new discipline 
is tentatively incorporated, can not, as a rule, carry it much beyond 
the elementary exercises of drawing, modelling in clay, and the simple 
manipulations of carpentry, with plain sewing and cooking. The ex- 
pense of equipment and the cost of maintenance (to say nothing of its 
inexpediency from an educational point of view) forbid the further ex- 
tension of the experiment, at least, outside the larger cities. Thus, in 
the i)ublic schools of Somerville, Massachusetts, sewing is the sole 
branch of manual training j in the high school at Albany, Kew York, 
wood work and sewing are taught; while in the Philadeli)hia Manual 
Training School, drawing, clay modelling, and tool instruction com- 
prise the whole of this special instruction. 

In the great incorporated manual training schools like those at Chi- 
cago and Saint Louis, on the other hand, a more thorough course is 
pursued, including carpentry, wood turning, patternmaking, cabinet 
work, foundery work, forging, machine shop work, etc. The methods 
of teaching adopted in these institutions are analogous to those in 
vogue in institutions of technology and other professional schools 
where the student acquires a knowledge of science not from text-books 
merely, but from a severe course of practice and experimentation in 
the laboratory. 

A glance at some of the ways in which manual training has been 



Zb REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. 

supported in tlie public scliools may prove iuteresting and instructive. 
In Jamestown, Isew York, where a beginning was made as early as 
1874, tlie funds were for a long time raised by subscription and by ex- 
hibitions given by the students. Even now, though the city makes an 
appropriation, much of the money is raised in this way. In Hoboken, 
2s ew Jersey, i)ublic spirit has been at the back of the movement. An 
organization of the citizens — the Hoboken Industrial Association — 
started the movement, and, while both the state and city have joined 
in the sux)port, has continued in the maiiagement. The state of IsTew 
Jersey, as already noted, has for several years generously shared with 
any town or city complying with certain conditions in the sux)X)ort of 
manual training. At Toledo the manual training school was a gift to 
the citj^ At Baltimore the city has from the first borne all the expense. 

The ways in which the public schools offering manual training dis- 
tribute their benefits are various. For not in all the schools does every 
pupil receive the benefits of the training. On the contrary, the custom 
would seem to be more frequently the other way. In Baltimore, for 
example, the manual training course is a distinct high school course 
v/hich the pupil must choose as he would choose the English or the 
classical course. This plan has come to be a favorite one in the organi- 
zation of manual training high schools in the larger cities. In Omaha, 
on the other hand, the manual training is an exercise which may be 
taken by high school iDupils in addition to the regular studies. Going 
to Jamestown again, vv^e find the training offered to certain selected 
students below the high school only, while at Mont Clair, Isew Jersey, 
the manual training work is introduced in some way to all the grades 
from the lowest up to, not into, the high school. Washington goes a 
step farther than Mont Clair and offers manual training as an elective 
to high school students. The plans in operation in the Washington 
schools provide for what is probably the most complete of the systems 
of manual training in the public schools. 

Many schools described in the succeeding pages as institutions of 
manual training are, to a certain extent, schools of apprenticeship, 
though the brief courses pursued in them seem wholly inadequate for 
the mastery of any trade. Of course the scope of its training deter- 
mines the rank and the category to which a school belongs, for it is the 
grade of work done by a school or college, and not the title that it 
bears, that indicates its relative educational position j and, judged by 
this standard, many so-called technical and trade schools gravitate to 
the manual training level. 

ALABAMA. 

The Emerson Institute at Mobile, an institution for the freedmen in 
the South, under the care of the American Missionary Association, 
has an obligatory manual training course of wood work for boys and of 



CHAP. I. IXDUSTEIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 27 

sewing and cooking for girls. In the wood working department it is 
the end and aim to have pupils be<?ome acquainted with all the ordinary 
tools of carpentry, to give them a general knowledge of wood working 
principles, and to afford them the best possible training by practice. 
In sewing tlie Siime object is kei)t in view, llegular instruction in all 
kinds of plain sewing is given to girls of all grades up to the seventh, 
year. 

At Talladega College manual training holds a X)rominent place in 
the school work. The training for boys begins with the third and 
fourth grades by instruction in knife work. This is preparatory to the 
work which may be regarded as more distinctly industi'ial — carpentry, 
which extends through the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth, grades. 
In the ninth grade mechanical drawing is introduced. In the tenth 
grade instruction is given in agriculture and horticulture. 

For the girls a graded course of instruction in sewing, cooking, etc., 
is arranged. The course begins with plain needlework in the third 
grade and extends through the seventh grade including the cutting 
and fitting of garments. Cooking is taken up during the eighth grade. 
During the ninth and tenth grades there is instruction in nursing, with 
special study in hygiene. 

Tlie Tuskegee Xormal and Industrial Institute, a school for training 
colored young men and women, at Tuskegee, was established by an act 
of the Alabama legislature in 18S0. Its beginning was made in a 
church, July 4, 1881, with 30 students and 1 teacher. The school now 
oi'cupies several substantial buildings and owns 1,400 acres of land. 
In the tenth j^ear (1890-91) from its foundation it had 31 officers and 
teachers, and, including the training school, an enrolment of 731 stu- 
dents, representing 13 states. 

The state has from the first contributed to the funds of the school. 
The appropriation of 82,000, annually made for the support of the in- 
stitution, was increased by the session of 1883 to $3,000 annually. All 
of this apx>ropriation is used to i^ay tuition. 

Tlie work of the school includes a preparatory course of three years 
and a normal course of four years. The agricultural and mechanical 
work is carried on in connection with the normal course, which is de^ 
signed to give a thorough English education. The course as planned 
has for its object '- to teach the dignit^^ of labor: to teach the students 
hov»^ to work, giving them a trade when best; and to enable students 
to pay a portion of their exi3enses in labor." In accordance with this 
l)lan TTork is required of all students. - 

On the school farms a special effort is made to giA^e the students les- 
sons in practical farming. The work not only furnishes valuable em- 
ployment to the students but sui)i3lies largely the demands of the 
school. There is a brickyard and a saw and planing mill in connection 
with the farms. All the buildings on the school grounds have been 
erected by students' labor. The bricks were made by them, and the 



28 REPORT OF THE COMAilSSIONER OF LABOR. 

lumber was sawed and worked up by tliem. In addition to tbis, bricks 
and lumber are sold and made to contribute to tlie funds of tlie school. 

Carpentry is also a branch of work tauglit and practised in the 
school. Much of the furniture used in the school as beds, tables, 
benches, wardrobes, etc., has been manufactured in the shop of the 
school. In this connection painting is also taught. 

A well furnished printing office offers instruction and practice in job 
and book work. All of the printing needed oy the school is done here, 
as well as much job work from wliich an income is derived. Some 
instruction is also given in blacksmithing, tinsmithing, shoemaking, 
and harness making. 

For the girls a sewing room and a well equipped laundry furnish ov- 
portunities for instruction in their respective departments. Here many 
articles are made for sale to the students, ancl in the laundry the work 
of the school is done. 

This school is a type of a large class in the South. The characteris- 
tic feature of the class is the combination of manual work and book 
work with an educatiocial aim, the manual work contributing at the 
same time to the equipment and maintenance of the school and to the 
payment of the expenses of the students. 

CALIFORNIA. 

At Oakland a manual training dex)artment, in connection with the 
public schools, was inaugurated in 1890. 

The Cogswell Polytechnic College of San Francisco is an institution 
of high school grade, according to the report of its president, with a 
department of manual training. The president, writing under date of 
August 7, 1891, says: 

Only the carpenter shop, blacksmith shop, modelling and carving 
rooms are in operation now, in addition to the drawing and high school 
course of studies. The first class was graduated in May last, so that 
the time is evidently too short in which to test the value of their train- 
ing, and they will hardly represent what we expect to accomplish when 
all departments are in working order. 

There were 21 graduates in 1891, 14 girls and 7 boys. 

CONNECTICUT. 

In the Normal Training School of New Britain all the classes are 
trained in the sloid system of wood work. Scholars of the model schools 
are also instructed in the use of tools, and practice regularly in the 
workshop. The kindergarten department of this school does a related 
but independent work in training kindergartners. 

In the public schools of New Haven a systematic course of lessons in 
carpentry, cooking, and sewing is given. Instruction was commenced 
November 1, 1886, and since that time 10 classes of 24 boys each, mak- 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 29 

iiig one class from each grammar school^ liave received two hours' in- 
struction each week. Drawing, modelling in clay, and construction 
work with paper and pasteboard for materials, as taught in the primary 
grades, are the branches taken up. 

FLORIDA. 

The Florida state superintendent of public Instruction, writing in 
ISSS, stated: 

Many of the X)rincii)al schools in the cities and towns have introduced 
the ordinary tools of the trades, and placed a bench and table in the 
building, and pupils are being made familiar with their use. This is 
our beginning; we hope to press it to the front until we shall make our 
system of public education thoroughly practical. In our normal schools 
(state) we are training our teachers of both races for this work. 

At Jacksonville, in 1887, manual training was introduced in the 
colored graded schools, with 60 boys and 58 girls in attendance. The 
work of instruction was begun in a two-story building, the lower floor 
being occupied by the boys, the upper by the girls. This school re- 
ceives $1,000 a year from the income of the Slater fund. 

GEORGIA. 

At the Atlanta University a three years' course of mechanics, con- 
sisting of work in wood and iron, is laid out for all students. Seven 
and a half hours a week are given to this work during the course. In 
the first year the use of tools and the general principles of wood work- 
ing — mortising, tenoning, dovetailing, etc., the measuring of lumber, 
aud kindred manipulations are taught. In the second year this course 
is continued and extended, and wood turning, patternmaking, and me- 
chanical drawing are taken up. The use and care of the blacksmith's 
forge and tools, the principles of forging, the tempering of steel, etc., 
are learned in the third year. Boys in this college, and in its prepara- 
tory and normal departments, not only take the above course, but they 
are also taught the principles of farming and gardening. Besides, an 
outfit of type and a printing press now belong to the equipment of this 
department, and the printer's art will be among the subjects taught. 

The building used by this department was put up in 1884. It is of 
brick, 100 by 44 feet, and three stories high. It is divided into suitable 
rooms fitted up for the several branches of the mechanic arts. One 
room is furnished with 30 cabinet benches, each supplied with a full 
set of tools. In another room are 12 wood turning lathes run by 
steam. A forge room has been added and 12 forges and anvils are 
in use. Another room is used for mechanical drawing. The furni- 
ture in this room was made by the students. 

For several years various forms of manual training have been in vogue 
at the University of Georgia. Quito recently (1888) a department of 



30 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIOMER OF LABOR. 

meclianical engineering lias been organized, and under the title Georgia 
Scliool of Teclmology lias tiaken a place in the first rank among the 
most i^romising schools of the new South. 

It has been equipped with machinery and tools from thet)est makers 
and of the latest patterns at a cost of over §20,000. The two-story 
brick workshop of the school is 250 feet long by 80 feet wide. The 
shops of the institution have already won an enviable reputation 
for the quality of their iron and brass castings, i3erfection in gear-cut- 
ting, and the beauty and variety of their wood and other work. These 
shops are self-supporting, and in addition contribute to the general 
expenses of the other buildings. The leading object of the school is to 
teach the principles of science, especially those w^hich relate to the 
mechanic and industrial arts. 

The school offers an education of a high, grade, founded on mathe- 
matics, the English language, the physical sciences, and drawing, vv^hile 
it gives such familiarity with some industrial pursuits as will enable 
the graduate to earn a living. 

To be admitted to this school, students must be 16 years old and 
show proficiency in elementary English branches. Tuition is free to 
residents of Georgia; but a charge of $150 is made against non-resi- 
dents of the state. Every student must take the full course as i)re- 
scribedj there is no elective course. 

Lectures, recitations, and practice are the means of instruction. The 
course lasts four years and consists of the following studies : 

First year. — ^Algebra and geometry ; free-hand, linear, and instrumental 
linear drawing, perspective sketching, and orthographie and isometric 
projection; advanced grammar, readings, and essays; shop work, includ- 
ing wood work, with elementary instruction in laying out work, the use 
of ordinary hand tools, i)attern and cabinet work, and the use and care 
of wood working machinery. 

Second year. — Solid geometry completed, plane and spherical trigo- 
nometry, levelling, topography, surveying, and field practice in com- 
pass and transit surveying; descriptive geometry, shades and shadows^ 
and machine drawings to scale; rhetoric, readings, and essays; physics, 
including general properties of matter, motion and machines, hydro- 
statics, pneumatics, and acoustics; general chemistry — non-metals, 
metals, and lectures on technicalsubjects ; shop work, including iron work, 
the simpler lathe operations, the ordinary operations performed with 
engine and speed lathes, upright drill, planer and shaper, and turret- 
head screw machine, the simpler kinds of bench work, and practice in 
the foundery in moulding and pouring iron and brass. 

Third year. — Analytical geometry, field practice in plane table sur- 
veying, calculus, and map work; drawing — spur, bevel, and worm gear- 
ing, and machine designing; science of rhetoric, political economy, 
science of government, readings, and essays; engineering— kinematics, 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 31 

mecliaiiism, mateiials, and maclime design; physics, including magnet- 
ism and electricity, lieat and liglit; chemistry, including metallurgy, 
useful metals, and qualitative analysis; pliysiograpliic, lithological, 
and historical geology; shop work — ^practice in the more comx)licated 
operations with the lathe and planer, in the use of the u.niversal mill- 
ing machine, and in gear cutting, tool making, the eare of boilers and 
engine, and foundery practice. 

Fourth jfear. — Calculus; special problems in designing machinery 
and graduate work in machine design; English literature, criticism, 
readings, original speeches; engineering, analytical mechanics, machine 
design, applied mechanics, steam engineering and prime movers, labo- 
ratory experiments; physics — ^laboratory work; organic chemistry, his- 
torical and dynamical geology; shop work, including the building of 
one or more machines, engineering and planing work, assembling, erect- 
ing, and starting new machinery, making drawings and designing tools 
and fixtures to be bailt in the shop. 

There are also at Atlanta two colleges for colored students, with work- 
shops and a limited amount of manual training. It was not x)ossible, 
how^ever, to find any students who had attended these schools employed 
in actual manual work. The demand for teachers of the colored race 
all over the South seems to take up all the better and more profici(mt 
ones. 

In Clark University at Atlanta, blacksmithing, carpentry, carnage 
making, Avagon making, painting, harness making, shoemaking, xwint- 
iug, and draughting are all taught. There was about $15,000 worth 
of work sold out of the shops in the year 1S90-'91. A special course 
in the trade school has been introduced whereby a student with an 
English education can devote all his time to the trade school, thus 
completing his trade in a short period of time. Housework, dress- 
making, and .^needlework are taught to young lady students. In 
1890-'91, 75 boys were enrolled in the trade school. The catalogue of 
1891-'92 indicates continued prosperity in this department of Clark 
University. 

Spelman Seminary, Atlanta, is an institute for women and girls, with 
an industrial department as a prominent feature. The manual branches 
taught are housekeeping, cooking, washing and ironing, sewing, dress- 
making, and printing. The teachers are all females, and in the indus- 
trial department there is a special teacher in each of the following 
branches: Printing, dress cutting and making, sewing, laundry work, 
and domestic arts. In the aggregate there were 515 students engaged 
in these specialties in this school in 1891. 

There was also a nurse training department, with two teachers and 
67 pupils in 1891. The course of instruction in this department extends 
through three years, and is most practical and thorough. The authori- 
ties say, ^' We are unable to supply the calls for nurses from physicians 
in the city who have had our nui'ses care for their patients.'^ 



32 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

The state lias recently made provision for a girls' industrial training 
school, giving the old capitol grounds at Milledgeville and liberal ap- 
propriations. 

ILLINOIS. 

In the state of Illinois manual training has a place in the i)ul)lic 
schools of several cities. 

At Beardstown boys from the seventh and eighth grades have the 
oi)tion of pursuing shop work. In 1887 a basement room was fitted up 
for this work, and furnished with benches and wood working tools. 
The course of shop w^ork is designed to occupy two years' time, each 
class averaging two and one-half hours per week. 

The only items of special interest relating to this movement are the 
cost of the plant and th-e current expenses. These are given as follows : 

Six cabinet benclies $100 

Twelve sets of tools 50 

Tools for general use 15 

Fixtures and furn Lture 25 

Incidentals 10 

200 
The annual cost of carrying on the Avork is, in detail: Instruction, 
$250; materials, $25-, repairs, $15; incidentals, $10; total, $300. 

Among the foremost of the schools of its class in America is the Chi- 
cago Manual Training School. This institution may be taken as a fair 
rei^resentative of its class. The course of instruction is far from super- 
ficial, nor is it devoid of the humanities. In mathematics, science, and 
dravving it takes a wide range. The course of study and practice ex- 
tends over three years. It is not necessary to speak in detail concern- 
ing the thoroughness of the instruction given. It is essentially the 
same in amount and in character as the course of the Saint Louis 
school, very fully described in another place. It is sufficient to say that 
graduates of this school are admitted without examination and free of 
conditions to the School of Mechanical Engineering of Purdue Univer- 
sitj^, the Polytechnic School of Washington University, Sibley College 
of Cornell University, Eose Polytechnic Institute, Colleges of Agri- 
culture, Engineering, and Natural Science of the University of Illinois, 
and the University of Michigan. This fact is cited merely to show the 
standing of the school, and the esteem in which it is held by higher 
educational institutions. It indicates, too, something positive in regard 
to the amount of academic work accomiDlished in the course of the school. 
The school has been growing constantly since its opening in February 
1884. The equipment has been increased from time to time, and in 
1890 the building was considerably enlarged to meet pressing demands. 
The school has been obliged to refuse admission to applicants for want 
of sufficient room. The list of instructors for the year 1891-'92 num- 
bered thirteen. For the same school year the number of pupils enrolled 
was as follows : 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 33 

Junior class ., 156 

Middle class 108 

Senior class 71 

Postgraduates 4 

Total 339 

The tuition fees cliarged are $80, $100, and $120 for the first, second, 
and third years, respectively. The annual deficit is made up by the 
Commercial Club of Chicago, the founder and owner of the school. 
Deserving boys who are prepared for the school are frequently admit- 
ted without ijayment of fees. 

It should not be overlooked that ^'education, not manufacture, is the 
idea underlying the manual training " given in this and in all other 
schools of the class; audit is the educational, not the commercial, value 
of the training which is most prized. The committee on annual exhibit 
of drawings at this school said of the work: 

Your committee is especially pleased to notice the attention given to 
free-hand drawing, believing, as it does, that the ability of the work- 
man to use his pencil freely in the expression of his thought is an impor- 
tant factor in an industrial development. The mechanic who, perceiv- 
ing how an imi)rovement may be made in this or that portion of 
machinery, or who, conceiving an original thought, is unable to explain 
tlie same b}' a sketch, is sadly deficient and can not compete with the 
workman educated, not only to independent thinking, but in the free 
exi)ression of the same. * * * 

We take pleasure in commending, not only the work of the pupils in 
following the course of instruction used, but the course of instruction 
itself, as tending to give them at an early age, and even without their 
recognizing its importance, knowledge and skill which will be of the 
greatest importance to them in any future work of civil, mechanical, 
mining, or electrical engineering, or indeed in almost any work of man- 
ufacture or construction. 

The graduates of the school now number 307. Dr. Belfield, the direc- 
tor of the school, has collected some interesting facts in regard to the 
occui^ations followed by 236 graduates, not including the class of 1892. 

OCCUPATIONS OF GRADTTATES OF THE CHICAGO MAi^TJAL TRAIXI^TG SCHOOL. 



Occupation. 



Gradu- 
ates. 



In higher schools of technology , 
In higher schools of literature .. 
In higher schools of law 



Total in higher institutions. 



In manufacturing estahlishments as designers 

In manufacturing establishments as foremen 

In manufacturing establishments as draughtsmen. 
In manufacturing estahlishments as machinists ... 
In manufacturing establishments as electricians... 



Total in manufacturing establishments 



Architects and in architects' oiSces 

Civil, mechanical, and mining engineers 

Teachers of drawing and shop work 

Clerks, bookkfiepers, salesmen, etc 

Miscellaneous 

Unknown 

Deceased 



5i 



Total graduates. 



236 



S. Ex. 65- 



34 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



The great success of the Chicago Manual Training School has led to 
the establishment by the city of a public institution of the same char- 
acter, called the English High and Manual Training School. A new 
building was put up, which, together with the site and equipment, cost 
about $70,000. The school was opened September 3, 1890. 

As this is one of the latest schools of its class, established with a gen- 
erous equipment, it may be interesting to look at its course of study. 



COUESE OF STUDY. 

FIRST YEAE. 



Eirst term. 



Second term. 



Tliird term. 



Algebra. 

First part of natural philos- 
ophy. 



Algebra. 

Physical geography, Tvith pri- 
mary principles of astronomy. 



Algebra. 

Phj^sical geography, with pri 

mary principles of geology. 

English and business letter writing throughout the year 

Free-hand and mechanical drawing one hour a day tor three terms. 

Carpentry and joinery. | Wood turning. 1 Pattern and cabinet matin 

Twelve lectures on wood as material for building and manufactures. 



SECOND YEAR. 



Plane geometry. 
General history. 



Solid geometry. 
General history. 



Conic sections 'or 

arithmetic. 
General history. 



commcrci:;! > 



English and general composition, three terms. 
Chemistrj- or bookkeeping, three terms. 
Mechanical drawing, one hour a day throughout the year. 
Moulding and casting. j Forging and welding. I Tempering, soldering, and br: 

I I ing. 

Twelve lectures on metals as material for building and manufactures. 



THIRD YEAR. 



Descriptive geometry or book- 
keeping. 

I^atural philosophy or com- 
mercial arithmetic. 

English literature. 

Civil government. 

Machine drawing. 

Machine shop work. 



Trigonometry or bookkeeping. 
Light and electricity or com- 
mercial law. 
English literature. 
Political economy. 
Architectural drawing. 
Construction of machines. 
Twelve lectures on machinery 
and ])ower. 

After the first year pupils may elect the commercial or scientific course; and the chemical in 
place of the metal laboratorj^ work. 
Stenography and typewriting are elective after the second year. 



Surveying or bookkeeping. i 

Keview of the sciences or com- | 
mercial law. i 

En,^lish literature. 
Political ec0nom3^ 
Topographical drawing. 
Kunning and care of engines. 



During the year 1891-'92 there were 259 pupils enrolled. Of these 
175 were in the first year, 61 in the second, and 23 in the third. 

The expenditures during the year for the maintenance of the school 
were $19,798.47, of which $17,688.38 was for the salaries of the 13 
teachers emiiloyed. The average expense iDcr pux>il was $76.41, or, if 
based on the average number enrolled (217), instead of the total num- 
ber (259), $91.24 per pupil. 

At Peru a rudimentary form of manual training has been in vogue 
in the public schools for several years. The town has fitted up a wood 
working shop capable of accommodating a class of twenty. The boys 
of the x)ublic schools take daily lessons for five days in the week in 
this shop. The instruction relates to the care and use of tools, the 
nature of materials, and practical designing of simi)le objects. For 



CHAP. I. INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 35 

tlie «irls, sewing lessons are provided. NotMiig is attempted beyond 
l)lain se\Ying, cutting., and fitting. Wood carving, in connection with 
drawing lessons, completes the course of manual exercises. 

INDIANA. 

In the city of Indianapolis manual training has recently received a 
powerful impetus by the action of the school board. In a small way, 
and as a matter of exxjerimeut, manual exercises in wood turning had 
been previously introduced into the curriculum of the municipal high 
school. At a meeting of the school board held May 1, 1891, that body 
concurred in the report of a committee of its own members recommend- 
ing the levy of a tax of 5 cents on every $100 of taxable i)roperty as 
authorized by the legislature, for the purpose of establishiiig and main- 
taining a manual training school. ^'It seems the wisest plan," the 
committee remarks, " to delay until next sirring the erection and full 
equipment of such building. The reason for tins is that the funds are 
not available until the spring and autumn of 1892." 

The course of study in the preparatory class of Purdue University at 
La Fayette embraces one years work, including instruction in bench 
work in wood, giving practice in the use of the carpenter's common 
tools and machine work in wood, etc. Purdue University is, however, 
an institution that aims at something else than manual training. It 
is, in fact, a i^rofessional school; and any proi3er classification would 
bring it into the group of technological schools. 

KENTUCKY. 

Mr. Dupont, a prominent citizen of Louisville, has made a gift to the 
city of a building which he will turn over to the proper authorities fully 
equipped for manual training on condition that it become a part of the 
public school system, the cost of this building to be not less than $75,000. 
In addition to this Mr. Dupont has expressed a willingness to expend 
a great deal more if necessary. The school will be after the plan of the 
Saint Louis Manual Training School. 

LOUISIANA. 

At ]S"ew Orleans University some workshop training is given. The 
end in \aew is something more than educational. An effort is made to 
make the industrial department self-supporting by the filling of outside 
orders. Instruction and practice are given in carpentry, cabinetmak- 
ing,' upholstering, printing, and tinsmithing to the boys, and to the 
girls in i)lain and fancy needlework and, to a limited extent, in cooking. 

In 1887 a female college was opened as a department of Tulane Uni- 
versity of Louisiana under the name of the H. Sophie Newcomb Memo- 
rial College. In this college there are 15 professors and instructors, and 
provision is made for the higher education of young Avomen. All appli- 
cants for admission must be at least 15 years of age and pass a rigor- 



36 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

ous examinatiou. The regular courses of study — classical, literary, 
and scientific — extend througli four years and lead to the degree of 
bachelor of arts. Special studies may be pursued for a shorter period 
when students elect to take a partial course. The languages, ancient 
and modern history, mathematics, chemistry, physics, biology, geology, 
and mineralogy are included in the course; and special prominence is 
given to drawing, painting, design, modelling and casting, and wood 
carving. Tuition costs $25 -per quarter. The attendance in 1888-'89 
was 148, of which number 77 were regular, 11 special students in the 
literary or scientific course, 43 special art students, and 17 were mem- 
bers of the Saturday art class. 

Tulane High School, a department of Tulane University of Louisi- 
ana, gives a4;horough course in manual training. The manual training 
school is not a se]3arate department, but a laboratory in wood and iron, 
where instruction and practice render the student quick, observant, and 
accurate with the eye, ready, skilful, and exact with the hand, and able 
to think in things as well as about them, and to execute as well as to de- 
scribe. The w^ork is not intended to teach trades to young men, but to 
make them experts in the principles and handicraft of wood working, 
iron and metal working, and machine construction. 

In the physical and mechanical courses, drawing is considered fun- 
damental and enters into every course. All students who enter the 
high school learn to draw as a matter of general instruction. More than 
three hours are given to recitations, and an hour and a half to manual 
training or drawing, daily, except Saturdays. 

The catalogue for 1891-'92 shows that the high school faculty con- 
sists of fourteen instructors. Of these six belong to the department of 
manual training, viz., the director, two instructors in drawing, the in- 
structor in iron working, and two instructors in wood working. 

With regard to the work the president says, ''Our object is general 
training, not to make artisans. The actual knowledge acquired and 
diffused is very large, and the satisfaction is general as to the pupils 
being taught to be handy and useful. We are satisfied as to the out- 
come." 

Straight University, a school for colored students at IS'ew Orleans, 
has nearly 600 in the college, normal, college preparatory, common 
English, and primary departments. Special attention is given to 
manual training. There is a two years' course of wood work, of an 
hour a day, for the seventh and eighth grades. The main features of 
the work are as follows : 

Seventh grade. — Planing to a true surface j laying out work, includ- 
ing measuring with the rule and marking with knife and gauge; saving 
to the line; boring, gluing, driving nails and screws; sand-papering; 
making box-joint, dado, mortise, tenon and groove. 

JEJighth grade. — Making mitre joint (square, octagon, and hexagon); 
regular and irregular bevels (using the steel square); scarf joint; dove 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 37 

tail; laying out curved work J planiug and cliiselling curved surfaces; 
sawing curved lines j bending by sawing and steaming; making round 
forms. 

Students during this course are required to make out bills of mate- 
rials for their exercises, and from other drawings, also, to make occa- 
sional working drawings; to learn the names of tools and their parts, 
their uses, and the reasons for their characteristics; facts about mate- 
rials used; to observe in what way and where the principles in the 
exercises enter into construction, and to learn as far as possible the 
scientific basis on which they rest. They are expected, within reason- 
able limits, to read i^lans of wood construction and to execute them 
intelligently. 

The girls receive instruction in sewing, mending, dressmaking, wash- 
ing, ironing, and other kinds of domestic work. Students of both sexes 
are taught printing. 

MARYLAND. 

On March 3, 1884, a school for manual training was opened in Balti- 
more under the control of the board of commissioners of public schools. 
At the start it had sixty students. 

The course of instruction covers three years. In the first year it in- 
cludes arithmetic, algebra, geometry, mensuration, English language, 
history, geography, i3hysiology, physics, geometrical drawing and 
sketching, carpentry, wood turning, forging, and the proper care and 
use of tools ; in the second year, algebra, geometry, plane trigonometry, 
mensuration, physics, history, English literature, mechanics, geometri- 
cal, mechanical, and architectural drawing, patternmaking, vise work, 
welding, tempering, soldering, and brazing; in the third year, geome- 
try, trigonometry, physics, mechanics, bookkeeping, literature, chem- 
istry, political economy, geology, engineering, machine and architectural 
drawing and designing, machine shop work, filing, turning, drilling, 
planing, etc., and the study of machinery. One hour per day is given 
to drawing and two hours to shop work. There is a preparatory de- 
partment, with a two years' course of study, to which boys from the 
public schools are admitted, on recommendation of their teachers, 
without examination. Candidates for admission to the full course must 
be 14 years old, and pass an entrance examination in elementary 
studies. 

The first class was graduated in June 1887. Out of the twenty-five 
young men comj)osing it, one is an instructor in the school, one a civil 
erigineer, two electrical engineers, one a marine engineer, one a house 
carpenter, two patternmakers, one a draughtsman, one a farmer, one a 
car builder, one a machine supply storekeeper, one an architect, six ma- 
chinists, one a student, and two in mercantile iDur suits, all with bright 
prospects for a useful and prosperous future. The number of students 
enrolled on December 31, 1887, was 273. 



38 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

The seventh annual catalogue of this school (1891) contains a report 
by the x^rincipal on the condition and needs of this prosperous institu- 
tion. He says: 

On the 31st of December, 1889, there were 50G students on roll, of 
whom 9 were special students, and of these 6 were from the Johns 
Hopkins University. Since that time 211 have been admitted by per- 
mits and 38 by transfer, making the total number of students in the 
school during the year 755, of whom 17 were graduated and 310 with- 
drew from the school, leaving on the roll at this time 428 students. 

A list of 88 graduates is given, embracing the classes of 1887, 1888, 
1889, and 1890. Of this number 58 (or 66 per cent.) are draughtsmen, 
engineers, machinists, etc. 

The McBonogh School, founded by the terms of the bequest of John 
McDonogh and situated 12 miles northwest of Baltimore, on an estate 
of 835 acres, was opened in November 1873. The foundation is de- 
signed primarily for the education of poor boys of the city of Baltimore, 
in accordance with the will of Mr. McDonogh. 

The McDonogh bequest now comi)rises an endowment fund of 
$728,500, the farm and buiklings, and several tracts of land in Lou- 
isiana. Dr. Zenas Barnum left at his death in 1882 a bequest of $80,000 
for the promotion of mechanical instruction and manual training in 
the McDonogh school. One hundred boys were registered as mem- 
bers of this school for the year 1890-'91. Candidates for membership 
must be poor residents of Baltimore and between 10 and 14 years of 
age. During the school session of forty-two weeks, from August to 
June, a portion of the afternoons and of the Saturdays is devoted to 
manual work. The time so applied averages an hour and a half a day, 
or nine hours per week. Farm and garden work, bee keeping, dairying 
the taking of weather observations, etc., are taught, as well as short- 
hand, tjTpewriting, printing, and wood worldling. The printing office 
has been in operation since the summer of 1883, and has grown until 
17 boys are uoav taught to set up type and to do presswork. The wood 
working shop, which was opened in January 1886, has been gradually 
extended, so that during the session of 1890-^91 a class of 16 boys was 
kept at work. Broom making is also taught to a limited extent dur- 
ing the winter months. The alumni of this school number 266, and of 
these 104 (or nearly 40 j)er cent.) are engineers or engaged in some me- 
chanical business. 

Mr. Alexander Chaplain, secretary of the board of school commission- 
ers, of Easton, Talbot county, writes under date of August 5, 1891: 

Three years ago we introduced drawing into all of the public schools 
of this county, and into the central high school we introduced manual 
training also. Manual training is not an annex to the school, but an 
integral part of its curriculum. The literary course was not abridged 
in any particular, but manual training was introduced for its educa- 
tional value alone. 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 39 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Ill the state of Massachusetts mucli has been done in the direction 
of manual education in the towns and smaller cities. Some legislative 
action has been taken, but for any training beyond drawing it has 
been of a permissive rather than of a mandatory character. Chapter 
69 of the act of 1884 j)ermits the purchase and use of hand tools for 
schools, the expense to be borne by the town. Section 1, chapter 44, 
of the public statutes requires industrial drawing to be taught in all 
the public schools. Section 7 permits every town and requires every 
city and town having more than 10,000 inhabitants to give free instruc- 
tion in industrial drawing to persons over 15 years of age. Sections 
goes even farther and permits any town to establish and maintain one 
or more industrial schools for teaching thie arts, trades, and occupa- 
tions, and to make special approx)riations. 

Several towns and cities in the commonwealth have taken advantage 
of the statute to introduce the use of hand tools into their schools, 
while industrial drawing is a part of the public school instruction in 
nearly all the larger places. Fortunately, we have an official state- 
ment of the condition of the schools of the state in respect to manual 
training in the form of a special report of the state board of education, 
submitted to the legislature under date of March 20, 1890. From this 
report and some later returns we have drawn the following summary 
of the instruction given in the public schools of the state: 

The whole number of cities and towns in the commonwealth is 351; 
the number in which industrial drawing is now taught is 201; the 
number using models and objects in connection with drawing is 119; 
the number employing a special teacher in drawing is 43. Nearly 80 
l>er cent, of the school population of the state, or of pupils between the 
ages of 5 and 15 years, received instruction in industrial drawing dur- 
ing the school year 1889. The board of education emi)loys an agent, 
a graduate of the State Normal Art School, who devotes his whole 
time to aiding the school authorities in introducing industrial drawing 
among the daily exercises of their schools. 

Besides drawing, a considerable number of schools now offer some 
other form of manual instruction, such as cooking, sewing, clay model- 
ling, carpentry, or metal working. 

Carpentry, or wood work in some form, is a part of the course, re- 
quired or optional, in the schools of Boston, Brookline, Cambridge, 
Easton, Fall Biver, Springfield, Waltham, and Winchester. At Ded- 
ham a vacation school in sloid work, with four classes of boys, is con- 
ducted. In the schools of Stoneham clay modelling and paper cutting 
are taught. 

Instruction in sewing finds a place in the schools of eighteen cities 
and towns, viz., Boston, Brookline, Cambridge, Dedham, Easton, Fall 
River, Hyde Park, Lawrence, Maiden, Milton, New Bedford, Newton, 



40 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Somerville, Springfield, Waltharn, Watertown, Wellesley, and Win- 
cliester. This work is found more commonly in scliools of the gram- 
mar grade, tliougli in the case of Easton the instruction begins with 
the girls of the primary schools. 

Cooking is taught to the girls of the public schools in six citif s and 
towns, viz., Boston, Brcokline, Canton, Dedham, Easton, and Wii:ches 
ter. 

The boards in closing its report, says: ^^This new element of educa- 
tion is gradually working its way into the schools, and will doubtless in 
due time take its proper place in our courses of public school instruc- 
cion." It should perhaps be noted in this connection that not all of 
this instruction is the result of the appropriation of public funds. In 
several cases, as at the North Bennet Street Industrial School in Bos- 
ton, at the English High School in Cambridge, at Easton, and at Fall 
Eiver, the training, although for the benefit of the public school pupils, 
is supported by private means. 

Instruction in sewing in the public schools of Boston has for many 
years been a part of the regular course. As long ago as 1870 sewing 
was made obligatory in every girls* school, though not in the three up- 
per classes. Instruction is now given by special teachers, two hours a 
week, to the fourth, fifth, and sixth classes of girls in all the grammar 
schools. In some of the grammar schools the instruction is continued 
in the upper grades. The work is confined to making useful articles, 
either for clothing or for domestic use. no ornamental or fancy sewing 
being attempted. In the first class, instruction is given in cutting 
dresses and other garments. 

As early as 1881 definite effort was made by private individuals in 
Boston looking to the introduction of manual training into the gram- 
mar grade of the public schools. Eepeated effort was made by the 
pioneers in this work to obtain from the school board permission for 
classes to receive instruction at the I^^orth Bennet Street Industrial 
School, and in September 1883, before formal action had been taken 
by the board, boys from the Eliot school were sent to the ISTorth Ben- 
net street school for instruction in carpentry, printing, and shoeinaking, 
by permission of Mr. Charles E. Perkins, chairman of the third division 
committee. It was not until February 27, 1885, however, that a hear- 
ing was given by the committee oil a manual training school to a few 
persons interested in manual training, the subject under consideration 
being the acceptance of an offer from Mrs. Quincy A. Shaw to give to 
pupils from certain schools training in cooking, housekeeping, and 
laundry work for girls, and printing, carpentry, and shoemaking to 
boys. During the next March (1885) an order was passed Avith the 
following cautious wording, that i)upils ^' whose parents or guardians 
so request in writing may attend the industrial school on j^robation 
for two hours weekly." 

In May 1885 the first classes in cooking under this order were 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 41 

started at the ^ortli Beniiet street scliool, pupils coming from tlie 
Hancock school. In October of the same year two cooking schools 
\vere started simultaneously, each receiving 150 pupils weekly from 
the public schools. One of these in Tennyson street (Starr King 
School) was supported by Mrs. Hemenway, and the other was carried 
on by the ISTorth Bennet Street Industrial School. 

Mrs. Hemenway supported the Tennyson street school for tliree 
years, when, in 1888, its further expense was assumed by the city. 
The jS"orth Bennet Street Cooking School was always largely indebted 
to Miss Sarah B. Fay, who assumed its entire running expenses from 
1887 to 1892, when its support was assumed by the citj'. 

These two kitchens were the first public school kitchens in America. 
It is to the high standards established by tliese first two schools, and 
to the normal classes established later by Mrs. Hemenway, and under 
the able direction of Miss Homans, that the excellence of the teaching 
in the school kitchens of Boston is largely due. 

In the year 1886 another cooking school was established by private 
enterprise in Jamaica Plain, and the school board started another in 
South Boston. The J amaica Plain school was assumed by the city in 
1888. 

In 1888 the first exx^eriments were made in Swedish sloid, all pre- 
vious work with tools in Boston having been based on the Bussian course 
of work. Modifications were at once found necessary in the adai)tation 
of sloid methods to American needs and standards (prominent among 
which was a satisfactory system of drawing); but the ideas upon 
which the system is based were found to be so entirely in harmony 
with those of Froebel as to commend it to the followers of this great 
teacher, and to decide Mrs. Shaw to offer to the school board opportu- 
nities for its study both in children's and in free normal classes taught 
by Mr. Gustaf Larsson. Three graduates from the school at Niias were 
employed by her as teachers, and two new schools started in addition 
to the one first established in ]S"orth Bennet street. 

So general has been the interest in this new departure that more 
than a hundred teachers have undertaken the arduous work of the 
normal classes, while the manifest influence of sloid u^Don other systems 
emiDloyed here shows how general and how generous has been the 
recognition of its value. 

In the year 1884 a manual training school was opened iu the base- 
ment of the Latin school, which was carried on for several years ; but 
as the other plans Avhich were being carried on in the other parts of 
the city were found to be superior, it was closed in 1891. 

In the year 1889 the trustees of the Eliot school fund in Jamaica 
Plain, having experimented with summer schools for some years, of- 
fered free instruction in wood working to the i)upils of the public 
schools, and scholars were received that year from five grammar 
schools and one high school. In the year 1891 these trustees asked 



42 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

tbe privilege of making an exi)erinient by giving a four years' course 
to tlie four npi)er grades of the grammar school, which request was 
granted, and the experiment is now being made. 

This system is based upon the course of Eussian manual training as 
introduced by Dr. Euukle in 1S7G in the school of mechanic arts at 
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, but has been largely in- 
flueficed by the modified form of Swedish sloid made by Mr. G. Lars- 
son of the Apx3leton street primary. 

At present there are thirteen manual training shox)S distributed 
throughout the city for the instruction of boys in the grammar school 
grades. 

All of these are now entirely supported by the city, with the excep- 
tion of the one in the AjDpleton street primary school, which is still pro- 
vided for by the liberality of Mrs. Quincy A. Shaw, and the one at 
Jamaica Plain, where a portion of the salary of the principal is paid 
by the board of trustees of the Eliot school fund. 

Perhaps especial mention should be made of the school in South 
Boston. It was said a few years ago that only from 16 to 20 scholars 
could be instructed at one time in this shop work. Others contended 
that a much larger number could be taught in one class, and it was 
felt that unless this could be done the system would be too exi)ensive 
to be practical. 

The old church building on E street, South Boston, was leased by 
the city and 60 benches were placed in the room. It has been found 
to be perfectly feasible to teach the demonstration lesson to ali the 
60 x)upils at one time, and in all the new schools provision is made for 
30 i^upils, which is all that can be accommodated with benches in 
school rooms of the ordinary size. 

The school board has not yet decided upon any one i)lan of manual 
training for universal use. It seemed wiser to test several plans, all 
of which have great merit, which are alike in many respects, and yet 
which have points of difference. After a longer trial it will be possible 
to combine the best feature s of all these into one uniform system. For 
the present all are giving satisfactory educational results. The shoi)S 
at East Boston, Appleton street, Allston, and Brighton are following 
substantially the sloid system as modified by Mr. Larsson for Ameri- 
can ideas. Those at Eoxbury, Dorchestei*, Jamaica Plain, and West 
Eoxbury are an outgrowth of the Eussian system, Americanized by Mr. 
F. M. Leavitt with the aid of Prof. E. H. Eichards, of the Massachusetts 
Institute of Tec hnology. 

The school at E'orth Bennet street has a third set of models and a 
little different plan, the result of several years' experiment by Mr. B. 
F. Eddy. The fourth plan is the one adopted by Mr. P. W. Kendall, 
and is being tested in the shop at South Boston. 

On account of the great expense by the necessary multiplication of 
many more shops, it is doubtful if for years to come it will be i>ossible 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 43 

to give tliroiigliout tlie city shop instruction in more tlian tlie second 
class. But it is tliouglit that practically as good results, educationally 
considered, can be obtained for boys in the lower grade by work done 
in the school room, and at a very small exx)ense. The v^'ork" done this 
year by several of the schools shows that all that is required is a small 
tray or board, 19 by 13 inches, with a wooden rim, two triangles, dividers, 
rule, file, and a knife with a stout handle and a blade one and a half 
inches long. Yery thin board is used, the object to be made being first 
drawn upon it, and cut out with the knife, and the various x)arts being 
finally i)ut together in some simple, x)ermanent form. A full outfit for 
a room of 56 i^upils costs about $40 j but as most of this outfit can be 
used for several classes in the same building, the cost in the larger 
schools is not over 25 cents each, year per pupil. The material used, 
as wood, glue, etc., will not cost over 15 cent's per year for each pupil. 
The color work that is done by the boys in some of the lower grades 
in the grammar school, while the girls are sewing, costs for the outfit 
about 12J cents per scholar, and for ttie material about 8 cents per year 
for each pur)il. 

There are 14 school kitcbens where girls receive instruction in cook- 
ery. To quote the language of the report: 

There have been for several years sucli schools in different sections 
of this city, but this year a sufficient number of new ones have been 
opened to make it possible to teach the scholars in all sections of the 
city. 

.The following facts were adduced by Gen. Francis A, Walker in an 
address delivered before the National Educational Association in 18S7 
as proof of the educational value of the Boston cooking schools : 

'Na one can spend an hour in the cooking schools of Boston, as they 
have been maintained, first, through the philanthropic enterprise of 
Mrs. Hemenway, and afterward at the exj)ense of the city, without 
being impressed by the very high educational value of the instruction 
given. 

As a great object lesson in chemistry, as a means of x)romoting care, 
patience, and foresight, as a study of cause and effect, as a medium of 
conveying useful information, irresjiective altogether of the practical 
value of the art acquired, the short course, which alone the means at 
command allowed to be given to each class of girls, has constituted, I 
do not doubt, the best body of purely educational training which any 
girl of all those classes ever experienced within the same number of 
hours. 

I will mention but a single x)oint. The very large range in the Ten- 
nyson street cooking school was, during the last school year, ready to 
cook any of the dishes that might be prepared by the pupils, from half 
X)ast nine in the morning until half past four in the afternoon, for 5 
days in the week, for 38 weeks. Fires were made, and the dampers 
and drafts were controlled by the pupils, under the direction of the 
teacher. The amount of coal consumed in this time was considerably 
less than two tons. 

Kow, if any unhai>py householder here present will compare this 
expenditure of fuel with what takes place in his own kitchen* he can 



44 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

not fail to be impressed by a sense of the prudence, patience, care, fore- 
tliouglit, intelligence, and skill involved in keeping up such a service at 
so small a cost. If this be not educational, pray what is education? 
And whafe is true of this is equally true of all the other exercises in the 
cooking school, under ]3roper tuition. 

In Boston, according to the latest annual report of the school com- 
mittee, the year 1892 was memorable for the progress made in manual 
training in all its departments. From this report we transcribe the 
following instructive passages concerning the widely heralded Mechanic 
Arts High School: 

The city council of 1891 appropriated the sum of $100,000 for a 
mechanic arts high school. The land was purchased at the corner of 
Belvidere and Dalton streets at an expense of $40,000, but the balance 
of the approx3riation was not sufficient for the building. The city coun- 
cil of this year have appropriated the further sum of $60,000, and the 
building is now under contract. It is to be three stories in height, 224 
feet long by 90 feet wide. 

The basement, besides containing the boiler rooms, etc., will be pro- 
vided with several hundred lockers to contain the regular clothing of 
the boys when they are in their working costumes. There will be on 
the first and second floors several class rooms, each to accommodate 72 
pujuls, in three sections of 24 each; a machine shop with engine, lathes, 
planers, etc.; a blacksmith shop with 25 forges and anvils; a moulding 
shop; a car^Denter shop ; a finishing room; a wood turning room; a chem- 
ical laboratory; a reading room and library. 

In the third story there Avill be a large room to be used both as a 
gymnasium and an assembly hall. The 25 hours' time of the week will 
be divided into about 10 hours of shop work, 10 hours of book work, 
and 5 hours of drawing. 

The book work will consist of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, 
physics, and chemistry. The building will accommodate from 300 to 
350 pupils, and it is believed that it will be the most comi)lete building 
of its kind in the country. 

It is expected that it will be ready for occupancy by September 1, 
1893; and for the first time in Boston the boy who wishes to enter the 
industrial world will have the same opportunities given to him for 
preparation at the public expense as have been given so long to those 
who wish to prepare for a business or professional life. 

At Brookline there is a manual training school, where grammar grade 
boys and girls take courses in mechanical and free-hand drawing, in 
carpentry, in cooking, and in sewing. There is also a vacation school 
for carpentry, during July and August, for boys over twelve years of 
age, where the work is of a more practical character than in the regu- 
lar school classes. 

The girls belonging to the first, second, and third grades in all the 
grammar schools of Brookline receive instruction in sewing. All kinds 
of i)lain sewing are taught, together with cutting and fitting, in the 
last year of the course. The work is in charge of special teachers. 

Cooking has a i)lace in the regular course, the lessons in some of the 
grades being compulsory. A vacation school is also maintained, for 
girls over twelve years of age, where cooking is taught. 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 45 

111 regard to tlie effect of manaal training upon the other studies in 
Brookline schools, Mr. W. H. Lincoln, chairman of the school committee, 
says, '^ other branches suffered no detriment j but, on the contrary, the 
impils were so benefited by the course in manual training that their 
Xn'oficiency in other studies was greater than it had been in previous 
years.'' 

The manual trainiug school at Cambridge was founded in 1888 
by Mr. Frederick H. Eindge. This is one of the best equipi^ed, as well 
as one of the most recently established of American manual training 
schools. It is the result of a careful study of all available information 
concerning similar institutions in this country and abroad, supplemented 
by personal inspection of several of the best known schools of its kind. 

Although the school is supported by private munificence, and the 
mechanical work is carried on under the direction of a superintendent 
responsible only to the founder, it is, nevertheless, in its essential fea- 
tures, a part of the i^ublic school system. All who take the regular 
course are enrolled as pupils of the English High School, and their aca- 
demic work is carried on under the direction of that institution. 

The school was opened in October 1888, and its first class, fifteen in 
number, was graduated in June 1891. The membership, January 1, 
1892, was as follows : First year, 6Q ; second year, 42 ; third year, 31 j 
class from Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard University, 22; class 
from engineering department of Tufts College, 11 j special students, 20; 
a total of 192. 

These classes of college students are taking the full course of shop 
work. The instruction is given under the authority of the colleges, and, 
in each case, is counted as a part of the student's collegiate course. 

The three years' course of studj^, adopted tentatively at the outset, 
has been considerably modified by experience, and it is now expected 
that the course will be extended to four years. 

From the outset i)upils are taught to interpret mechanical drawings 
and to work from them. All exercises, even those that involve only the 
most simple operations, are presented to the pupils in the form of blue 
prints from carefrilly prepared working drawings. These blue prints 
are mounted upon heavy cardboard, so that they can be conveniently 
suspended for reference at each pupil's bench. Full specifications are 
always given, and no effort is spared to secure the greatest practicable 
accuracy of execution. All completed work is examined and marked by 
the instruc^^-- with the same care which is given to written tests in 
other sclFoofs'^ " 

The aim is to demonstrate the value of manual training as an educa- 
tional force. Every exercise is chosen with reference to its power to 
train the eye and the hand, and to develop facility in the use of particu- 
lar tools. Every task or process is discontinued as soon as the pupil 
has learned to do it well, and a problem calculated to call forth new 
power is substituted. The school disclauns any design to teach special 



46 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

trades, but an earnest effort is made to fit boys to enter upon tlieir life 
work Avithout loss of time, and with greatly diminislied liability to err in 
tlie clioice of occux)ation. Experience lias sbown tliat tlie graduates 
readily find suitable employment at liiglier wages tlian tliey would 
have been likely to receive without this si)ecial trail liug. 

The following outline will serve to give a tolerably adequate notion 
of the variety of the exercises : 

Garpe7itry.^SsLW and chisel exercises j halved joints; blind mortise 
and tenon joints; open mortise and tenon joints; halved dovetailed 
joints; dovetailed joints; brace joints; boring exercises; dowel joints; 
table leg and rail; triangle, 30o, 60°, and 90o, glued; model of a newel 
post; and a tool chest. 

Turning and patter nmahing. — Straight cylinder; broken cylinder; 
stepped cylinder cone; curves, convex, concave, and compound; 
spheres; banister posts; rosettes; mallets and handles; rings of round 
sections; rings of octagonal sections; engine crank; lathe face-plate; 
ratchet wheel; T-pipe fitting; sheave wheel; hand wheel, etc. Dur- 
ing the last half of the second year, the pupils of each class make pat- 
terns of all the parts of some machine. The castings are obtained and 
the machines completed during the next year. 

Blacksmithing. — Exercises in drawing, ui)setting, bending, twisting, 
riveting, welding, punching, and tempering. Some of the articles 
made are the wedge; the square point; sign dogs; stone dogs; S-hooks; 
bent rings; welded rings; harness hooks; truck hangers; hook and sta- 
ples; swivels; shafting keys ; shaft with shoulders; bent angle irons 
for strengthening joints; welded angle irons; chain links; eye bolt and 
ring; device with bolt and cotter; bolts and nuts, square and hexag- 
onal; lathe tools; tempered spring; flat drill; hammer; blacksmith's 
tongs, etc. 

Metal ivorl£. — Exercises in chijiping, filing, scraping, polishing, fit- 
ting of sliding parts, drilling, hand-turning, bolt cutting, tapping, etc. 
Some of the articles made are surface gauge, calipers, electric bind- 
ing posts, and turned brass ornaments. 

The founder of the school has recently decided to erect immediately 
a building adapted to accommodate the academic work of the manual 
training course. The building will be placed in the rear of the present 
structure, and will be connected with it by a covered passage way. 
It will contain three large school rooms, a physical laboratory and H]}- 
paratus room, and an assembly room. A considerable ,^:^ortion of the 
basement will be used for a large drill room, near whi. "■-- y.^^ toilet 
rooms, w^ash rooms, a shower bath, and all needed conveniences for the 
athletic teams. When this building is completed, the conditions for 
testing the educational value of manual training ought to satisfy its 
most exacting advocates. 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 47 

The iiiaDual training scliool is merely an additional factor in tlie 
Caml)rid<?e scliool system. It supplements the work of the grammar 
schools with a useful course of study, likely to prove peculiarly at- 
tractive to many boys. It does not interfel^e with the work of any 
other school. 

The staif of teachers in this school consists of the s^iperinteudent, a 
medical director, an instructor in machine shop practice, an instructor 
in mechanical drawing, an instructor in blacksmithiug, an instructor 
in turning and x^atternmaking, an instructor in carpentry and joinery, 
an assistant in machine shop practice, an assistant in drawing^ and an 
engineer. 

At Fall Elver the B. M. 0. Durfee High School offers a manual train- 
ing course coordinate with, courses such as are usually offered in high 
schools. The course covers a period of four years, and is intended to 
prepare pupils for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and other 
scientific schools or for active life. The manual training includes me- 
chanical drawing, carpentry, joinery, iron fitting, wood turning, pat- 
ternmaking, and care of tools and machinery. The shop work takes 
uj) about two-fifths of the time, bookwork and draAviug occupying the 
remainder. 

In the public schools of Lowell drawing has been taught for twenty 
years. An evening drawing school is now maintained for those who 
are unable to attend the day school. During the year 1890, 592 irapils 
were enrolled, of which number 343 were males and 249 females. In 
April 1890, sewing was introduced into the* grammar grades. Aside 
from these specific exceptions, Lowell schools have no manual exer- 
cises. The superintendent has recommended that shop work be added 
for the boys in the higb school, but as yet no action has been taken. 

Sewing was introduced into the schools of Somerville in October 1888. 
The work has been graded in the same manner as the regular school 
work, apportioning certain stitches to each year. The fourth grade 
learns the proper use of the needle and thimble, correct x>osition of 
body, hands, and work, and four or five different stitches, making at 
the close of the year a simple article without gathers. Grades five and 
six are taught enough additional stitches to make a garment with 
gathers, qualifying them to make nearly all articles of underwear with 
a little oversight. Grades seven and eight add to the previous work 
instruction in darning, patching, herring-bone stitch, and buttonholes. 
In this systematic fashion^ sewing is taught to all girls of the grammar 
schools. Two special teachers are employed, who give all the instruc- 
tion in this branch. The sui)erintendent has recommended that sloid 
and other forms of manual work should be provided for boys in the 
13ublic schools. 

Mr. George B. Kilbon, of the Springfield Manual Training School, 
speaking before the Manual Training Conference at Boston in 1891, 



48 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

sketched the history of the work done in that city. The experiment 
there was begun in April 1886, when, at the solicitation of the school 
committee, the city gave $1,000 for the purpose. 

One half of this sum [Mr. Kilbon states] was spent in equipment, 
and the other half in paying for tuition. Twelve benches and twelve 
sets of tools were bought, and the school commenced. So satisfactory 
was the experiment that the next two years the city gave $3,000 a year, 
then $4,000 for two years consecutively, and this year (1801) voted 
$4,500. So one may see the Interest has been growing from the outset. 
The school is on a substantial foundation, because it has been accepted 
by the school committee and is under the regular school regime. We 
have now 18 joinery benches, 8 wood turning lathes, a moulding equip- 
ment of 12, a carving equipment of 18, and a partial equipment for iron 
work, consisting of 1 forge, 1 planer, 1 engine lathe, 1 drill press, 4 vises, 
and 4 sets of bench tools. A Shipman engine of six-horse power drives 
the machinery. 

The Springfield Manual Training School has two departments, high 
school and grammar school. Its high school department consists of a 
three years' course of daily work in scientific study, drawing, and man- 
ual work, providing for joinery, wood turning, and carving during the 
first year; forging, patternmaking, and moulding during the second 
year ; and iron chippiug, filing, and finishing during the third year. The 
grammar school department consists of a one year's course of weekly 
lessons for the senior grade. In both departments the manual lessons 
are of one and one-half hoiu-s' duration, the drawing lessons in the high 
school being three-quarters of an hour. 

A third department of the manual school is projected. We have 
some wide-awake lady teachers among us who wanted something of 
the kind; and, when an opportunity was offered them to learn the use 
of tools, thirty-seven improved it. They were organized in three 
classes, and went on with the work, happy as could be, happy as any 
set of boys, and did as good work. * - * 

After some months of work another question arose. A few of these 
teachers asked the privilege of giving manual lessons to boys under 
their charge, in grades fifth to seventh, which was granted; and $10 
Avas expended for tools for an experimental class of twenty-four 
fifth-grade pupils. We arranged a course of lessons in which the 
pocket knife was the only cutting tool used. For laying out problems 
five additional tools were used — try-square, gauge, rule, dividers, and 
pencil. The work was done in the ordinary school room, the desks 
being protected from injury by movable covers. The success of this 
led to the arrangement of a four years' course in knife work. These 
years precede the senior grammar work. Our boys in the fifth grade 
are nine years old and upward. In this course we have first surface 
forms cut from thin wood, then some knife carving, then geometric 
forms cut from thicker wood, then cubes, prisms, cylinders, and cones 
are cut, then a few joints are made. The fourth year natural and me- 
chanical forms are cut, all done with the knife. 

Our school at first met with some opposition, though I hear of none 
today. We have been able to take only one class of girls, though 
more want it^ But we can not do everything with the money the city 
gives us. This one- class has done excellent work. We thoroughly be- 
lieve in drawing and have an efficient drawing teacher. 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IX THE UNITED STATES. 49 

We liave also in Springfield sewing, paper cutting and folding, and 
clay modelling. The outline in the mind of our educators is that the 
kindergarten should be follovred by clay modelling, this to be succeeded 
by the knife work, which, in its turn, should continue till pupils reach 
the age for a general tool course. That will give a consecutive course 
of manual training from the earliest years up through the years dur- 
ing which the public school has charge of the pupil. We do not claim 
to be omniscient; but we have done the best we knew liow. We shall 
do tomorrow better than we have done today, because we shall know 
better then what we want to do. 

MINNESOTA. 

A manual training course was introduced into the Dulutli higli 
school in 1889. During the first and second years of the course the 
manual work consists of industrial drawing and wood work, followed 
in tlie third and fourth, years by industrial drawing and metal work. 

In the Minneapolis i)ublic schools a conservative beginning of man- 
ual training has been made by introducing industrial drawing and 
wood working at the Central high school and at the two branch high 
schools. This work was begun in January 1887. The high school 
now affords a carefully arranged manual training course with architec- 
tural and machine drawing, and wood and metal work. The course 
extends over four years and is coordinate with the other high school 
courses. The i3rincipal of the Central high school, writing July 9, 1891, 
stated that of the five who had graduated from the course up to that 
time three were already in a technical school and the others would soon 
enter. 

At Saint Paul a beginning of instruction in manual training in the 
public schools was made in October 1887. A room in the basement of 
the high school building served for a workshop. It was fitted up with 
benches, tools, etc., sufficient to accommodate 8 classes of 12 pupils 
each. 

At first both boys and girls were permitted to undertake the work, 
but at the end of one year the course of study was rearranged for 
boys only. A course of special training suitable for girls is contem- 
plated by the school authorities, but it is deemed best to await the 
results of exjDeriments now in i^rogress elsewhere before estabhshing 
such a separate course. 

The work grew so in public favor that a new school was established 
entirely distinct from the high school, and a new building erected. 
This school now has a faculty of eleven members. Over 100 pupils 
were enrolled during the year ending June 1890. 

The system of instruction adopted in the school comprehends three 
courses of study covering three years each. The business course is 
designed to give a symmetrical and j)ractical education to boys who 
for any reason do not intend to pursue a higher course of study; the 
prejjaratory course is for boys who wish to enter polytechnic and en- 
S. Ex. 65 i 



50 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

giiieeriDg scliools^ and tlie Latin course for tliose who Tvisli to comx)lete 
tlieir preparatory training in the liigti school and then iDursue a clas- 
sic ?.! course in college. In all the courses the same plan of manual 
training is followed, the only difference being in the kind of book work. 
The manual work includes drawing, joinery, wood turning, wood 
carving, patternmaking, forge and foundery work, and machine shop 
work. 

MISSOURI. 

The Saint Louis Manual Training School was opened September 6, 
1880. Tliis is the x>ioneer school of manual training in the United 
States* It is equipped with all the appliances necessary for the success- 
ful prosecution of its work, and its courses of study and practice are 
admirably coordinated. 

The arrangement of the three years' course of studies, tool work, 
etc., is substantially as follows: 

First year. — Algebra, through simple equations j review arithmetic j 
English language, its structure and uscj history of England j Latin, 
French, or German grammar and reader may be taken in place of 
English and historyj American classics,* commercial geography^ ele- 
mentary physics J botany J drawing, instrumental and free-hand from 
objects; penmanship j joinery j wood carving j wood turning. 

Second year. — Algebra, through quadratics and radicals; plane 
geometry; chemistry, theoretical and practical; English composition 
and literature; rhetoric; English or French history; Latin (Csesar), 
French, or German may be taken in place of rhetoric and history; 
British classics; bookkeeping; drawing, line shading, and tinting; 
forging; x>atternmaking; moulding; casting with plaster; soldering 
and brazing; military drill. 

Third year. — Geometry continued through plane and solid ; reviews 
in mathematics; mensuration; English composition and literature; 
civics and political economy; general history; French or German may 
be taken in place of English and history, or in place of the science 
study; physiology; elements of physics, with laboratory practice; 
mechanism; military science and tactics; drawing, brush-shading, 
geometrical, machine, and architectural f metal work with hand and 
machine tools; filing, chipping, fitting, turning, drilling, planing, screw- 
cutting, etc.; execution of ]?rojects; military drill. 

Candidates for admission to the first-year class must be at least 14 
years old and x)ass an entrance examination in arithmetic, geography, 
spelling, and iDenmanship, and in writing English, with the correct use 
of capitals and i)unctuation. 

In a late catalogue of this school, the director says: 

The school has served to demonstrate the entire feasibility of incor- 
porating the elements of intellectual and manual training in such a 
way that each is the gainer thereby 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 51 

As tliis is the oldest of tlie manual traiiiiug schools, a glance at re- 
sults as shown by the occupation of the graduates may prove interest- 
ing. In a letter to the Indianapolis News, the director of the school, 
Prof. 0. M. Woodward, has presented the facts in regard to the first 
200 graduates : 

The Saint Louis Manual Training School was opened in September 
ISSO, and its first class (29 members) graduated in 1883. A class has 
graduated everj^ June since, the last (1891) class numbering 56. The 
whole number of graduates is 386. 

In quoting the record I sliall limit myself to the first 200: The 
classes of 1883, 1881, 1885, 1886, 1887, and nine in 1888, omitting six, 
who are unknown. 

The first striking thing about the 200 is the fact that 67 of them went 
on into "higher education," general or professional. 

If the best fruit of education is a " mental appetite," as has been said, 
our edu.cational tree bears good fruit, for in unexpected numbers our 
students crave more education. In fully half the cases the boys wlio 
have " gone on " had no intention of going beyond the manual training 
school when they entered it. The development of an educational api^e- 
tite on the part of the student, and the final consent to gratify it even 
at a sacrifice on the part of the i>arents, are events which continually 
bear testimony to the stimulating effect of the school. In several cases 
students have spent on higher education money earned after leaving 
the "manual" school. Higher education is exiiensive and no small 
proportion of these 200 young men were unable to command the neces- 
sary funds. 

The present occupations of these 200 are as follows: 

Engineers (ciTil, meehanieal, and mining) , 34 

Physicians and dentists ' 6 

Lawyers 4 

Editor 1 

Art student 1 

Teachers 20 

Superintendents, managers, and foremen 21 

Clerks (raiJroads, banks,, manufacturing, and commercial liouses) 49 

Farmers and stock-raisers 7 

Partners in business (all kinds) 27 

Dra- glitsmen and architects 14 

Mechanics (11 machinists, 4 patternmakers) 15 

Letter-carrier 1 

Total 200 

Went on into higher education, more or less 67 

The large number of educated engineers in the aibove list will next 
be noted, and then the small number of mechanics, but this requires 
exi)lanation. 

If I omit those who go into higher education with a definite occujoa- 
tion in view, the most common emi)Ioyments of our recent graduates 
are drafting and tool work. There is a lively demand for this class of 
workers, and our boys are able at once to earn good wages. 

Though these can not be called either skilled or exjperienced, they 
seem to master the practical details with little difficulty, and they gen- 
erally^ give great satisfaction. 

Many of these boys fill mixed positions, dividing their time between 
drawing, keejnng books, and working in shop. I frequently receive 
letters asking for a " graduate of the school," his capacity for generiil 
usefulness being fully recognized. 



52 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

For a year or two these persons are rated on their employers' books 
as draughtsmen or mechanics. The next thing, I am surprised to be 
informed, is that they are superintendents, or assistant managers, or 
foremen, or officers of a company. 

A word in regard to the large number of clerks, nearly 25 j)er cent, 
of the whole: Our graduates are eagerly sought for positions where 
tlieir experiences in drawing and shop enables them to deal intelligently 
with work done in manufacture or with the articles handled. Hard- 
ware, manufacturing, and railway companies appear to find these clerks 
valuable. Kot one appears as a clerk or salesman in a retail dry goods, 
clothing, furnisliing, or provision store or grocery. 

The number of our alumni filling positions of high responsibility is 
quite remarkable. They are well known in Saint Louis, and it is they 
who have done so much to increase the popularity of the school. 

There are several explanations of the extraordinary success of these 
young men: 

1. In the first place they are not afraid to work with their hands. 
While they cordially dislike drudgery and can not endure '' work that 
leads to nothing," they have no i3rejudice against the inevitable dirt 
and oil of a shop. They generally prefer active work, if it is interesting, 
to standing around or sitting still. 

2. They can do more than one thing. They can make a drawing, or 
pattern, or model, or keep books, or set up a machine with equal facil- 
ity. People of this sort soon become valuable. 

3. They are not content with clumsy apparatus and laborious methods 
when they can devise better ones. It is a common occurrence for me 
to hear of '' little improvements'' and inventions made by our graduates 
in connection with their daily cares. Most of these inventions are de- 
vices for saving labor and preventing waste, and are patentable in 
character; others are of a high order of merit and a source of income. 
The ability to embody a mechanical idea in a readable drawing and 
then to construct a working model is indispensable to the successful 
inventor. 

The number of inventors among our graduates is so great that I am 
thinking of collecting statistics on the subject. 

4. Perhaps the most valuable habit our graduates acquire is that of 
working systematically on a plan they have fully matured. This is 
closely allied to the predisposition to invent, just pointed out, but it 
bears very emphatically uijon the faculty of laying out and directing 
large plans of work. This makes them useful both in the formation of 
schemes for improvement and their execution. 

An instance occurs to me in illustration of the last paragraph. A 
graduate (one of the 200) came into my office a year or two ago to shake 
hands and tell me of his affairs. He was a prepossessing young man 
about 22 years old. Said he: ^'I am a blacksmith, and I think I am 
the only graduate who is a blacksmith." 

This was very interesting to me, for though every graduate is fairly 
trained in the arts of iron and steel forging, and I knew that several 
had temporary employment at the forge, no one to my knowledge had 
remained there. So I asked him to tell me how he was getting on. 

He said that on leaving school he went to work with his father who 
was a blacksmith. He soon found himself at home in all the work of 
the shop, and then he saw opportunity to improve and enlarge in im- 
portant directions, so he introduced new tools, employed more men, and 
constructed devices for handling heavy work. ''And now," said he, 
with evident pride, '^I have 26 men at work under me, and we 
are prepared to do any forging, heavy or light, that the city may bring." 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 53 

Here was a youKg man not five years from tlie manual training school 
vrlio had outstripped his father at his own trade. 

Some of mj^ readers may recall a trip in a Pullman sleeper wliere the 
water flows into the washbasins as if from a hydrant, without the as- 
sistance of an awkward pump. This improvement, with all the details 
involved, was made by one of our graduates. 

His device consists 1 : connecting the tank of compressed air belong- 
ing to the air brake with the upper side of a long cylinder full of water 
lying beneath the floor of the car. The air serves to force the water 
up to the Avashbasins with considerable pressure. This j^oung man 
has been very successful in the Pullman company, and he has opened 
the door to some half dozen of his fellow alumni. 

It frequently happens that I hear of the sudden promotion of a young 
man who had entered some shoi^ at moderate wages to do what he could 
and learn the business thoroughly. There is generally great suri)rise 
that he can do so much and so well on mere school training, and pres- 
ently he outstrips all expectations in thex)rogress he makes. I remem- 
ber one who entered an iron fitting shop at about $1.50 a day. Before 
half a year had elapsed he had been ''found out" and was given the 
position of assistant superintendent in a large glass works near by. 
When I next saw him he was making plans for a new office and draw- 
ing room. There was then no agreement as to wages, but he was not 
anxious. He is still with the glass company earning a fine salary. 

I could go on indefinitely telling of the triumjihs and successes of 
our graduates. Undoubtedly there are successful graduates from all 
schools, but I do not hesitate to say that in a most conspicuous manner 
our graduates have seen the quick and unmistakable advantage gained 
by means of their manual training. A youug man just out of school 
and interested in a steam^ sawmill in one of the southern states writes 
that he is acting as superintendent, and that manual training comes in 
"mighty handy" when a ''mere trifle might disable engine and ma- 
chinery for a whole day while all the men lie idle." 

At the present, and for a long time to come, the demand for teachers 
of manual training is and Avill be very active. The very best shop 
teachers are those who, having gone carefully over the work of a man- 
ual trainiug school, take higher work in literature, science and art for 
several years, studying meanwhile methods of teaching and laboratory 
work in science and in shop. 

My advice to students is: "Get all the training and culture you can." 
I have known men to sufler from lack of education and training, never 
from their possession. No one has ever been injured by his ability to 
make a scale drawing, to construct a pattern, to temper a drill, to 
shariien a chisel, or to match and glue two pieces of wood, any more 
than he has by the ability to spell correctly, to translate a page of Latin 
or French, or to explain a djaiamo. 

When he can do both these and those he is sure to be in demand. 

It is evident from what I have said that I do not regard the manual 
training school as a finishing school; its training is broad and generous, 
preparatory to more special training in special higher courses, or in the 
activities of practical life. 

NEBRASKA. 

Omaha has attracted considerable attention among educators on 
account of her early incorporation of manual exercises with the ordi- 
nary School system of training. The course is optional, those taking- 
it doing the same book work as the rest of the school. The work at 



54 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

present is coufiiied to the liigli scliool grades. The superinteBdent of 
schools, ill his report for 1889, says : 

I believe it better that this work be made a part of the high school 
course only. Eighth grade pupils have enough to do in the ordinary 
vrork of the grade, no part of which is of less practical value than the 
studies of this department, and there is a tendency, in introducing the 
mechanical work in the lower grades, to neglect that which is more 
imi^ortant. * * * Furthermore, if the grades below the high school 
are allowed to take this work the incentive which it offers to enter the 
high school is in a large measure taken away. 

During the year 1889, 57 boys and 7 girls took cari)entry, 76 boys 
and 8 girls took wood turning, and 22 boys and 2 girls took wood 
carving. Of these, 62 were from the high school and 32 from the 
eighth grade. 

The subject of introducing sewing, dressmaking, and other depart- 
ments for the benefit of the school girls has been discussed, and a 
teacher of cooking has been emxdoyed. The system can not be said, 
however, to have become definitely fixed. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

In the i)ublie school system of Concord provision is made for manual 
training. The work includes a course in wood work and a course in 
sewing, both optional with the x)ux)il. During the school year 1890-'9I, 
110 pupils received instruction in wood work. Of this number only 12 
were from the high school. Two hundred and thirty-five girls of the 
public schools were taught sewing, 23 of whom were high school i)u- 
pils. 

NEW JERSEY. 

'New Jersey has already been siioken of as one to give early legisla- 
tive aid to the cause of industrial education. The first act looking to 
the introduction of this element into its system of public instruction 
bears date of March 24, 1881. The object as stated in the words of the 
act was the "establishment and support of schools for the training and 
education of pupils in industrial pursuits (including agriculture), so as 
to enable them to perfect themselves in the several branches of industry 
which require technical training." This act provided that — 

Whenever any board of education, school committee or other like 
body of any city, town or township in this state shall certify to the 
governor that a sum of money not less than three thousand dollars has 
been contril)uted by voluntary subscriptions of citizens or otherwise, 
as hereinafter authorized, for the establishment in any such city, town 
or township of a school or schools for industrial education, it shall be 
the duty of the said governor to cause to be drawn, by warrant of the 
comptroller, approved by himself, out of any moneys in the state treas- 
ury not otherwise appropriated, an amount equal to that contributed by 
the particular locality as aforesaid for the said object; and when any 
such school or schools shall have been established in any locality as 
aforesaid, there shall be annually contributed by the state, in manner 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 55 

aforesaid, for tlie uiaiiiteiiance and siiiiiiort thereof, a sum of money 
equal to that contributed eacli year in said locality for sucli purpose; 
Ijrovided^ hoivever, that the moneys contributed by the state, as afore- 
said, to any locality, shall not exceed, in any one year, the sum of five 
thousand dollars. 

The act further provides for the appointment of trustees to be given 
the organization and management of such schools. Additional i)rovi- 
sion is made for the prosi)ective schools by giving to the city, town, or" 
townsliip power to appropriate and raise by tax money for their sup- 
port. 

This act was only a beginning. Subsequent legislation, made on the 
same general lines, has considerably extended the benefits of state aid. 
The act of March 7, 1888, ^' for the promotion of industrial education," 
and the act of February 15, 1888, '' for the x)romotion of manual train- 
ing," required but $500 to l)e raised by taxes and subscriptions before 
state aid in an equal amount could be obtained. This, of course, placed 
outside aid wdthin the reach of many more of the cities and towns. 

It would be interesting to know just to what extent these acts have 
influenced the development of manual or industrial training in ISew 
Jersey. Unfortunately we have not at hand complete information on 
this subject. As in any new movement, changes are constantly being 
made by the introduction of the work in new places or by its develop- 
ment where already established. It should not be assumed that the 
industrial movement in iTew Jersey owes all that it has accomplished 
to legislative aid. The beginning at Mont Clair was made indepen- 
dently of any outside aid. Is'or should it be understood that all the 
i-esults of the legislation have been in the direction of manual train iug. 
The Kewark Technical School is something quite different from the 
manual training school. 

From the report of the state superintendent of x>ubiic instruction for 
the school year ending August 31, 1891, it apx>eared that manual train- 
ing in some form had become a part of the course of instruction, either 
optional or required, in the public schools of thirteen cities and towns, 
viz., East Orange, Garfield, Hoboken, Mont Clair, Morristown, Orange, 
Passaic, Paterson, South Orange, Union, Yineland, Weehawken, and 
West Hoboken. Probably the next rei3ort when issued will show its 
introduction in other schools. In several places the matter is known to 
have been agitated with some promise of success. 

Hoboken ofiers a striking example of manual training in the public 
schools as the outgrowth of state aid. The instruction is not in the 
han ds of the city authorities, but is controlled by a board of trustees 
who emi)loy the teachers and guarantee the expenses. The funds, how- 
ever, are now derived entirely from city and state appropriations. In 
the earlier days of the work much of the money was raised by sub- 
scription, and a part of the funds so accumulated is still in the hands 
of the trustees. 



56 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

The work was begun in December 1885. It lias grown so tbat in 
1890 an attendance was reported, in ail departments of instruction, o± 
1,430 pnpils. The numbers in tlie various departments were: Wood 
working, 240 j cooking, 350 j clay modelling and wood carving, 240 ; 
sewing, 600. The accommodations are insufficient. The work is for 
the most part carried on in a building apart from the schools, to which 
classes are sent in turn. 

The instruction now offered includes clay modelling, wood carving, 
and wood working for the'boj^s, and sewing and cooking for the girls. 
Clay modelling is i)racticed one hour and a half a week during the first 
year of the manual course. This is followed by exercises in wood carv- 
ing. During the third year joinery is taken up for two hours and a 
half a week. The sewing course includes lessons and practice in out- 
line running, figure- stitching, hemming, felling, sewing on buttons, 
making buttonholes, darning, x)atching, etc. The course in cooking 
includes- instruction in the care of supi^lies, materials, and utensils, in 
the selection of materials, andin the chemistry of cooking, with practice 
in cooking. 

Probably the most widely known example of public school manual 
training in ^ew Jersey is found at Mont Clair. The work was begun 
October 1, 1882, the trustees having appropriated $1,000 for the pur- 
loose. The pupils of the second and third grades of the grammar 
schools, averaging 12 J years of age, were selected for the experiment. 
The work has continued without interruption since that date. 

The manual training as now arranged consists chiefly of clay model- 
ling, cabinet work, wood carving, sewing, cooking, wood and metal 
turning, and vise work. The shop work is carried through all grades 
and required of all pupils up to, not into, the high school. The aim of 
the work is not to produce articles of value nor to teach any trade, but 
to discipline the mind through the hand and eye. The manual exer- 
cises are on the same footing as the other branches of school work, the 
two hours a week devoted to them being taken from school hours. 

The expenses of the work have not been great. For fitting up the 
workshop in a school building and supplying it with benches, tools of 
various kinds, etc., about $350 was used. The whole cost of starting 
and carrjdng on ^he school during six years was: First year, $725.80 j 
second year, $599.34; third year, $582.51; fourth year, $681.19; fifth 
year, $708.53; sixth year, $667.96. 

A complete account of the course of training in the Mont Clair schools 
will be found in Chapter XI. — The Kindergarten in Eelation to Manual 
Training. 

Orange is another i)lace that has availed itself of the offered state 
aid. In 1887 the city appropriated $1,000 for the introduction of manual 
training into the public schools. In accordance with the law akeady 
referred to, this entitled the city to another $1,000 from the state. In- 
struction was at once begun in schools of every grade. Sewing, paper 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 57 

weaving', and clay modelling were taught, and kindevgaiten methods 
were introduced into the i)rimary grades. 

Sewing is now a part of the work, being taught in all grades, includ- 
ing the high school. Cooking lessons are also given in the upi)eL' high 
school classes. Boys of the grammar and high school classes receive 
lessons in simple cariDentrj^ Indnstrial drawing was introduced into 
the schools of Orange about fourteen years ago, and still maintains a 
prominent position. 

At Paterson, during the year ending March 19, 1891, the total num- 
ber of boys receiving manual training instruction was 350, arranged in 
15 classes ranging from 15 to 30 pupils in each class. Each class re- 
ceived one and a quarter hours' instruction per week. A large number 
of the high school boys completed the list of 25 lessons, covering all the 
forms of simple joinery. Considering the limited time, amounting in 
the aggregate to about 50 hours per 5^ear for each class or pupil, the 
development of skill has been quite remarkable. 

At Yineland manual training was instituted as a branch of public 
school instruction by a natural and easy method in 1887. The sum of 
^500 had been appropriated by the town with which to begin the workj 
but this amount would not hire a special teacher. Accordingly the 
school board sought for a man who could act as principal and train the 
17 teachers so that they could teach the children in their schools. They 
found a man of the right stamp, and in June 1887, opened a summer 
training school for teachers with an attendance of 45, and here the year's 
work was taught. 

Drawing lessons are given twice a week to all pupils. Clay model- 
ling was introduced in 1888. Lessons in carpentry and lessons in bud- 
ding and grafting are now given. For the school year ending August 
31, 1891 , Yineland received from the state $1,000 toward the support 
of this special teaching, an equal amount having been voted by the 
district. 

NEW YORK. 

Manual training was introduced into the Albany High School in the 
form of wood work in January 1888. Superintendent Charles W. Cole 
said of it in 1890: 

Manual training is no longer an experiment with us. We have be, 
come satisfied of its high educational value, and we believe it will re- 
main a fixed element in our system. The question to be determined- 
however, is how far up and hoAV far down it shall be extended. Thus 
far we have confined shop work to the high school hoys ; next fall we 
shall introduce wood working in the sloid form among the girls in the 
high school. 

This has since been done. 

Superintendent Cole has noted an interesting and important effect 
of the work upon the attendance of boys in the high school. In 1891 
he stated that previous to the introduction of manual training the pro- 



58 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

portion of boys to girls iu the Albany Higli Scliool had been 30 to 70 ; 
it was now 48 to 52. 

Prominent among manual training schools of its grade is the high 
school of the Pratt Institute, Brooklyn. The three years' coui'se of 
study is designed to fit boys and girls for their life work, and, '• without 
ignoring or antagoniziug the education of the past, seeks to i)erfect 
this by supplying the elements heretofore disregarded." The school 
^'does not endeavor nor wish to prepare for a x) articular occupation, or 
class of occupations, but rather tries to make its course as broad and 
general as is consistent with the age of the puxnls and the time spent 
in its completion. Geometry and chemistr^^ are introduced into the 
coarse, but not with the x)rimary object of prex)aring teachers of math- 
ematics or science 5 so manual work is made a feature, but not in order 
to train cariDenters or machinists; on the contrary, the literary work 
and all forms of manual work are made parts of the course of instruc- 
tion for one and the same reason, because of their disciplinary and ed- 
ucational value." 

As in most of the manual training high schools, the course of study 
is arranged to meet, as far as possible, the requirements for admission 
to advanced scientific, technical, or other schools, and at the same time 
to supply the needs of that larger class of boys and girls who finish 
their school room education with the high school. 

The coarse of instruction, as set forth in the catalogue of the insti- 
tute for the year 1891-92, embraces, in the first year, English language 
and rhetoric, algebra and geometry, physiology and pnysical geography 
vocal music, frcie-hand and instrumental drawing, model and cast draw- 
ing, and clay modelling. The manual work for boys consists of bench 
work in wood, wood turning, patternmakiug, and principles of moulding ; 
for girls, sewing, hygiene, and home nursing'. 

In the second year the studies are general history and English 
history, or Latin. Essay writing, geometry, trigonometry, bookkeeping^ 
physics with laboratory practice, vocal music, perspective, architect- 
ural drawing, elements of de>ign, and mechanical drawing are also 
taught; while foundery moulding, forging, and tinsmithing for boys, 
and dressmaking and wood carving for girls, constitute the subjects 
of the manual training course. 

In the senior year the subjects taken up are English literature, civil 
government, political science, Frencb or Latin, essay writing, principles 
of construction, chemistry and metallurgy, vocal music, mechanical 
drawing, problems in construction; and in manual work, machine shop 
and bench work, machine tool work, and construction are assigned to 
boys, and cooking, millinery, and dressmaking engage the attention of 
the girls. 

The school year in the high school department is divided into three 
terms, and the tuition per term for the first year is $10, for the second 
year $15, and for the third year $20. 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 59 

In the autumn of 1874 a printing office was opened at Jamestown, 
in one of the scliool "buildings, and fitted u}) witli press, type, and 
fixtures, at a cost of $125, for the purpose of affording an oppor- 
tunity to the boys and girls of the grammar and higli schools to learn 
type setting as a form of manual training. 

Since that date the scope of the work has been greatly extended. 
Two wings have been added to the high school building, and in the 
basement are two rooms, one of which is used for a sewing room and 
printing office, and the other for the shpp. The rooms are about 28 by 
37 feet, are well lighted and pleasant, and are supx)lied with all needed 
tools, material, and instructors, and are kept ox)en during all the school 
hours of the day, four days of the week. 

Superintendent Love writes: 

Today, January 19, 1887, this much can be said of the department 
of manual training in Jamestown public schools. All the pui^ils in the 
first six grades, about 1,400 in number, are given lessons daily^ or at 
least three or four times a week, in some kind of manual training. One 
hundred and twenty -five of the girls and 65 of the boys receive lessons 
in the sewing-room or shop at least twice or three times each week, and 
20 boys and girls set type in the printing office, one hour, four days of 
the week. 

The system is Avell organized; and, from the lowest primary depart- 
ments, in which kindergarten exercises are practised, to the; academic 
department of the high school, the work is carried forward by easy 
stages of gradation. TJp to th« seventh gTade the course varies but 
little from that of other manual training schools. Beginning with the 
junior class of the grammar department, the instruction for the remain- 
der of the course is as follows : 

Junior grammar class, — Penmanship; drawing, free-hand and indus- 
trial; physical culture, exercises in gymnasium; manual training for 
boys — to draw lines and lay off distances, use of the hammer, fche saw, 
the i)lane; manual training for girls — plain sewing, running, gathering, 
stitching, overcasting, over-and-over sewing and hemming; xninting, 
boys and girls — (1) learn the letters in the lower case, (2) also in the 
upper case, (3) to hold and handle the stick, (4) to set up and distribute 
words, (5) also sentences, (G) to set up and distribute coi^y. 

Afiddle grammar etass, — Penmanshi];) ; drawing, free-hand and indus- 
trial; physical culture, exercises in the gymnasium; manual training for 
boys — review the work of the last year, lessons in construction, boring, 
chiselling; manual training for girls — crocheting, knitting begun; luint- 
ing, boys and girls — (7) to learn to correct proof, (8) to set up copy and 
distribute it on time, (9) to make up and lock forms. 

Senior grammar class. — Penmanship: drawing; physical culture, exer- 
cises in the gjTnnasium ; manual training for boys — review lessons of the 
last year, lessons in mitreing, dovetailingvdowelling, begin drawing and 
construction; manual training for girls — knitting advanced, mending, 
patching, darning, making buttonholes; printing, boys and girls — (10) 



60 REPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. 

ruu tlie press, (11) wash type and distribute form, (12) do job work 
given out. 

In tlie academic department, comprising tlie tenth, eleventh, twelfth, 
and thirteenth grades, the work in manual trainiug is as follows: For 
young men — drawing and construction, the lathe, finishing, printing; 
for young women — cutting, the use of the seAving machine, embroidery, 
cooking, ijrintiug. 

The means for meeting the cost of manual training at Jamestown 
were at first derived exclusively from the proceeds of exhibitions given 
at intervals by teachers and pupils, and even now the expense is 
mainly x)rovided for in the same way, only a small amount coming from 
the X3ublic school fund. 

In 1892 Superintendent Eogers reported that ^'the usefulness of the 
department of manual training is greatly hindered by lack of proper 
facilities. In spite of its many limitations the value of this instruction 
may %e regarded as fully established." 

]:^ewburgh has a manual training school, with a comi^lete equipment 
for teaching carx3entryin a four years' course. The instructor receives 
a salary of $1,200 a year. There are, also, two teachers of sewing, paid, 
respectively, $400 and $500 a year. The total number of boys taking 
manual training is now 160. 

As to sewing, the city report states the number of classes in this 
branch to have been 36 in aU, with an average number of 20 pupils to 
a class, or 720 altogether. A lesson of one hour a week is given to 
each class. 

Instruction in manual exercises began in the schools of 'New York 
city on February 1, 1888. There is a graded course of study, beginning 
with the lowest primary grade and progressing through every succeed- 
ing grade of the xDrimary and grammar school course. The full course 
requires 14 terms for comi^letion. 

The work has not been introduced into every public school, but all 
puiDils in the several schools where the work has been introduced are 
comx)elled to study all the subjects taught in their respective classes. 
Any pupil not wishing to attend a manual training school may attend 
one of the other class of schools, and any pupil of the schools having 
the regular course of study may at any time enter one of the manual 
training schools. 

The work consists of paper folding and cutting, free-hand and me- 
chanical drawing, clay modelling, wood working, sewing, and cooking. 

There are 37 departments pursuing the manual training course of 
study, the whole number of pupils registered December 31, 1891, being 
19,935, with an average attendance of 18,249. These schools consist of 
7 male grammar departments, 8 female grammar departments, 1 mixed 
grammar department, 13 x)rimary departjnents, and 8 i)rimary schools; 

There are 122 classes in sewing, containing 5,675 pupils; 22 classes 
in cooking, containing 614 x)upils,* and 55 classes in workshop (wood 
working), containing 1,811 ]3ui)ils. 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 61 

Modelling in clay is a part of tlie course of instruction in 229 classes, 
containing 8,703 pupils; but clay is used in form study in 193 other 
classes, containing 10,640 pupils. All the pupils receive instruction 
in the English branches and in drawing (free-hand or mechanical). 
The course pursued in this class of schools seems to be meeting with 
general approval. 

The College of the City of 'New York, established in 1848, gives, 
among its courses of instruction, a three years' mechanical course, which 
is, in detail, as follows : 

Lessons 
FIRST YE Alt. per 

week. 

Frencli^ German, or Spanish 5 

Englisli language 3 

Matliematics 3 

Physics 2 

Drawing, free-hand and mechanical 3 

Workshop, instruction and practice, or commercial products 4 



20 



SECOND YEAR. 



The same modern language as before 5 

English 3 

Mathematics 3 

Chemistry ., 2 

Drawing 3 

Workshop or commercial products 4 

20 

THIRD YEAR. « 

A second modern language 5 

English 3 

Mathematics 3 

Physics and chemistry 5 

Workshop, or history and political economy 4 

20 

The subject of commercial products in this course includes the study 
of raw and manufactured products. Eaw materials are studied as 
derived from (1) the mineral kingdom, as metals, ores, coal, petro- 
leum, etc.; (2) the vegetable kingdom, as grain, timber, textile fabrics, 
tea, coffee, etc. ; (3) the animal kingdom, as silk, wool, fur, hides, meat, 
etc.; (4) the sources of supply and lines of conveyance, or what is 
generally known as commercial geography, a subject much studied in 
European countries, but too often ignored in America. 

The workshops are 3 in number. The wood working shop contains 
15 double benches, with closets and tools for a class of 30. The 
forge shop contains 6 Buffalo forges, 20 anvils, and 2 long benches 
with 15 vises, with forge and vise tools, and accommodates a class of 



62 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

from 15 to 30 students. The latlie shop contains 26 lathes for wood 
and metal working, 4 engine la^thes^ a circular saw, and 6 grindstones. 

For admission to the lowest class the student must be 14 years of age 
and a resident of Kew York city. He must pass an entrance examina- 
tion in writing, spelling, the English language, arithmetic, elementary 
propositions in geometry, geography, the history of the XJnited States, 
and tlie elements of industrial drawing. 

Instruction is free, and free* text books and apparatus are supplied. 
The cost of instruction is nearly $3,G00 x>er annum. The total cost of 
shop plant, in report of October 31, 1888, is reported to have been 
$8,040.06. 

The Hebrew Technical Institute of ]^ew York is a manual training 
school. It was organized in 1884. This institute is sui generis, and. 
within the prescribed limits, it is one of the most thorough among the 
training schools of the country. Pupils are required to bel2J years of 
age and to T)ass an examination in arithmetic, English, geogTaphy, and 
history. 

The course of instruction is embraced in three departments, viz., 
shop AYork in wood and ironj drawing, free-hand and mechanical j the 
English branches and physics. Pupils attend during the hours which 
constitute the school day, from 9 a. m. to 5 p. m. with an intermission 
of one hour at noon, and are instructed in all the departments. 

The course of study in this institution is arranged on the basis of 
general instruction in the use of tools, drawing, and the general branches 
to cover a period of two years, the third year to be devoted to prepa- 
ration for some special branch. 

The relation between the drawing and shop departments is very close, 
while the mathematics taught in the English department should be 
I)ractical and bear upon the shop work. The English department in- 
cludes instruction in the following branches: Arithmetic, geometry, 
history, geography, reading, writing, language lessons, physics, and 
industrial topics. 

The drawing department includes free hand drawing (model and 
object and decorative drawing) and mechanical drawing. 

The shop work includes wood working and metal working. Under 
wood working, the following are the stages: Pasteboard work, bracket 
sawing, construction work in bracket sawing, preliminary exercises in 
the use of saw, try-square, and chisel j exercises in nailing and use of 
hammer, joinery, construction work, wood carving, patternmaking, 
moulding and casting. Metal working should commence with exercises 
in tin and soldering, light work on speed lathe, forge work, chii)ping 
and filing, engine lathe work, shaper and planer, drill press, and con- 
struction work. The metal working shop is equipiDcd with 2 engine 
lathes, 2 drill presses, 2 speed lathes, 1 planer, and 15 vises, with all the 
necessary tools used with such machines. The vise work teaches the 
projierties of cast iron, the use of the hammer, chisel, file, straight-edge, 
calipers, square, bevel, gauge, and dividers. 



CHAP. L INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 63 

By tlio end of the second year tlie special aptitude of the i)npil is 
evidenced, and arrangements are then made for a lengthy stay each 
day in that shop which will prepare him for his special trade. Tims 
the pupils in the wood working department^ in the third year, devote 
their eri tire time to wood working, either j)atternmaking, cabinet- 
making, or carpeutrj'' and drawing", while those who show an ai)titude 
for machinery devote their entire time in the metal working shop and 
mechanical drawing (one hour a day only being given to physics and 
mathematics). Those who show a desire to engage in electrical work 
receive special instruction in that branch. 

In struction, books, and tools are furnished free. The number of pupils 
at the date of the latest report (January 1, 1891) was 146. The first 
class was graduated from this school in 1886. Henry M. Leipziger, 
Ph. D., is director of the institute, and there are seven instructors asso- 
ciated with him. The whole number of graduates (including the class 
of 1890) is 62, namely, in the class of 1886, 18^ in the class of 1888, 11; 
in the class of 188^, 17 ; in the class of 1890, 16. Of these 6 are con- 
nected vvdth electrical works, 3 are architects, 2 are machinists, and 1 is 
engaged in the telephone business. Most of the remaining graduates 
are employed by business firms concerning whose line of trade infor- 
mation is not available. 

The Indnstrial Education Association of 'New York, in addition to 
publishing educational monographs from time to time, instituting 
lecture courses, and seeking in every way to create an interest in all 
educational Avork and to diifuse a knowledge of any advance in peda- 
gogical science, has founded a college for the training of teachers, tui- 
tion for a full year's course in which costs $60. This college was opened 
in 1887, and in connection with it a model school for boys and girls. 

In this school (consisting of a kindergarten and a primary and a 
grammar grade), besides the branches usually taught in the public 
schools, industrial drawing, clay modelling, and the use of tools are 
taught. The course for girls includes a graded system of sewing and 
cutting, together with a course in cookery. 

The work of this association has been merged in that of the l^ew 
York College for the Training of Teachers. 

Dr. Felix Adler's Workingman's School in 'New York city was founded 
in 1878. Instruction is gratuitous for the children of the poor, for whom 
the school is prim.arily intended. The enrollment in 1892 shows an 
attendance of over 360 pupils. 

The Society for Ethical Culture maintains the school, which is entirely 
unsectarian and receives pnpils of both sexes and all nationalities be- 
tween the ages of 3 and 14 years. The full course covers a period of 11 
years. Since this year's term 28 pay pupils have been admitted to the 
school, who add about $2,800 to the funds of the society, which re- 
quires $22,000 annually to defray the expenses of the institution. 



64 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Tliis scliool is aa excellent example of the application of manual 
training methods through all grades of instruction, from the kinder- 
garten to the high school. A normal course for kinder gartners is now 
provided in a department of this school. 

OHIO. 

The Technical School of Cincinnati was opened for the admission of 
pupils in November 1886. It is an incorporated institution and under 
the management of a board of trustees. The faculty is composed of a 
director and 8 teachers; 3 are shop instructors, 4 class instructors, and 
1 takes charge of the draughting department. Since 1887 about half 
the expense of the school has been borne by the Commercial Club. 

Pupils are admitted at 14 years of age, on certificates of grammar 
school principals, or after passing an examination in the Euglish 
branches commonly taught in the grammar school. 

The course of study and shop work in this school requires three years 
for its completion. The first year subjects are algebra, arithmetic, ele- 
mentary science, physiology; English language, history, American lit- 
erature; free-hand, outline, and model drawing; shop details, simple 
l)rojection and geometrical construction; proper care and use of tools, 
carpentry, joiuery, and wood turning. 

The second year studies include geometry, chemistry, English lan- 
guage, EngUsh history and literature; shop details, orthographic pro- 
jections, isometric projection, iDrinciples of perspective, development of 
surfaces, machines from measurement; forging, welding, tempering, and 
tool making. 

In the third year the course comprises higher algebra, plane trigo- 
nometry, physics; English language, civil government, political econ- 
omy, or German; machine drawing, general i^lans, detailed working 
drawings, shop details, or architectural drawing, interior decorations, 
buildings from measurement, architectural perspective; chipping, filing, 
fitting, turning, drilling, planing, milling, construction of some ma- 
chine or machines. 

One-half of the pupils' time throughout the entire course is devoted 
to manual work, viz., two hours to shop work and one hour to drawing. 
The remaining half (three hours) is given to mathematics, sciences, 
and language equally. 

Tuition for the course of study is as follows: First year, $75; second 
year, $100; third year, $125. 

The carpenter shop of this school is equipped with 52 cabinetmak- 
ers' benches, 15 speed lathes, 1 rip and cross-cut circular saw, 1 grind- 
stone, 2 emery wheels, bench tools for 90 boys, turning tools for 42 boys. 

The blacksmith shop has 19 forges, 19 anvils, 2 vises, 1 blower, 1 ex- 
haust fan, 1 bellows; tongs, hammers, flatters, fullers, swages, etc., 
for 54 boys. 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 65 

There are now enrolled 152 scliolars, of whom 72 are in the first year, 
38 in the second, 25 in the advanced year, and the remaining 17 in pre- 
paratory or special classes. Of the whole nnniber, 29 enjoy the priv- 
ileges of free or i3artially free scholarshix)s, while from the remainder is 
received the snm of $10,500 in tnition fees. 

At Cleveland^ as early as Fehrnary 1885, instruction in carpentry 
was begun for the benefit of a few boys of the Central High School. 
The interest which these pujiils showed in the work attracted the atten- 
tion and enlisted the symi)athy of certain business men of the citj^, who 
at once formed a stock comi^any with a capital of $25,000, and were in- 
corporated June 2, 1885, under the title of the Cleveland Manual 
Training School Company. 

The school was opened for pupils early in February 1886. The 
state legislature soon after authorized the levying of a tax of one-fifth 
of a mill for the purposes of manual and domestic training. This tax 
amounts to about $16,000 5 and so manual training found its way into 
the public schools, all pupils being entitled to free tuition. 

On entrance pupils must be 14 years old and fitted for the high 
school 5 otherwise they must pass a written examination. 

The course of study in the Cleveland Manual Training School is 
briefly as follows : 

First year. — Free-hand, geometrical, and mechanical drawing j car- 
pentry, cabinet work, patternmaking, moulding, casting, care and use 
of tools, etc. 

Second year. — Geometrical and mechanical drawing j forge, vise, and 
machine work in iron and steel. 

Third year. — Mechanical drawing; machine work in metal, tool mak- 
ing, etc. 

Each lesson lasts three hours, and three lessons a week are required 
of each pupil. Six hours a week are spent in the shop and three hours 
at the draAving lessons. 

In September 1887, a cooking department was added to this school. 
The course in cooking for one term is as follows : 

First week: Lamb chops^ cranberries, mashed potatoes, oatmeal, 
baked api^les. 

Second week: Potato soup, scrambled eggs, turnips in white sauce, 
apple tapioca. 

Third week: Fish balls, milk toast, apple shortcake, cofiee. 

Fourth week: Mixing and baking bread and biscuit, tomato sou}3, 
steamed rice. 

Fifth week: Oyster stew, corn cake, toasted crackers, griddle cakes, 
lemon sirups. 

Sixth week : Corned beef hash, frying out fat, rye muffins, doughnuts. 

Seventh week: Beef stew, dumplings, chocolate, cookies. 

Eighth week : Creamed cod fish, French toast, cottage pudding, sauce. 
S. Ex. 65 5 



66 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Mnth week : CoUops or Hamburg steak, lyonnaise potatoes, apple 
pie, gingerbread. 

Teutli week : Green pea soup, fried fisb, potato balls, floating island, 
plain cake. 

The total number of students in the three classes of the school, in 
June 1891, was 172. Of these, 25 were in the third year class, 47 in the 
second year, and 100 in the first year. The whole number of graduates 
at the same dat<3 was 35. Seven had already gone into business and 
the remainder were x)ursuing advanced studies. 

Toledo has a famous manual training school, from, which 11 students 
were graduated in the summer of 1889, the fifth year of the school. 
Of the graduates, 6 were boys, 8 girls. Mr. G-eorge S. Mills, super- 
intendent of the training school, agrees with other promoters of manual 
instruction when he saj^s, ^*It is already proved that the manual train- 
ing school has a tendency to keep boys in the high school." The com^se 
covers four years, the pupils' time being about equally divided between 
mental and manual exercises. Eorty-five minutes per day are given to 
drawing, and from three-quarters to one and a half hours to shop work. 

For residents of Toledo instruction in the manual training school is 
free 5 a small charge for materia,l only being made as follows: For boys, 
the first year, $65 the second year, $7 5 the third and fourth years, $9 
each. For the girls, the first and second years, $6 eachj the third and 
fourth years, 1 9 each. 

~Of the 22 graduating in 1888, 16 are filling i)ositions as machinists, 
designers, draughtsmen or draughtswomen, instructors in shop work, 
domestic economy, etc. The class of 1889 was smaller, numbering 14. 
Of these, 1 has secured employment as a machinist, 1 as draughtsman 
for an engraver, and 1 as draughtswoman for a sanitary engineering 
firm. Seven, or one-half of all, have found positions to work. 

The department of domestic economy in this school is designed for 
the training of girls in applied housekeeping. The studies are identical 
with those imrsued by boys of the same grades, except that other forms 
of manual instruction are given. 

Thus, in the first year's course, the girls of the senior grammar class 
take lessons in light cari:)entry, wood carving, care and use of tools, 
and wood finishing. The second year embraces introduction to courses 
in plain sewing and garment cutting and making. The third years 
course embraces iustiuction in prei)aring and cooking food, purchasing 
household supplies, and chemistry of cooking. The fourth year, the 
girls receive lessons in cutting, making and fitting garments, household 
decorations, millinery, etc. 

The practical nature of the instruction given in the department of 
cookery may be inferred from the following programme: 

Boiling. — Elustrations of boiling and steaming, and treatment of 
vegetables, meats, fish, and cereals, soup making, etc. 

^ro^7^?^^,— Lessons and x)ractice in meat, chicken, fish, oysters, etc. 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 67 

Bread maldng. — Chemical and ineclianical action of materials used. 
Manipulations in bread making in its various departments. Yeasts 
and tlieir substitutes. 

BaJclng. — Heat in its action on different materials in tlie process of 
balviiig. Practical experiments in baking bread, pastry, puddings, 
cake, meats, fish, etc. 

Frying. — Chemical and mechanical principles involved and illustrated 
in the frying oi vegetables, meats, Ush, oysters, etc. 

Mixing. — The art of making combinations, as in soups, salads, pud- 
dings, pies, cakes, sauces, dressings, flavorings, condiments, etc. 

MarJceting and economy. — The selection and purchase of household 
supplies. General instructions in systematizing and economizing house- 
hold work and expenses. The anatomy of animals used as food, and 
ho^ to choose and use the several parts. Lessons on the qualities of 
water and steam; the construction of stoves and ranges j the properties 
of different fuels. 

The textile fabric work will include garment cutting and making, the 
economical and tasteful use of materials, miUinery, etc. 

PENNSYLVAlSnA. 

The Philadelphia Manual Training School, Seventeenth and Wood 
streets, opened in September 1885, has a faculty of thirteen professors 
and instructors. Like the Chicago school, it affords to pupils oppor- 
tunities to pursue the usual high school course in literature, science, 
and mathematics, combined with a thorough course in drawing, and in 
the use and application of tools in the industrial arts. 

The course of study lasts for three years. • One hour a day is devoted 
to drawing, two hours to shop work, and three to academic studies. 
The school has chemical, electrical, and physical laboratories, drawing 
and modelling rooms; and, in its mechanical department, woodworking 
shops with 54: cabinetmakers' benches, each supiDhed with a fall set of 
tools, and metal working shops with 12 forges and as many anvils, 36 
vises with full equii^ment of tools, apT)liances for foundery work, etc. 
In the senior class are 70 students; in the middle class, 111; and in 
the junior, 138. 

The l^ortheast School, Howard street, opened in 1890-'91, has a 
-faculty of nine professors and instructors. The equipments are similar 
to the Seventeenth and Wood streets school. It has 211 students 
enrolled in its different classes. 

In the spring of 1882 a beginning of manual instruction was made 
at Girard College in the branch of metal work. The experiment was 
successful, and it was decided to build more ample quarters tor the 
work. Accordingly, a building 55 by 155 feet and two stories high was 
put up on the college grounds, and, on December 9, 1884, opened for 
pupils. Since that date the use of wood working tools has been taught 



68 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

ill this institution^ and foundery work and blacksmitliing liave been 
introduced. Pupils are also tauglit meclianical and geometrical draw- 
ing. 

Prior to tlie introduction of wood working in 1884, according to tlie 
report of tlie trustees, only one-tliird of the boys on leaving college en- 
tered mechanical pursuits. Since that event two-thirds of the boys 
have obtained employment at mechanical occupations. 

In the report and catalogue for the year 1890, President Fetterolf 
says: 

Manual training prepares boys for the learning of a trade just as 
academic training prepares young men for professional study. 

This remark defines the use and the limitations of manual training 
in its relations to skilled labor, with clearness and, api3arently, with 
absolute justice. Manual training is merely preparatory discipline of 
the eye and hand, not trade teaching. 

Vice-President Gregory writes, June 20, 1891: 

Our pupils upon reaching certain classes are exjiected to attend the 
instruction in the mechanical department as regularly as that in arith- 
metic, or in any other study. 

There is an industrial annex of the public schools at Tidioute in 
which several phases of manual training are made available for educa- 
tional purposes. There are five departments of the work, indicating a 
very thorough organization : 

First. The primary department, where kindergarten methods pre- 
vail. 

Second. The drawing department. Mechanical drawing is taught in 
all grades, including the high school. 

Third. Floriculture, or the department of practical botany. In this 
department are arranged, in various ornamental designs, six beds 30 by 
40 feet; and the care of one of these is assigned to each room. Both 
boys and girls work at gardening, and learn something of the methods 
of cultivation of different varieties of plants. 

Fourth. The girls' department of domestic economy. 

Fifth. The boys' department of wood working, etc. 

In each of these departments the course embraces the work of three 
years. 

The workshop for boys is furnished for the practice of carpentryj 
wood turning, and work in tin, iron, etc. During the first year the boys 
work at carpentry in a shop furnished with 10 double benches, each of 
which is sux)plied with 2 vise^, a centre board, on each side of which 
hang 1 cross-cut saw, 1 rip-saw, 1 back-saw, 1 hammer, 1 bevel square, 
1 try-square, 1 mallet, 1 pair of compasses, 1 gauge, 1 oilstone, 1 oil-can, 
and 1 whisk broom. In the second year the wood lathe is used by the 
boys, and metal work comes in the final year. 

Wilkes Barre is ''tlie only city in northeastern Pennsylvania in 
which manual training forms a part of the i>ublic school system," says 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 69 

Mr. A. W. Potter, district superintendent of schools, in the sixth 
annual report (1888-'80). 

The cost of the plant is as follows: Tools, $75.50; benches, vises, 
stops, etc., $59.49. An expert instructor in joinery is secured for 
two half days each week at a salary of $16 a month. 

The course consists of the making of 20 models, viz., chiselling 
square and mitre cut; halved corner; ledge joint; cross-lap joint; 
mitre joint; mitre-lap joint; square butt; slip mortise and tenon; 
through mortise and tenon; secret-slip mortise and tenon ; blind mortise 
and tenon; brace-joint mortise and tenon ; halved dovetail; keyed dove- 
tail; dovetail butt; through dovetail; through end dovetail (one tenon); 
through end dovetail (three tenon); drawer dovetail; bevel dovetail. 

In ]N"ovember 1888, sewing was introduced, as a form of manual train- 
ing for girls, into the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth year grades 
of the Wilkes Barre schools. Friday afternoons from 3 to 4 o'clock were 
selected for instruction in this work. The regular teachers being 
required to give the instruction in sewing, it became necessary to have 
a well defined course and a set of models. The course outlined and 
illustrated by the Industrial Education Association of 'New York city 
was adopted. The instructions are explicit and the models examples 
of accuracy and neatness. 

There are 20 models used in this course also, viz., overhanding or top 
sewing on striped calico; overhanding on white mjjslin, two selvages; 
turning hem on colored paper; hemming on unbleached muslin with 
red thread; running by a thread; hemming on white muslin; over- 
casting; felling on unbleached muslin; felling on bleached muslin; 
gathering; buttonholes and buttons; gusset; herring-bone stitch on 
flannel; stocking darning; darning on cashmere; patching; tucking, 
whipx^iug, sewing on ruffle; feather-stitch; sampler; making simx)le gar- 
ments. 

RHODE ISLAND. 

In Ehode Island several cities have taken up manual training to a 
greater or less extent. During 1890 an industrial school for girls, which 
as a private enterprise had experimentally introduced sewing, dress- 
making, and cooking into some of the public schools, was incorporated 
with the public school system of Newport, the city voting to appropri- 
ate $3,000 yearly to its supi3ort. There is a dressmaking department 
and a cooking department, with a special teacher for each. Providence 
has been giving instruction in sewing to a large number of the girls 
in her schools. During the year 1891 out of $500,000 appropriated 
for new school buildings one- sixth was for a new manual training 
school. The new building will be thoroughly equipped for work in 
wood and iron, including blacksmithing. At Westerly drawing, stick 
laying, and modelling have been adopted in the various grades, and 
the results of the work are giving much satisfaction to the teachers. 



70 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

South Carolina has a number of schools for colored students in which 
some manual instruction is given. In the Schofield Normal and In- 
dustrial School, at Aikeuj about 200 i)upils of both sexes receive in- 
struction in sewing, carpentry, and printing as a means of discipline 
and education. In Porter Academy, at Charleston j Brainard Institute, 
at Chester; Benedict Institute and South Carolina University, at 
Columbia; and Claflin University, at Orangeburg, some degree of 
manual training is maintained. In the Winthrop Training School for 
Teachers, at Columbia, teachers are prepared for the teaching of ele- 
mentary manual exercises in connection with their other duties. The 
instruction given here consists of paper folding and cutting, paste- 
board work, clay modelling, and map moulding in sand and clay. 

TENNESSEE. 

At Knoxville a manual training course has been introduced into the 
public schools. The branches taught are carpentry, printing, sewing, 
and cooking. 

Knoxville College is under the care of the United Presbyterian 
Church of ]:»forth America, and is sustained mainly by contributions 
from the various congregations through the Board of Missions to the 
Freedmen . In its industrial department the ends of economy and readi- 
ness for life work are sought through industrial training. Housework, 
sewing, printing, and tool and machine work are the special subjects of 
instruction, together with gardening and farming. 

The catalogue states that a new building was to be completed in Sep- 
tember 1891, and in readiness for the ope^iing of the term. This build- 
ing will contain shops for work in wood and iton, drawing rooms, and 
laboratories for chemistry, botany, and agriculture. The building will 
be equipped with a boiler and engine and the necessary machinery and 
tools, and the laboratories will have a good outfit of apparatus. 

Le Moyne ISTormal Institute, at Memphis, places ma^nual training in 
the course of study on the same footing and treats it in every respect 
as of the same importance as any other branch of study. The girls of 
this school are taught needlework in all of its branches. Cooking, 
household hygiene, and nursing are also included in the course. The 
work comprises recitations and practice through ten years of the course 
of study. 

Wood working, typesetting, and printing are for the boys. The 
equipment of the wood working shop consists of 14 benches and as many 
sets of carpenter's tools. There are also several lathes in the shop. 
In the printing office the work has proved very successful, both in 
practical results and as a valuable auxiliary in the intellectual training 
of the school. The number of pupils for the year 1890-'91 was 708. 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 71 

Tlie Central Tennessee College^ of Nashville, is an institution sup- 
ported by the Freedmeu's Aid and Southern Education Society of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church. It has an industrial department, and, 
by the aid of the John F. Slater fund, it is enabled to give instruction 
in printing, carpentry, blacksinithing, tin work, wagon making, cook- 
ing, sewing, cutting and making garments, and millinery. Connected 
with this college there is a department of mechanical art training, 
Tviiose course of study occupies four years, and may be specialized by 
students desiring to learn a particular trade. 

Manual training has recently been introduced into the course of Fisk 
University, I^ashville. Printing and shop work x)ractice are the means 
used to secure the ends sought. The course runs through three years. 
Two hours each week are given to working in wood. The young women 
are taught nursing and hygiene, cooking, dressmaking, and plain sewing. 
V In the Morristown Normal Academy a moderate amount of man- 
ual training is given to the i)ux3ils. Girls are instructed in sewing, 
dressmaking^ millinery, and housekeeping in all its departments. The 
young men learn something of typesetting and printing. 

TEXAS. 

There is a department of industries in connection with Bishop College, 
Marshall. Students are required to work one hour each day at some 
kind of manual labor. A carpenter shop, a supply of tools, and an 
instructor have been provided, and a class of young men have been 
taking lessons in the elements of carpentry and the care of tools. The 
young women assist in the boarding department in preparing food for 
cooking, etc. They are also taught to sew. 

At Wiley University, also located at Marshall^ sewing, dressmaking, 
millinery, and nursing, with the whole art of housekeeping, are taught 
to young women, and printing office work is made available as a means 
of education to young men. It is an institution for colored people. 

VIRGINIA. 

The Miller Manual Labor School of Albemarle, at Crozet, Albemarle 
county, is a school founded for the education of ^'i)oor orphan and 
other white children whose parents shall be unable to educate them, 
the said orphans and other children being residents of the said county 
of Albemarle," according to the terms of the will by which Samuel 
Miller bequeathed over a million of dollars for the establishment and 
support of the Miller Manual Labor School. The fund so devised is 
held in trust by the Yirginia board of education, and the school is man- 
aged through the agency of the Albemarle county court. 

From a list of children eligible (under the will of Mr. Miller) to mem- 
bershii^ the court appoints the x)upils of the school. ISTone but resi- 
dents of Albemarle county can be appointed 5 but those that secure 
appointment are clothed, fed, taught, and cared for by the school. 



iZ REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

The first i^iipils were admitted to this school in October 1878^ twenty 
in number. It was at first hard to persuade the friends of the children 
to allow appointments to be made under the conditions imposed by the 
Miller testament; but in 1892 there was an enrolment of 266 pui3ils. 

In August 1884, a department was organized for the instruction ot 
girls J and the first girls were admitted to the school in November 1884. 

Most pupils enter the primary department of the school, not being 
sufficiently advancexl to begin in the higher grades. In the academic 
department there are five classes, each of which is given one year. The 
courses of study for the boys and girls are different. 

The boys' course is as follows : 

Fifth {lowest) class. — Arithmetic, English, reading and dictation, 
physical geography and scientific knowledge, farm work, printing, and 
free-liand drawing. 

Fourth class. — Algebra, English, Latin, zoology and botauy, woojd 
work, farm work, free-hand drawing, and bookkeeping. 

Third class. — Algebra, English, Latin or German or French, botany 
and i^hysiology, mechanical drawing, foundery and forge practice. 

Second class. — Geometry, physics, Latin and German, chemistry, 
mechanical drawing, and shop practice in iron work, or laboratory 
work in either chemistry or biology. 

First class. — Trigonometry, mechanics, Latin and German, agricul- 
ture or industrial chemistry or mineralogy and geology, mechanical 
drawing, special shop i)ractice or laboratory work in biology, and chem- 
istry or i)hysics. 

The girls' course includes — 

Fifth class. — English, arithmetic, reading and dictation, physical 
geography and scientific knowledge, plain hand and machine sewing, 
housework, and free-hand drawing. 

Fourth class. — English, arithmetic, Latin, zoology and botany, dress- 
making, cutting and fitting, housework, and free-hand drawing. 

Third class. — English, arithmetic and algebra, Latin or German or 
French, botany and physiology, dressmaking, cutting and fitting, 
housework, cooking, and wood carving or designing or free-hand 
drawing. 

Second c/^tss.-— Chemistry, algebra and geometry, Latin and German, 
physics, dressmaking, cutting and fitting, housework, cooking, and 
wood carving or designing or drawing, or laboratory work in chem- 
istry or biology. 

First class. — Literature, geometry, Latin and German, industrial 
chemistry or mineralogy and geology, dressmaking, cutting and fitting, 
housework, cooking, and wood carving or designing or drawing, or 
laboratory work in chemistry or biology. 

Some interesting details of the work of the school have been drawn 
from its r export. The unique character of this institution justifies a 
somewhat extended notice of its courses. 

The course of instruction in the wood working department of the Mil- 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 73 

ler sctiool requires tliat 12 hours per week for 40 weeks shall be devoted 
to this branch. Of these 480 hours, 80 are devoted especially to car- 
pentry and joinery, 80 to turning, and 80 to carving. The remaining 240 
hours are equally divided between cabinetmaking and patter nmaking. 

Car^pentry and joinery, — Instruction in this branch is given in the 
bench room. The use and care of tools are taken first. The principles 
ux>on which such are constructed and some of their uses are thoroughly 
explained. These are illustrated by exercises specially designed to 
show the use of the tool under consideration. The exercise is explained 
to the class by the instructor, after which each member is required to 
do it himself. After an exercise or exercises have been given on each 
of the tools, instruction is given in the construction of a number of 
joints used in framing buildings, etc. One of each of these is made by 
each member of the class. 

From the first the class is taught to work from drawings which are 
put upon the blackboard. Unless each exercise is reasonably well 
made, the pupil is required to do it agrin and again, if necessary, till it 
is done with reasonable accuracy. The classes are also taught to keep 
the tools in order. 

Turning. — In the same manner as before the use and care of ea(?h 
tool are taught. After a number of exercises illustrating the use of the 
tools are given and completed, designs of various styles are given, be- 
coming more difQcult as the members of the class become more skilful. 
A number of exercises is given in face-plate and chuck work. 

Carving. — This is taught in the same manner as the other two, the 
designs given becoming more elaborate as the members of the class be- 
come better acquainted with the use of the tools. 

CaMnetmahing. — This is the actual manufacture of useful articles of 
furniture. In this branch the pupil has the opportunity to apply the 
principles taught in the three branches which go before. Particular at- 
tention is paid to the way in which the work is put together. As the 
sole object is to teach and not to make money, no time and pains are 
spared to see that the work is not simply for outward appearance. 
Every piece which is accepted is substantial and well made through- 
out. 

Patter nmalcing. — As it requires a lifetime to become skilful in this 
branch of work in wood, and as it is impossible to be an expert 
patternmaker without understanding the art of moulding, only a few 
of the underlyiDg princii^les can be taught. The class is taught how 
to make a number of small patterns, core-boxes, etc., while at the same 
time the method of moulding each one is thoroughly explained. 

Forge andfoundery worli. — The first -things taught in the brass foun- 
dery are the names of the different tools and how they are used. The 
student is then shown how a mould is made and where mistakes are 
likely to occur, and what effect these mistakes would have on the 
finished casting. As soon as these things are thoroughly understood 



74 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

tlie student is givea the simplest kind of i3atteru and is required to 
mould it. When successful he is given a pattern which is a little more 
difficult; and so on until he has become tolerably proficient in the 
moulding of small articles. He is then required to cast his moulds, 
first in zinc, on account of its low melting i)oint and the ease with 
which it can be handled, and then in brass. At this point instruction 
is given in the mixing of brass and bronze, showing what mixtures 
will produce a hard, soft, or fluid alloy, as may be required. The time 
spent in the brass foundery is about five weeks. 

The class then goes to the iron foundery, where instruction is given in 
snap moulding, moulding in large flasks, ramming, venting, the use of 
gaggers, chaplets, core-making, facings, their composition and how and 
when to use them, where lines of weakness in castings are likely to 
occur^ the elements of dry and loam sand moulding, and other subjects 
which come up during the course. After the above is thoroughly 
understood, instruction is given in the construction and management 
of the cupola, each boy in turn being required to take charge of a 
melting. 

Among the things made so far this session. 1891-92, are the castings 
for 12 wood working lathes, 1 slate machine, 1 rattle barrel, 10 stop 
cock boxes, 10 wash room sinks, 1 ton grate bars for boiler room, 20 
cast iron steps for stairs in main building, 1 circular stairway for 
engine room, and several tons of other castings which were made for 
I)ractice and have been remelted. 

Blaclismitli tuorlt. — In order that the student may get a correct and 
rapid idea of form and proportion, and also thoroughly familiarize 
himself with the use of the hammer, the first operations in forging are 
X)erformed in lead instead of iron, which acts under the hammer very 
much as hot iron does and iDermits the operations of forging with the 
exception of welding and ux:)setting. The time devoted to lead work 
is about 30 hours. 

The use and care of the fire is then taught, the different kinds of 
fires, and which to use for certain kinds of work. Good work can not 
be done without a good, clean firej therefore the importance of this is 
carefully impressed on the student's mind. 

]^ext follows a systematic course of drawing, upsetting, bending, 
punching, and welding. Before finishing iron forging each student is 
required to make a set of tongs for the use of the next class. 

Metal vjorli. — Eegular instruction in this department is given to ^o. 
2 class on the first three days of the week, four hours each day, during 
the whole session. Special instruction is given to those members of 
Iso. 1 class who desire to take a fuller course than that given in the 
regular way. 

Instruction is given in bench and machine work in cast kon, wrought 
iron, steel, and brass, by means of a course of graded exercises em- 
bracing the principles of machine construction. Each exercise. is suj)- 
plemented by something of mechanical value. 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 75 

Before commencing work ou any machine a thorougli explanation is 
given to tlie class of tlie methods of operating and adjusting all parts, 
giving the technical terms used "to distinguish them. In this division 
instruction is given in chipping, filing, scraping, polishing, measuring, 
graduating, drilling, reaming, etc. 

One boy is detailed from the metal working class each week, who is 
engineer for that week, and he is required to give all necessary atten- 
tion to the engines, besides taking indicator cards each day, setting 
valves, calculating horse power, etc. 

The industrial training of the girls' department consists in instruc- 
tion and i^ractice in dressmaking, including cutting and fitting by 
measurement, plain hand and machine sewing, cooking, housework, 
stenography, typewriting, bookkeeping, wood carving, and drawing. 

In the sewing department the gMs are divided into four classes ac- 
cording to age, and each class in turn is taught all the different kinds 
of sewing, from darning stockings to cutting, fitting, and making a 
stylish dress. The first class is instructed in dressmaking, including 
cutting and fitting by measurement, and has amx)le practice in this line 
by actually cutting and fitting their own dresses and the dresses of 
other girls. The second class has for its si)ecific work the making of 
the most difiicult x)arts of garments which have been cut and fitted by 
the first class, and begins the rudiments of cutting and fitting. The 
third class receives instruction and practice in x)lain hand and machine 
sewing, and does the plain sewing for the department. The fourth 
class, or youngest, is taught to hem, fell, backstitch, and to make 
buttonholes, and does the darning and mending for the department. 
In addition to the foregoing lines of sewing, the girls learn to make a 
great variety of fancy articles in crochet work and embroidery. It will 
be seen from the above that as a girl grows older she learns all the 
different kinds of sewing, and that the practice in these results in the 
doing of a great deal of Avork which would otherwise have to be hired 
out. 

The girls have constant practice in house cleaning, such as scrub- 
bing, dusting, sweeping, fire making, and dining room work, including 
dish washing, setting tables, cleaning silver, etc. 

In the cooking department the girls are instructed and practised in 
IDreserving, pickling, and canning fruits and vegetables. 

Other branches of manual training are taught to the girls, such as 
modelling and wood carving. 

A garden of 50 acres is cultivated by the pupils, and each boy learns 
the best methods of planting, fertilizing, and tending vegetables and 
small fruits. The farm connected with this school yielded the following 
products in the year 1891: Hay, 121 tons; corn, 2,650 bushels; oats, 
80 tons; ensilage, 176 tons; pork, 9,762 i)ounds; milk, 119,828 pounds. 

In the school year 1891-'92 there were on the roll of the school 173 
boys and 93 guis. The whole number of those who have enjoyed the 



76 



EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



benefits of the sciiool since its organization is 592 — 469 boys and 123 
girls. 

The published report of the school gives a list of the graduates, with 
post office address and occui)ation of each. The total number of grad- 
uates reported is 305. Of this number 23 have died, and in the case of 
42 the occupations are unknown. Below we give a summary of the 
occupations of the remaining 240. 



OCCUPATION'S or GEADUATES Or THE MILLEE MAITUAL LABOR SCnOOL. 


Occupation. 


Grad- 
uates. 


Occupation. 


Grad- 
uates. 




2 
7 
7 
7 

13 
2 

32 
6 
5 
5 

23 
3 
3 




31 


Brakeroen .-. --• .... ..... 


Machinists. 


27 




Painters 


2 




Printers 


5 


CfirpcntGrs ......... . ... 


Professors (chemistry, mechanical engi- 
neering), 
students 


3 






ClerTss bookkeepers etc .. ....... 


9 


Drpu flitsnieii .......... 


Superintendent, cotton mill 


1 




TeachervS 


6 


Engineers electric li°'ht ....... . 


Telegraph operators 


4 






37 


TfirpmPTi 


Total 






240 









Industrial training for young women is provided for in Hartshorn 
Memorial College of Eichmond. This does not mean a training for ser- 
vants in the kitchen, the chamber, or the laundry, but rather in that 
knowledge of common things, that disciplined attention, that training 
of the eye, that cunning of the fingers, which makes the mastery of all 
things possible. 

The instruction includes the physiology and hygiene of woman^s 
physical life; the sanitary and housewifely care of a house — of the 
sleepingrooms, of the kitchen and pantry, of the bath room, of the cellar, 
of the parlor J plain sewing, patching, darning, knitting; the arts of 
the laundry; the use of detergents ; soap making; plain cooking; bread 
making and bread raising preparations; the selection and cooking of 
meats; of vegetables; cake and pastries; healthful and unhealthful 
foods; economy in cooking; the principles of nursing and the care of 
the sick; cooking for the sick; causes and prevention of sickness; the 
care of clothing; of cotton and linen; of woollen, silks, and furs; the 
cutting and fitting of plain garments; principles of health and of taste 
and beauty in dressing; decorative needlework and knitting; the care 
of children. 

The president, the Eev. Lyman B. Tefffc, writes under date of July 
20, 1891: ''Our industrial training is incidental to our training of 
teachers and religious workers." 

WISCONSIN. 

The State Normal School at White Water employs manual training 
as an adjunct of educational work. 

A small w^orkshop, begun a few years ago as an experiment, affords 
limited means for instruction and practice in the use of wood working 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 77 

tools, and lias proved a valuable adjunct of the scientific department. 
Members of the class in physics spend 4 hours each week, for 20 weeks, 
in learning the nse of the fundamental tools and how to construct 
simi^le apparatus. 

The State ]N"ormal School at Milwaukee also adox)ts manual training 
to a limited extent. Boys from the model school of this iiistitution 
receive instruction in sloid. This is an admirable exemplification of 
the adaptability of carpentry to the lower grades of the public schools. 
There is opportunity offered, also, to students of the normal school to 
participate in this work. 

CONFERENCE ON MANUAL TRAINING. 

The conference on manual training held in Boston, April 8-11, 1891, 
may hero receive appropriate notice. This we believe to have been the 
first general conference in America on this subject, but the report of 
the x^roceedings indicates that the teachers of the United States have 
well matured thoughts concerning the question, and that many of thein 
have had exr)erience in the new educational movement which qnalifies 
them to speak with some authority, and entitles them to a respectful 
and attentive hearing. It is fortunate that the i)apers read at the sev- 
eral sessions of the Boston gathering have be^n collected and published 
in full, together with a phonographic report of the discussions called 
forth by the essays presented. 

The conference was ' held in the English High School building at 
Boston. It was called to order by Mr. Edwin P. Seaver, and i)resided 
over by Dr. Samuel Eliot, who, in his opening address, said with per- 
tinence and force : 

Manual training is to be judged by its results, and the results gath- 
ered together here will persuade a great many x)ersons that it is 
worthy of a far more respectful consideration than it has yet received. 

G-overnor Ens sell was then introduced. He siDoke briefly of the 
Eindge Manual Training School of Cambridge. This school ijrovided, 
he said, that — 

Boys upon graduation from the grammar school, at the age of about 
13 or 14, should have the option to enter the manual school and get 
manual instruction in connection with high school studies. Their time 
was divided between the two schools. At the high school they pursued 
the usual studies, such as mathematics and i)hysics, and at the manual 
school they were taught carpentry and joinery, forging, machine work, 
patternmaking, drawing, and other manual studies. * .* «= 

Such education should be made a part of our public school system, 
open to all * * * then making it optional to the i^upil, rather than 
comi)ulsory. 

President Ehot, of Harvard College, spoke in his usual incisive man- 
ner. He said in part : 

I am old enough to remember when the brain was sui)posed to be 
the seat of the mind, just as the luugs were held to be the furnace 
that warms the body. I remember being taught that the animal heat 



78 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

was kept up in tlie lungs, but we all know better now. We know tliat 
wherever an atom is consumed, in whatever part of the body, there 
heat is generated, and, therefore, that the animal heat pervades the 
whole organism. It is just so with regard to the human mind; it per- 
vades the body. It is not in the head, but it is all over the body; and, 
when you train the hand, or the eye, or the ear, you train the mind. 
As Governor Eussell said, manual training is mental training. Never 
admit that manual training is anything distinguished from, or in op- 
position to, mental training. In the skill of the artist's hand, in the 
methodical, accurate movement of the mechanic's arm, in the acute ob- 
ser^'ation through the x>hysician's eye or ear, there is always mind. 
Therefore, there is no opposition between manual training on the one 
hand and mental training on the other. We are simph^ training another 
kind of faculty — not memory, but discriminating observation and cor- 
rect perception. * * * 

Manual training is in the experimental stage. We have not yet 
learned whether carpentry is a better me^ns of giving training in cor- 
rect observation and in the nice use of finger and eye than chemical 
experimentation or physical experimentation with instruments of pre- 
cision, such as are now used even in elementary instruction. 1 do not 
think the better way is as yet demonstrated, but teachers and stu- 
dents are pushing these inquiries in high schools, manual training- 
schools, and scientific schools, and are in a fair way to arrive, in time, 
at just conclusions. 

Dr. Felix Adler made an address at the second day's session, on the 
Educational Yalue of Manual Training in the Public Schools. We 
quote a few of his suggestive utterances : 

Manual training has a history in other countries outside the United 
States, and if we consult the French exi)eriment we shall be impressed 
by the degree of success which has already been achieved in that 
country. The very fact that manual training is being rapidly intro- 
duced into many of the French public schools is a remarkable testi- 
mony in its favor, because the system there is not guided after the 
haphazard fashion of this country, where every town has its own 
board of education, and where those boards are not usually composed 
of experts. 

The educational system of France is governed by a national coun- 
cil, consisting of some of the most eminent men of science to be found 
in that country. Every step that is taken is carefully and fully con- 
sidered, every trifling innovation is the subject of earnest investiga- 
tion. If, therefore, manual training has met with remarkable success 
in France, that is testimony in its favor which should not be ignored. 

Other interesting addresses were made by distinguished education- 
ists : but we have space to introduce only a few si)ecimens of the wise 
and weighty utterances with which the volume containing the report is 
filled. 

For example, when Mr. D. W. Jones, master of Lowell School, Boston, 
said, ''We welcome this manual training just so far as it is an educational 
])ower, and no farther," he expressed, in the most concise terms, the 
l^revalent idea of the teaching fraternity as to the proj)er function and 
the limitations of manual instruction. 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUOATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 79 

So, too, when Col. T. W. Higginson said, in liis pregnant speech : 

We recognize that tlie whole thing is as yet only half developed. 
AVe must go away with that understanding, that each locality has got 
to work it out in detail for itself, to try its own experiments, avail itself 
of its own failures, take its own material, use it as it can, and by and 
by it will be developed into something like a cohesive and systematic 
form, as our regular high school trainiug maybe said to be by this time, 
where men are w^orking on the same lines and know what those lines 
are. In manual training we are all working experimentally. 

In the profound and carefully prepared paper of Prof. S. IST. Patten, 
of the University of Pennsylvania, also, the necessity of teaching do- 
mestic economy in our public schools is urged with loeculiar eloquence. 
We quote one of his remarks on this subject: 

In better economy of what we produce, we have a key to our indus- 
trial problems; and here, more than anywhere else, our practical en- 
deavors can produce results if we work up the matter systematically. 
Give the laborers an education of the kind which will have a direct in- 
fluence upon their consumption, and the solution of other educational 
problems will be much simx)]er than it now is. 

The address of Prof. O. E. Kichards, of the Pratt Institute, on Means 
and Methods of Manual Training, and the historical sketch of the Origin 
of Mechanic Art Teaching by Prof. J. D. Eunkle, of the Massachusetts 
Institute of Technology, are exceptionally rich in suggestivenessj and 
this is true, also, of the valuables paper read by Prof. Eobert H. Eichards, 
of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, on Manual Training as an 
Inspiration to Mental Development, in which the author recalls some of 
his own personal experiences by way of illustration. 

We can not refrain from copying the sententious expression of the 
Eev. C. G. Ajnes, who, in the closing address, said: ^'The best iDart of 
our education comes not so much from knowing as applying knowledge 
to action f a thought whose full im^iort should be felt in schools of 
every grade and kind. 

The discussions at the Boston conference embraced a wider range of 
topics than the reporters at the German congresses have usually con- 
sidered, at least, in recent years. The reason is, doubtless, that de- 
bate on the subject is more of a novelty with us than with the people 
of continental Europe, where every phase of the question of manual 
training has been under investigation for years, aod where settled con- 
clusions have been reached concerning many matters, which, in America, 
are yet suJ) judicc^ and vfhich, moreover, in this country involve other 
conditions and require more careful adjustment than under European 
governments. 

TEADE AND TEOHjSTIOAL SCHOOLS. 

Totally different from the manual training schools in aims and meth- 
ods are the institutions of a trade and technical character. The 
manual training school, as h.as been seen, aims at directing, by courses 
of mental and manual exercises, the develoiDment of all the powers of 



80 KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

tlie individual, tlie single educational purpose being always kept in 
view. Tlie trade and teclinical schools, on tlie other hand, aim at such 
special development as will give a mastery of some particular craft. 
Unlike many of the manual training schools none of those for trade 
and technical training are parts of the public school system. The 
School of Industrial Art at Philadelphia is the only one of its class, so 
far as known, that has received any assistance from a state approx)ria- 
tion. But no extended summary of the aims and characteristics of the 
trade and technical schools need be made. Schools of these classes 
are not so numerous, nor their methods so various, that any elaborate 
analysis is necessary to make clear the differences in their aims or in 
the work for which they are organized. All this will be easily under- 
stood by comparison, of the statements for the several schools. 

NEW YORK TRADE SCHOOLS. 

In 1881 the ISTew York Trade Schools were established in E'ew York 
city, at the corner of First avenue and Sixty-eighth street, by Col. 
Eichard T. Auchmuty, a gentleman of means who has given much 
attention to labor problems. His investigation of the questions in- 
volved led to certain definite conclusions, and these he proceeded to 
put into practical form by founding schools for the purpose of giving 
young men instruction in certain trades, and to enable young men 
already in their trades to improve themselves. 

Here courses of instruction are given at very moderate charges in 
bricklaying, x)lastering, plumbing, carx)entry, house, sign, and fresco 
painting, stone cutting, blacksmithing, tailoring, and printing. There 
are both day and evening classes. The thoroughness of the instruction 
given in each of these trades, it is claimed, leaves nothing to be desired 
For example, in the bricklaying class the manual instruction will be in 
building 8, 12, and 16-inch walls j in turning corners and building walls 
intersecting at different angles; in building piers, arches, flues, fire- 
places; in setting sills and lintels; in corbelling, etc. 

The scientific instruction is upon the strength of walls, construction 
of flues, thrust of arches, mixing and properties of mortar, cement, etc 
The scientific instruction is given by means of lectures illustrated by 
experiments, and by carefully prepared manuals. 

In the bricklaying classes the young men are taught first how to 
handle the trowel and how to spread mortar. After this they are prac- 
tised on 8 and 12 inch walls. When these can be carried up plumb 
and the courses laid level, the class is put upon Avails returned at right 
angles, piers, arches, fireplaces, and flues. Great care is exercised 
that each brick is properly laid, and that the joints are neatly pointed. 
ISTo attempt is made to work fast until towards the close of the course, 
when an hour is given, at stated intervals, to ascertain how many 
brick each member of the class can lay in that time in a workmauUke 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 81 

manner on a straight wall. The brick work is carried up as liigli as 
the young men can conveniently workj it is then torn down, and the 
bricks cleaned to he used again. Before an exerci&e is commenced, the 
instructors show how it should be done. The young men are then re- 
quired to practice under the constant supervision of the instructors 
until they can do the work well. 

The course of instruction in this department extends through nearly 
six months for the evening classes. The tuition costs $18 for the course. 
The evening class is limited to 100 young men. 

The prospectus of the school makes some interesting statements in 
regard to the work of the young men. Members of the class of 1883-'81, 
after finishing their course of instruction, were employed by the pro- 
prietor of the Kew York Trade Schools to build three stores on One- 
hundred and twenty-fifth street, near Fifth avenue. Many members 
of the classes of 1884-^85 and of 1885-'86 were employed by the pro- 
prietor of the schools to build the large apartment house on the corner 
of Kinety-third street and Mnth avenue. The members of the class 
of 1885-'86 also built four houses on Sixty-eighth street, between First 
and Second avenues. The additions to the ISTew York Trade Schools 
and five houses on Sixty-eighth street were built by members of the 
class of 1887-^88. Much work has also been done by members of later 
classes, both on additions to the trade schools and on other buildings. 
A calculation is made of the number of brick laid each fortnight, and 
the young men^s wages are graded accordingly. Nearly all the brick 
of these buildiugs, except the face brick, were laid by young men who 
could not handle a trowel when they joined the schools, six months 
before being employed. Much of the face brick vv^ork on the buildiugs 
erected the last three seasons was done by former graduates of the 
schools. These buildiugs have attracted great attention from mechan- 
ics and those interested in training the young men of this country in 
the mechanic arts. It would be difficult to find more thorough or better 
work. The lines are true, each joint is straight and neatly struck. 

The Philadelphia Builders' Exchange sent a committee last year to 
insi)ect these buildings and the work on exhibition at the ^ew York 
Trade Schools. So favorable a report was made that it was decided to 
establish trade schools in Philadelphia. 

Equal facilities are afforded for learning the other trades taught in 
this school, and equal thoroughness characterizes the instruction given. 

A circumstance of peculiar significance in connection with the tail- 
oring department of the Auchmuty school deserves to be specially' 
mentioned, namely, that the tailoring class is managed by the Mer- 
chant Tailors' Society of Kcav York. 

The object of the Merchant Tailors' Societj^ in establishing a school 
of tailoring is to teach the trade thoroughly in all its parts. The 
school is under the supervision of first class teachers, who are practical 
S. Ex. 65 6 



82 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

tailors and understand every detail of the trade. Instruction is given 
throughout the year from 8.30 a. m. to 4.30 p. m., with one hour inter- 
mission at noon, except Saturday. 

The cost of tuition is $100, payable in advance, for the entire course 
of two years, or less, if the pupil is found proficient by the examining 
committee. 

The instruction is graded as follows : 

First grade. — Plain seams, back and side stitching j felling, stoating, 
padding collar and lapels j single and double stitched edges,- binding 
and flat braided edges. 

Second grade. — Piping and cording of all kinds j tacking x)0ckets of 
all kinds, raw edges and pockets of aU kinds. 

Third grade. — Buttonholes of all kinds and sewing on buttons j 
sleeve cuffe of all kinds; fancy sewing of all kinds j making and finish- 
ing all kinds of fronts, lapels, and collars. 

Fourth grade. — The pupil to be placed with finishing tailor on coats, 
pantaloons, and waistcoats. 

When a pupil in the tailoring class has finished the course and 
passed a satisfactory examination, he receives a certificate of pro- 
ficiency — not from the school, but from the Merchant Tailors' Society, 
a source which gives it peculiar value. 

To accommodate the students of the E'ew York Trade Schools, Col. 
Auchmuty has erected the building I^To. 300 East Sixty-seventh street, 
where comfortable, well furnished rooms are rented at $2 per week for 
single rooms and $3 per week for double rooms with two beds. This 
includes lights and attendance. The building is within a few minutes' 
walk of the schools, and is in charge of a resi^ectable family. Meals 
can be had in neighboring houses and restaurants at from $3 to $3.50 
per week. 

The institution is not pecuniarily x^rofitable to its proprietor, nor is 
it self supporting. The receipts of the ]^ew York Trade Schools last 
season from i)upils and the sale of old material were $12,343.55. The 
expenses, exclusive of interest on cost of land and buildings, taxes, and 
insurance, were $21,868.09. 

The attendance in successive years has been as follows ; First sea- 
son, 30 J second season, 98 j third season, 207 j fourth season, 198 ^ fifth 
season, 304^ sixth season, 337 j seventh season, 409^ eighth season, 369 j 
ninth season, 520^ tenth season, 589,- eleventh season, 541. 

The Xew York Trade School Journal is a publication devoted to the 
'interests of the proprietor and apprentices of the ]S"ew York Trade 
Schools. The first number of the Journal (for December 1892), whose 
mechanical make-up represents the skill of the printing class of 1893, 
is a creditable piece of typographical art. 

Ou its first page, under the heading. How the Graduates Succeed, 
are given extracts from the record book of the Auchmuty schools, con- 
taining reports from 48 recent graduates as to their occupations, 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 83 

wages, etc. From tliese letters it appears that the graduates gener- 
ally receive journeymen's wages at their respective trades within a 
few months after leaving the schools. 

SCHOOL OF THE PHILADELPHIA BUILDERS' EXCHANGE. 

As an illustration of what may be accomplished by associations and 
corporate bodies in the way of establishing apprentice schools, we 
may cite the example of the Philadelphia Master Builders' Exchange. 
Eeference has been made to the visit of a committee of this exchange 
to the 'New York Trade Schools. Mr. Charles Gillingham, of the Phil- 
adelphia organization, gives the following sketch of the sequel to that 
visit : 

At the first meeting of the board after the visit to New York, which 
was on the 8th of May, a committee on mechanical trade schools was 
appointed, composed * * * Qf three members representing each of 
the seven trades to be taught in the school. It was deemed inadvisable 
to take any active steps for the organization of the school until after 
the completion of the new building, and as that was not accomplished 
until October 1889 * * * the work was quietly proceeded with un- 
til about one year ago. Then, however, the committee took off their 
coats and went to work in earnest. On the 18th of March, 1890, they 
made an official visit to the ]!S'ew York Mechanical Trade School and 
to the Pratt Institute of Brooklyn, thereby obtaining much valuable 
information, which enabled them to proceed with their work. 

A superintendent was selected, the basement of the exchange was 
fitted up at a cost of $1,629.58, and tools were purchased to the amount 
of $1,481.25. The fact that the school was to be opened under the man- 
agement of the Builders' Exchange of Philadelphia was widely made 
known through the advertising columns of the daily papers, and applica- 
tions for scholarships were received to the encouraging extent of 295, the 
applicants signifying their preference as to the branch of trade in which 
they desired tuition. As the options ran largely to a few of the trades 
contem]3lated, namely, plumbing, bricklaying, and carpentry, it was 
impossible to accommodate more than 129 xmpils. 

The next work of the committee was to select nine instructors in the 
various trades, and the school was opened on the evening of September 
2, 1890. The 129 pupils, each of whom pays $18 per term of nine months, 
were apportioned among the several branches of trade as follows : Plumb- 
ing, 61 j bricklaying, 31; carpentry, 21 j blacksmithing, 7; stone cut- 
ting, 3; painting, 3; and plastering, 3. 

Col. Auchmuty, whose beneficence is not confined within the limits 
of his own city, has subscribed towards the expenses of the Philadeli)hia 
school the sum of $3,000 per annum for three years. The exchange 
has accepted the gift, but the school promises soon to become self sup- 
porting. 

The first year's course of instruction in the Philadelphia trade schools 
having been completed in June 1891, the occasion was observed with 
fitting graduation ceremonies. The following extracts from the editorial 
columns of the city newspapers are of interest, as showing what has been 



84 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

accomplislied witliiii the year^ and as indicating the attitude of the press 
in relation to the movement : 

The graduates numbered 62 out of classes with pupils numbering 129, 
the great difference being accounted for in the fact that many of the 
young men failed to api)ly for examination. These were divided among 
the building trades as follows: Plastering, 3; painting, 2; stone cut- 
ting, 3; blacksmi thing, 4;. carpentry, 14; plumbing, 27; bricklaying, 9. 
Among the remarks made on the occasion of the graduation exercises 
were the following significant ones by Col. A. K. McGlure: "The great 
want of this age is American mechanics. We are losing each year. 
Our mechanics, instead of becoming better, are becoming worse. In- 
stead of artists they have been degenerating in attainments of skill 
and in their mechanical profession. The great mistake is that they do 
not respect their own calling, and therefore others do not respect them. 
Every mechanic should be an artist and master of his trade. He should 
start out with the resolve to leave nothing unlearned in his particular 
calling. If they did that they could make their own terms, as they 
woi^ld be worth much more than they are today." 

Other speakers praised the Master Builders' Exchange for inaugurat- 
ing the school, which it was predicted would become a great auxiliary 
to the public school system. 

After commenting on the exercises^ the Philadeli:)hia Times said : 

The special need of the country today is educated mechanics; that 
is, a class of skilled industry that is more than mechanical in its aims 
and attainments, a class that is artistic in everything pertaining to its 
calling. We have plenty of men in all trades who imitate the mechan- 
ical routine they have learned, but the thorough mastery of our me- 
chanical trades is well nigh a lost art in the United States, and the 
result is that foreigners are now very largely filhng the more responsi- 
ble and lucrative mechanical positions in America. 

One of the most unfortunate and unwise theories of our trade unions 
is that which hinders the free and thorough apprenticeship system of 
olden times. The only x>ractical result is a steady lowering of the 
standard of mechanical skill and fidelity and the intrusion of countless 
comijetitors from foreign lands and from the imperfect teachings of 
rural industries. Our printers are crowded with rural type-setters, 
many of whom never had an opportunity to learn the art of printing, 
an.d what is true of the printers, admittedly one of the most intelligent 
class of mechanics, is equally true of nearly every mechanical pursuit 
in the land. In machinery American mechanism leads the world, but 
in most other mechanical callings the comx3lete, artistic mechanic comes 
from foreign countries, where education and thorough apprenticeship 
yet rule in mechanism. 

INSTITUTE FOR COLORED "S-OUTH. 

The Institute for Colored Youth in Philadelphia was chartered by the 
state of Pennsylvania in 1842, on the foundation of a bequest by Mr. 
Eichard Humphreys, whose will provided for the establishment of a 
school ^'having for its object the benevolent design of instructing the 
descendants of the African race in school learning, in the various 
branches of the mechanic arts and trades, and in agriculture, in order 
to prepare, fit, and qualify them to act as teachers." 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 85 

An iudiistrial department was finally opened in connection with tlie 
scliool, and in the year 1889 instruction was commenced in the trades 
of carpentry, brickhiyiug, shoemaking, printing, dressmaking, milli- 
nery, etc. 

At the close of the year 1891 there were 108 males and 151 females 
enrolled in this department. Concerning the nsefulness of the instruc- 
tion in this school the report says : 

It is sometimes asked whether the industrial training is of any real 
practical value. A few particulars of the work done by our pupils 
will, we think, answer the query satisfactorily. 

The statistics show that up to twelfth month last the shoemaking 
class, which has averaged about 21 members, and works about five 
hours a week, had made on actual orders received 44 pairs of shoes 
and had done 187 jobs of repairing. * * * 

The bricklaying class has made a most excellent showing. It also 
numbers about 20 members. One man, who was making 87 a week at 
opening oysters before he learned this trade in our school, can now easily 
average $3.25 a day at jobbing, and at one time had in his employ as 
many as five men, three of whom were also our scholars. His work 
has included cementing several cellars, building chimneys, setting 
rauges, rei)airing, etc. Another man who had been working as a 
laborer now averages as jobber $3.50 a day. Still another of our 
scholars, among his other work, built a church edifice at Eighth and 
Sycamore streets, Camden. This building is 40 by 60 feet and 20 feet 
high to the square, with a 20-foot peaked gable at each end. It con- 
tains upwards of 75,000 bricks. Six young men, five of them scholars 
of the industrial school, assisted in the work. 

The i^rinters also have made satisfactory progress. A monthly 
report is made to the board of managers of the aflairs of the industrial 
department, which is now regularly printed in the school. Last year's 
annual report was also the work of this class, and it is expected that 
the present report will also be printed by them. In addition to this 
work the class has completed a large number of orders for bill heads, 
advertisements, business cards, and other similar work. 

These three branches are mentioned as giving the best illustrations 
of the practical results of the industrial training, but an equally en- 
couraging showing can be made by the other classes. 

This school is under the care of members of the Society of Friends. 
There are nine teachers in all connected with the institute, and the 
course of study covers four years. This includes the high school and 
normal courses. 

WILLIAMSON FREE SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL TRADES. 

One of the most liberally i)lanned and endowed of institutions of its 
class is the Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, founded by 
the late Isaiah Y. Williamson, of Philadelphia, ''for the purpose of 
giving poor and deserving boys a good English education, for training 
them in habits of morality, economy, and industry, and for teaching 
them mechanical trades." The school is diflerent in some resioects from 
any trade school previously established. It is designed to take the place, 
so far as a school can, of the old apprenticeshii3 system. 



86 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

The scliool has an equipment ample for its purposes. There are 
three shop buildings well fitted for the trades taught, those for the 
wood working and machine trades being well equipped with power 
tools. The plant, including land, buildings, and equipment, to the 
present time has cost $363,394.60, besides which the school has an 
endowment and other fands of the par value of $1,575,812.05, the 
market value being somewhat greater. The school is located at Wil- 
liamson School, Delaware county, Pennsylvania, about 16 miles from 
Philadelphia. 

Classes are admitted on April 1 in each year. Boys to be admitted 
must not be under 16 or over 18 years of agej they must be of good 
health and of good moral character, and they must be able to 
read ordinary text fluently, write a plain hand, and work in arithmetic 
as far as fractions. Some elementary knowledge of geography and 
United States history is desirable, though not absolutely essential. 
Other things being equal, preference will be given to boys in the fol- 
lowing order : Those born in Philadelphia^ those born in Bucks county, 
Pennsylvania ; those born in Montgomery and Delaware counties, Penn- 
sylvania; those born elsewhere in Pennsylvania; those born in 'New Jer- 
sey; those born elsewhere in the United States. 

All boys admitted are bound as indentured apprentices to the trustees 
for three years. The indenture may, however, be cancelled by the 
trustees for the puj^il's incomx^etency or bad conduct, or if, in their opin- 
ion, the pupil has so advanced in his studies as to make it more advan- 
tageous for him to x)ursue his work elsewhere. 

Each boy on entering the school is given a prejjaratory course of six 
months in wood working and mechanical drawing in connection with 
studies in the school room. At the end of that time he is placed at one 
of the following three trades (the selection of which is made by the 
trustees, due regard being given to the inclination and adaptability of 
the boys to the trade to which they are assigned) : Wood working in its 
various branches, such as carpentering, patternmaking, cabinetmak- 
ing, etc. ; building, including bricklaying, tile, range, and boiler setting, 
etc., plastering, and stone masonry; machine trade in all its usual 
details, including i:)ractical training in steam and electrical engineering, 
steam fitting, etc. Each boy takes but one of the trades named, 
and his instr action in mechanical drawing, which continues during his 
entire course, tends in the general direction of his tiade. 

The work of shop and school room takes up 8 kours daily on 5 
days of the week, each boy spending 4 hours in the shop and 4 in 
the class room. The academic work includes reading, writing, arith- 
metic, £[lgebra, geometry, physical and political geography, history, elo- 
cution, x)hysical science, physiology and hygiene, civil government, 
chemistry, and vocal music. 

The benefits of the school are entirely free, no charge being made for 
boarding, clothing, or instruction. The boys are divided into families of 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 87 

24:, eacli having its matron and its own distinct home or cottage, cared 
for by its occupants. The homes contain no kitchens, dining rooms, 
or laundries, these being located in other buildings. 

The number of applications for admission has greatly exceeded the 
capacity of the school. The school was opened October 20, 1891, aud 
the hrst class will be graduated in 1894. With the new class to be 
admitted on April 1 next the pupils will number 168, divided about 
equally among the three departments. The faculty of the school now 
consists of a president, a superintendent, and nine instructors, four 
being for the academic and five fot the mechanical work. The results 
are reported by the president of the school as being "preeminently sat- 
isfactory." 

PRATT INSTITUTE. 

JJarely, if ever, has a great educational institution been more happy in 
conception, more wisely planned, or more successful in the results 
achieved within a brief time than the Pratt Institute of Brooklyn. The 
institute as organized is the result of many years of study of schools in 
this country and abroad on the part of its founder, Mr. Charles Pratt of 
Brooklyn. There was no single institution in existence doing just the 
kiads of work that Mr. Pratt wished to take up. jCooper Union, in I^ew 
York city, was doing nothing in the way of industrial work, unless we in- 
clude under that name the classes in stenography and typewriting and 
for art instruction. The manual training high schools, then just begin, 
ning to multiply, and the l!^ew York Trade Schools were both in a meas- 
ure doing tor bo^^s work within the range of his purposes. Schools of 
the character of the Eegent street Polytechnic and the Peoi:)ie's Palace 
in London were just beginning to develoj) on the lines which they have 
since so successfully followed out. But in schools of this last class 
there was nothing just like the manual training and trade schools of 
our own country. 'Eor was there anywhere a school offering courses of 
instruction of such variety and thoroughness as those now offered in the 
department of domestic art and science of Pratt Institute. Mr. Pratt 
could not then copy the organization and methods of any one school, but 
from a study of many models had to create a new and more comprehen- 
sive type of school. 

It will be found that Mr. Pratt's school comprehends something of 
the methods of all of these schools, and much more. He has adopt ed 
the manual training school, admitting girls as well as boys, however; 
he has established trade schools on the same general lines as Col. 
Auchmuty's, adding in the same dei)artment scientific and technical 
instruction, with particular regard to industrial usesj he has added 
trade schools in some special hues for girls and courses for very com- 
prehensive instruction in domestic science. Besides these, the more 
important departments, should be mentioned the other departments of 
music, of commerce, of agriculture, and the classes in library methods, 



88 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

as well as tlie teclinical museum , a collection for illustrating the achieve- 
ments in science and art with special reference to the work in the classes. 
The purpose of the founder in giving such a prominent place to the 
department of domestic art and science in his educational curriculum 
is disclosed by the following incident, which he relates to illustrate and 
eniforce his view of the subject: 

Eeturning from France a few weeks since, I met on the steamer some 
ladies who had gone to Paris for no other purpose than to buy trousseaux 
for some of their friends, because they could not obtain as fine a qual- 
ity of needlework in this country. We wish to develop the skill and 
cultivate the taste of Americans, so that they may be able to do as good 
work here as can be obtained in Paris. 

Again, referring to household economy and domestic science, he says : 

One important design of this department is to render it practicable 
for persons of very limited income to secure and enjoy more comfort in 
their homes. The man who earns $10 per week will have a more at- 
tractive and happy home with a wife trained in household economy 
than the man who receives twice as much whose wife has had no train- 
ing in domestic economy and thrift. 

The high school department has been already described with other 
schools, of manual training and does not call for any extended notice 
here. 

The dei^artment of domestic art and science, if judged by the attend- 
ance, is the most imx)ortant in the institute. It certainly deserves 
special notice, including, as it does, courses of instruction unique in the 
combination of constant practical work with the most thorough study 
of artistic and scientific principles in their relation, not only to good 
housekeeping, but to home making, to the preparation of clothing, of 
economical and wholesome food, and to such knowledge of sanitary 
and hygienic laws as will tend to secure comfortable and healthy homes 
at the least expense. 

The department includes the following courses of instruction : for- 
mal domestic science course, courses in household science, hygiene 
and home nursing, cooking, laundry work, plain sewing, dressmaking, 
millinery, and physical culture. In all branches of instruction in this 
department there are morning, afternoon, and evening classes. In the 
evening classes the plan of the day work is followed as far as the lim- 
ited time permits. 

The normal domestic science course is a two years' course of five days 
a week, primarily designed for those intending to teach. Instruction is 
by means of lectures and recitations, with a good deal of laboratory 
work. There is practical work, including sewing, laundry work, cook- 
ing, and visits to manufactories. The study and practice of normal 
methods also receive due attention, while a series of lectures by special 
investigators is given supplementary to the course. 

The course in outline is as follows : 

First year. — German, physics (energy and heat), chemistry (general 
and qualitative), biology (bacteriology and physiology), drawing. 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 89 

Second year. — Cliemistry (includingcliemistry of cooking), cliemistry 
of foods, aud cakulation of dietaries, liouseliold science, hygiene and 
liouse nursing, public hygiene. 

The division of household science embraces three courses of study, 
continuing through a year. The instruction by lectures is illustrated 
and supijleniented by visits to i^rivate houses and other buildings. The 
following is a brief outline of the three courses : 

Rouse sanitation — Situation of the house, surroundings, and cellar; 
removal of wastes, x>lumbing and care of fixtures; substitutes for water 
carriage, water sux)plyj ventilation, heating, lighting, sanitary furnish- 
ing, and general care of the house. 

Souseliold economy. — The arraiigement of work and furnishings, the 
care in detail of every portion of the house, house cleaning, household 
accounts, mistress and maid, household amenities. 

Household art. — Architecture, interior decoration, furnishing. 

The full course of instruction in hj^giene and home nursing consists 
of three courses of twelve lectures each. The aim is to teach women 
how to care for cases of sudden illness or accident, and to i)erform 
intelligently the duties of a nurse where trained service can not be 
obtained. In these courses the w^ork of bandaging, artificial respira- 
tion, application of splints, lifting helpless patients, and preparing and 
applying iDoultices is done by the pux)il under the loersonal direction of 
the instructor until a reasonable degree of proficiency is attained. To 
a large extent the instruction is by x)ractical demonstration uiDon the 
living model. The subjects of the courses are: 

First course. — Heart, and circulation of the blood; general direction of 
the main arteries; various bleedings and ways of arresting them; im- 
mediate treatment of those suffering collapse from injury or fainting, 
and of those apparently drowned, or otherwise suffocated; immediate 
treatment of burns, scalds, wounds, and bruises; observing and record- 
ing pulse, respiration, and temperature; famishing, warming, and ven- 
tilating the sick room; bathing, dressing, and administering food and 
medicines to i)atients ; practical bandaging, bed making, lifting and prop- 
ping helpless patients. 

Second course. — Prevention and care of bed sores; treatment of fevers, 
bathing, sponging, diet, use of disinfectants ; nursing special diseases, 
care of children, immediate treatment of fractures, siirains, unconscious- 
ness, epilepsy, hysteria, poisonous bites, sunstroke, and frost bite; poi- 
sons and their antidotes; practical i)reparation and application of pouh 
tices, blisters, and stupes; packs and vapor baths; carrying the sick 
and injured. 

Third course. — Hygiene of infancy and childhood — growth, food and 
artificial feeding, teething, clothing, exercise, etc.; outlines of physi- 
ology and hygiene for adults ; care of eyes, ears, skin, digestion, and 
lungs. 

The course in public hygiene consists of twelve lectures On the fol- 



90 EEPORT OF THE COIVOIISSIONER OF LABOR. 

lowing topics: The care of streetSj scTrers, water supply, etc.; precau- 
tions against the spread of contagious diseases; quarantine disinfec- 
tion; the laws, and the reasons for the same, concerning milk, butter, 
meat, etc.; school hygiene. 

In the classes of the cookery section the physiological relations be- 
tween food and the body are carefully studied, and with these in view 
the x)upil learns how best to choose, to combine, and to prepare foods 
to meet the demands of healthful living. There are various classes 
adapted to the times and needs of the different pupils. The complete 
scheme of instruction is divided into three courses of three months 
each. Each course consists of weekly lessons of two hours' duration. 
The subjects covered by the courses are as follows : 

Courses A and B. — Making and care of fire, dishwashing and care of 
kitchen, boiling meats, vegetables, and cereals, soups, stewing and 
braising, warmed-over dishes, simple invalid cookery, broiling, frying 
and sauteing. 

Course C. — Clear soups and bisques, souf&es and croquettes, salads, 
French and mayonnaise dressing, entrees and sauces, roast game, fancy 
desserts and cakes, frozen creams, a breakfast, a luncheon, a spring din- 
ner, a winter dinner. 

There is also a course specially designed for physicians, nurses, and 
others desiring to learn to cook for the sick. Besides a series of lect- 
ures on dietetics, it includes the preparation of meat extracts, broths, 
gruels, soux)S, beverages, and dishes for convalescents. 

Special courses are also offered. A special course of three lessons a 
week completes the regular work in three months. Another course in 
fancy cooking consists of twelve lessons of three hours each in advanced 
AYork. Still another series of lessons teaches the use of the chafing- 
dish. All of these courses are on the same comprehensive plan and 
are followed out with the same thoroughness. 

The course of instruction in laundry work covers three months, and 
includes the following lessons: Some historical notes regarding laun- 
dry work, locntion of the laundry, appointments, care of appointments; 
classification of articles to be laundered — table linen, bed linen, body 
linen, fiannels; theory — talk upon water, washing soda, soajDS, bleach- 
ing powders, and bluings, with tests; methods of removing stains; 
X)ractice work — scalding, rinsing, and bluing bed linen and towels; 
theory — sprinkling, stretching, folding, and ironing; history and prep- 
aration of starch; practice work — starch making; table linen, body 
linen, and handkerchiefs ; shirts, collars, and cuffs ; cold and boiled starch; 
silk, merino, and flannel underwear; x>rints and hosiery; clear starch- 
ing — infants' dresses, fancy handkerchiefs ; laces and embroidery; crewel 
embroidery; colored silk embroidery. 

The complete course in sewing includes three graded courses of three 
months each with two lessons a week. In connection with each course 
talks are given upon the various materials used, with special reference 



CHAP. I. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 91 

to judicious purchasing. Each pupil is required to record in a note- 
book the instruction received at each lesson. At the end of each course 
a Trritten examination is given. 

Mrst course, — Method of threading needle, making knot, and using 
thimble; talks on the manufacture of the needle and thimble; basting 
and overhanding; turning hem by measure, hemming and running; 
talks on weaving; stitching and overcasting; backstitching and fel- 
ling; gathering, stroking gathers, and putting on bands; making but- 
tonholes and eyelets, sewing on buttons; putting in gussets; talks on 
the growth and manufacture of cotton; herring-bone stitch on flannel; 
patching; hemstitching, tucking, and whipping ruffle; chain- stitching, 
feather-stitching, and mitreing corners; French hem on damask; darn- 
ing on scrim, cashmere, and stockinet; slip-stitching and blindstitch- 
iug; meneling and darning. 

Second course. — Choice of materials; taking measures; machine- 
stitching; cutting white skirt by measure; making skirt with or with- 
out ruffle; cutting underwaist from pattern, basting, stitching, and 
trimming ; cutting and making a cambric dressing sack from pattern. 

Third course. — Fine hand sewing; advanced machine work; draught- 
ing undergarments; making cambric dress without lining; talks on 
the growth and manufacture of linen and on fine materials; maldng 
baby linen. 

The complete course of instruction in dressmaking comprises four 
courses of three months each. There are three lessons a week, two of 
two hours each devoted to practical work, and one of one hour to free- 
hand drawing and design. Apiolicants must be at least 18 years of 
age and must have successfully completed the first and second terms 
of the sewing course, or show an equivalent amount of training. 
Throughout the courses the work cut and i)lanned in the class must be 
finished at home. The courses in outline are given below : 

First course.— ToXk on color and textiles applied to dress; instruction 
in the choice of materials; cutting foundation skirt from measure; 
finishing skirt for trimming and draping; talk on form, line, and pro- 
portion in relation to draping and trimming; planning skirt; draping 
skirt; cutting v,^aist and ' sleeves from pattern; basting, fitting; trim- 
ming, finishing; drawing, including pencil practice, study of tlie 
api}earance of cylindrical objects, study of drapery, and drawing of 
skirt, bows, etc. In this course each i:)upil is required to complete one 
di-ess for herself and to do as much practice work at home as is pos- 
sible. 

Second course. — Talk on woollen textiles and their manufacture; 
choice of materials and colors; practice in taking measures; talk on 
form, including artistic and hygienic principles of dress; instruction 
in draughting close fitting waist; cutting and fitting waist linings; 
cutting and fitting plain cloth basque; cutting and matching striped 
or plaid basque; draughting waist with extra seam for large figures; 



92 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

trimming and finishing waist j drawing, including drawing of waists 
and gowns, notes on form and color, and practice in the use of color. 
In this course two basques, one of plain and one of striped or plaid 
material, are completed. Constant practice in draughting at home is 
required. 

Third course. — Instruction in choice of materials for house and street 
wear, considering color and texture 5 talk on the growth and manu- 
facture of silk; taking measures and draughting princess dress; talk 
upon the contour and poise of the body as essential in artistic dress; 
planning i)rincess dress; cutting and making princess dress; i)ractice 
in draping, illustrating the principles of variety, unity, and repose; 
cutting and making hou.se or evening dress from original design by 
pui)il; draughting; drawing, including problems in design, sketches in 
water color of gowns, etc., and outline and proportion of the human 
form. 

Fourth course. — Talk on the manufacture of cloths; draughting 
jackets of various styles; cutting, basting, fitting, and pressing; mak- 
ing various styles of pockets and collars; lining and fiuishiug jackets; 
cutting and fitting child's dress and coat. 

The work in the millinery classes is divided into three graded courses, 
each covering a term of three months, with three lessons a week, two in 
practical work of two hours each, and one of one hour in free-hand draw- 
ing and design. In connection with each course talks are given on the 
suitability of materials, combination of colors, and character of lines 
and form as essential to artistic millinery. Here, as in the work out- 
lined above, the courses are x)ianned with careful attention to thor- 
oughly educating the taste and training the hand and eye by constant 
practice of the best methods. 

The department of science and technology affords instruction in 
various scientific and technical subjects, as well as a thoroughly practi- 
cal training for the i)rincipal mechanical trades. The scientific and 
technical subjects studied are algebra, geometry, lohysics, chemistry 
(two years' course), electrical construction, steam and the steam 
engine, strength of materials, and machine design. The shops and the 
laboratories of the departments are supplied with such appliances as 
will best x^romote the efficiency of the instruction. 

The work in the trade school includes both day and evening classes. 
In the day classes the instruction is similar in outline to that of the 
evening classes, but greatly extended in amount and variety, and in- 
cludes a much greater amount of practical work. The day classes 
afford sufficient time by continuous practice to prepare for i)ractical 
work at the trades. In the evening classes the aim is principally to 
broaden and extend the training of those already engaged at the 
trades. 

Under the methods pursued, carefully arranged courses of work are 
provided in which the reason of each step is clearly explained. Fre- 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 93 

quent talks on metliods aucl materials are given tlirougliout the course. 
The school does not aim to turn oat journeymen mechanics, but to 
afford a training that farther practice in active work will perfect. The 
trades taught are cari)entry, machine work, plumbing, and house, sign, 
and fresco painting. Outlines of two of them will be sufficient to illus- 
trate the methods and to indicate the thoroughness of the training. 
In each case it is the evening course that is described. 

Carpentry. — ^Use of tools; coarse in joint work; methods of framing; 
making model of frame house; setting and bridging of partitions ; lay- 
ing of floors; making and placing doors and window-frames ; sheath- 
ing,' clapboarding, shingling, cornicing; inside trimming; making and 
hanging of doors, sashes, and shutters; wainscoting, base-boards, stair 
building, etc.; pi;actice in the use of working drawings, and laying out 
work from plans. 

FUmibing. — Use of tools; preparing wiping cloths; making soil; tin- 
ning soldering-iron, brass, iron, lead, and tin; making solder; solder- 
ing seams; making cup joint, over-cast joint, straight- wiped joint, 
flange joint, and branch joint; working sheet lead into bends, traps, 
service boxes, and safes; lining tanks; caulking iron x)ipe joints; 
bending with sand and kinking irons; also lectures on the materials 
used in the trade, the proper arrangement of drain, soil, and waste 
pipes, trapping and ventilating the same, supply i)ipes, boilers, tanks, 
fixtures, and i^umps. Charts and diagrams are freely used, and study 
is made of examiDles of defective plumbing. Special attention is given 
to the plumbing rules of the city of Brooklyn. 

The department of industrial and fine arts aims to provide thorough 
and systematic art instruction. Courses for both day and evening 
classes include training in drawing, clay modelling, design, architect- 
ural drawing, mechanical drawing, wood carving, and art needlework. 
The work in all the courses is of quite a comprehensive character, in 
no case covering less than two years, and in the regular art course 
requiring four years. 

The other departments do not call for extended description. The 
very brief notice of them already given has sufficiently indicated the 
character of the instruction. 

On the whole the Pratt Institute appears to be a most liberally 
planned and judiciously managed institutioD, whose founder is ever 
seeking, with wise and discriminating judgment, to increase its effi- 
ciency and expand the sphere of its usefulness. 

It is somewhere observed by Mr. Ruskin that the wisest man is he 
who has been oftenest aided, who is taught by every one he meets, and 
enriched by everything that falls in his way. With the wisdom which 
comes of wide experience, Mr. Pratt remarks on the subject of tuition; 

There is no one subject in connection with this work ujion which I have 
such peculiar feelings as when a poor man comes to pay his hard earned 
wages for the education of his child. Instinctively my feeling is to 



94 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



say, '^I>on't take the money" j but in my cooler and. calmer thouglits 
tlie judgment formed after long and patient study of human nature 
tells me that it is wiser and better for every one to pay a part at least 
of the cost of this education. 

The institute occupies four large buildings. The main building on 
Eyerson street is 100 by 86 feet and six stories high. The science and 
technology building, with the extension, is 144 by 95 feet, and the one- 
story trade school building is 103 by 95 feet. The high school build- 
ing is 50 by 80 feet and three stories high. Plans are in progress for 
the construction of a new building, during the present yeax, for the 
accommodation of the Library, the museum, the art department, and 
a large auditorium. 

The catalogue of the institute for 1892-'93 shows the registration in 
the various departments for the fifth year of the school^ 1891-'92, to 
have been as follows : 



Department. 



Higli scliool 

Department of industrial and fine arts.. 
Department of domestic art and scisnce 
Department of science and technology. . 

Department of music ^ 

Department of commerce 

Library classes 



In more than one department . . . 
Total individuals enrolled 



Day. 



144 
559 
383 
80 
89 
133 
43 



2, 436 



Even- 
inff. 



333 

552 



244 

293 



Total. 



144 

892 
940 
312 
333 
426 



,090 
149 



3,941 



The teaching force of the school consists of the heads of the various 
departments, with a corps of about 90 instructors and assistants. 

The institute has been most liberally provided for by Mr. Pratt. A 
statement made by the i)resident in October 1891 shows the amount of 
its property : 

EndoNYment fund $2,000,000.00 

Real estate, building and equipment fund, to be used as required 835, 000. 00 

Cost of present institute buildings, equipment, and grounds 523, 337. 61 

Cost of Astral, Inwood, and Studio buildings 332, 437. 07 

Total 3, 690, 774. 68 



DRUXEL INSTITUTE. 

The Drexel Institute of Art, Science, and Industry, at Philadelphia, 
is a new school of complex character. The school was opened in Se])- 
tember 1892. As now organized its work comprehends six depart- 
ments^ viz.^ department of mecha^nic artsj business department, in- 
cluding a eommercial course and a course in stenography and type- 
writing j technical dex)artment, including cookery courses and trade 
courses in dressmaking and millinery; normal department, including 
courses for training of teachers in drawing, science, physical culture. 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 95 

manual training, cookery, dressmaking and millinerj^, and the course in 
library work; scientific department for advanced scientific training in 
physics and chemistry, and applications ; and art department, including 
a regular art course, a normal art course, a course in mechanical and 
architectural dra^ng, and courses in applied design, decorative paint- 
ing, wood carving, and stained-glass work. Several additional courses 
are to be added, among the more important of which will be courses in 
electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, and machine con- 
struction. 

The building with its equipment has thns far cost about $1,000,000. 
The endowment is $1,000,000, which is dedicated to the maintenance of 
the instfuction. The institute possesses a valuable library of about 
10,000 volumes, and a museum devoted to art industrial productions, 
such as textiles, ceramics, wood carvings, metal work, ivories, embroid- 
eries, etc. The whole is the gift of Mr. Drexel of Philadelphia. 

The teaching force now numbers over forty, with President James 
MacAlister at the head. The work of the next year will require an 
increase in the number of instructors. 

The instruction in the department of mechanic arts is of the advanced 
manual training character. It aims to give a general rather than a 
special training. The work provides a thorough course in mathematics, 
science, drawing, and shop work in connection with the essential Eng- 
lish branches of a secondary education. The time of the student is 
about equally divided between the class room and laboratory studies^ 
and the shop work. The course of instruction covers three years of 
two terms each. The tuition is $20 per term. 

The course of instruction is as follows : 

First year. — Arithmetic, algebra, i)lane geometry; distribution and 
economic uses of minerals and plants, chemistry, physics (laboratory 
work and lectures); English language; free-hand and mechanical draw- 
ing, clay modelling; and shop work, which includes carpentry, joinery, 
wood turning, bench work (chipping and filing) in iron, care and use 
of tools. 

Second year. — Solid geometry, plane trigonometry, business forms and 
accounts: physics, physiology and hygiene; English language and litera- 
ture, civil government; mechanical drawing, historic ornament, clay 
modelling; and shop work, which includes patternmaking, moulding, 
casting, forging, welding, temi^ering, soldering, and brazing. 

Third year. — Spherical trigonometry, surveying, theoretical mechan- 
ics ; electrical physics and applications of electricity, theory and prac- 
tice of the steam engine; English language and literature, practical 
economics; mechanical drawing, architectural drawing, principles of 
design ; and shop work, which includes constructive wood work, orna- 
mental iron work, applied mechanics, machine work, and practical train- 
ing in connection with the extensive mechanical and electrical plants 
in the institute. 



96 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

The teclinical department includes courses in cookery and in dress- 
making and millinery work. The following courses in cookery are 
given : 

First course. — The fundamental principles of cookery, and practice in 
the preparation of simple dishes and courses. In connection with the 
practical training in the making of dishes, elementary instruction is 
given in the comx30sition and dietetic value of foods. 

Second course. — This course includes instruction and practice of an 
advanced character in the preparation of more complicated dishes and 
menus than are included in the first course, cost of materials for and 
preparation of a dinner. 

Course in invalid cooTcery. — This course is intended for the training 
of professional nurses and persons desirous of acquiring a practical 
knowledge of cookery suitable for the sick room. It embraces gen- 
eral principles, followed by special instruction and training in invalid 
cookery. 

formal course for training teachers of coolcery. — The object of this 
course is to train special teachers of cookery, for whose services there 
is a constantly increasing demand. The instruction is thorough and 
occupies one year. It embraces the following subjects: All the pre- 
ceding courses in cookery j chomistry and its applications to cookery 
and other departments of domestic science; human physiology, iDer- 
sonal hygiene, and public hygiene and sanitation. Lectures on the 
general i^rinciples of methods of teaching and on the history of educa- 
tion in its relations to this department of school work. 

The tuition in the cookery courses is, for the first course, $10; sec- 
ond course, $15; invalid cookery, $10; normal course, $30. 

The instruction in dressmaking is arranged in three courses, each of 
five months' duration. The first course is devoted to the fundamental 
principles of dressmaking, the choice of difi'erent materials, draughting 
the skirt from measurements, cutting, making, hanging, and draping 
the skirt, cutting and fitting the waist from patterns, and the general 
fijiish of garments. The second course includes draughting the waist 
from measurements, matching strix)ed, plaid, and figured materials, 
and advanced work in making princess dresses. A considerable por- 
tion of the time is devoted to practical work leading to a knowledge of 
the designing of dresses. The third course is intended for students 
who have satisfactorily completed the first and second courses, and con- 
sists of draughting and finishing outside garments of different materials 
and the making of children's garments. Each student is required to 
design and make a street dress, a dress in gown form, and a coat. 
During the first course instruction is given in business forms and 
accounts, during the second course lectures are given on the chem- 
istry of textiles and dyeing, and during the third course on the history 
of costume. Throughout the courses instruction is given in the kinds 
and qualities of materials used in dressmaking. The tuitions arCj for 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 97 

tlie first course, $15^ for the second course, $20, including draughting 
chart; for the third course, $25. 

In the millinery division there are two courses, each occupying Qve 
months. During the first course 'are taken up the fundamental j^rinci- 
ples relating to the making of hats, bonnets, and toques. These are 
executed in colored cotton flannel, sateen, and cheese- cloth, which rep- 
resent, respectively, velvet, ribbon or silk, and crei)e. The instruction 
and practice leads at the end of the term to the making of hats, bonnets, 
and toques of choice materials. In the second course i:)upils pursue the 
study of black silk and crape work, frame-making, and practical Avork 
in choice materials. In this, as in the dressmaking classes, certificates 
are granted to such students as satisfactorily finish all the courses pre- 
scribed. The fee for each course is $12. 

In the normal department of the institute courses are provided for 
the training of special teachers of drawing, of science, physical culture, 
manual training, cookery, dressmaking, and millinery. There is also 
a chiss for the training of assistants in library work, and a normal 
course in the department of physical culture designed to supply com- 
petent and thoroughly equipped instructors and directors in that 
branch. 

The scientific department embraces a division of physics and a di- 
vision of chemistry. 

The courses in physics include training in laboratory methods, gen- 
eral iiliysics, and a technical course in api)lied electricity. For admis- 
sion to the last mentioned course the student must have a good knowl- 
edge of elementary algebra and i)lane geometry and of general physics. 
The course in electricity occupies two terms, taking up the elements 
of electricity and magnetism. The student, by lectures and practical 
work in the laboratories, is familiarized with the applications of elec- 
tricity to telegraiDhy and telephony; the methods and apx)aratus used; 
the properties of overhead and underground lines ; the management 
of primary and secondary batteries; principles of dynamo-electric ma- 
chinery; the use of the dynamo for lighting and for the transmission of 
power; use of the motor in stationary jDOwer plants and on railways; 
wiring and line construction. 

In the chemical division the elements of the science are taught, and 
in the higher courses qualitative analysis and industrial chemistry of 
a more advanced character may be studied. The main object of this 
advanced work is to prepare students for actual work as practical 
chemists and in the arts and manufactures requiring chemical knowl- 
edge. 

Special lecture courses are provided for students of various technical 
branches. These courses are as follows : Chemistry of the metals, 10 
lectures; chemistry of textiles and dyeing, 12 lectures; chemistry of 
foods, 12 lectures; chemistry of photography, 10 lectures; chemistry 
of i)aints and x')ainting, 10 lectures ; chemistry of clays, 5 lectures. 
S. Ex. 65 7 



98 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

The art department, besides its regular art and normal coiirses, of- 
fers some art courses of special industrial value. The first of these are 
the special courses in mechanical and architectural drawing designed 
to fit students for practical work in the draughting room and the archi- 
tect's office. 

The course in applied design is for the training of professional de- 
signers, and occupies three years. It provides instruction in the prin- 
ciples of decorative design and in the technical methods of their 
practical application. The instruction runs nearly parallel with that 
given in the first three years of the regailar art course, with special 
training in the application of art to the production of original designs 
for oil-cloth, wall papers, carj^ets, wood work, metal work, tiles, book 
covers, etc. 

Thorough technical courses are given in decorative painting, wood 
carving, and stained-glass work. In all these courses a preliminary 
art training is necessary to the completion of the work.' 

ARMOUR INSTITUTE. 

It is expected that the Armour Institute (to be o];)ened for the 
reception of pupils during the year 1893 at Chicago) will prove a 
powerful auxiliary of educational work in the IsTorthwest. 

The institute has been organized on the x)lan of a series of trade and 
advanced technical schools. It will do for Chicago a work similar to 
that done by the Pratt Institute in Brooklyn and the Drexel Institute 
in Philadelphia, but still broader and more diversified. 

The carrying out of the full idea, including the new building for the 
manual training and practical classes, recently completed, will involve 
an expenditure by Mr. Armour of about $3,000,000, including the large 
amount of productive property surrounding the institution which Mr. 
Armour has given for purposes of perpetual endowment. 

Armour Institute is organized into departments, each of which is in 
the charge of a director. The departments already organized are as 
folljws: The department of mechanical engineering; the department 
of electricity and electrical engineering; the department of mining 
engineering and metallurgy; the department of domestic arts; the 
department of library science; the department of art; the department 
of kindergartens; the department of com.merce. 

Besides the equipment of the several scientific departments the 
institute has a gymnasium, a technical museum, and a library. The 
home of Armour Institute is a fire-proof building of the most modern 
construction, five stories in height above the basement, and famished 
with every convenience that health, comfort, and the requirements of 
such an enterprise could dictate. 

This institution is tounded for the i)urpose of giving to young men 
and women the opportunity of securing a liberal education. It is 
hoped that its benefits may reach aU classes. Its aim is broadly 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 99 

pliilantliropic. Armour Institute is uot a free school j but its cliarges 
for instruction are in harmony with the sr)irit which animates alike 
the founder, the trustees, and the faculty, namely, the desire to help 
those who wish to help themselves. 

The IiTew York Trade Schools, Pratt Institute, Armour Institute, etc., 
are types of American trade schools where the instruction is of a more 
practical character than that of the English technical schools. On this 
i:)oint Dr. W. T. Barnard said, writing in 1886 : 

I know of but one English school where any consistent efforts are 
made to apply school instruction in the shops — that of Mather and 
Piatt, Manchester, whose teachers are employed in the shops, and per- 
sonally direct the theoretical instruction of their x>iipils to shoj) work. 

The absence of this combination of theory and i^ractice, under intel- 
ligent direction, constitutes the great weakness, and seriously impairs 
the usefulness, of such schools. To teach the i3rinciples of mathemat- 
ics, physics, mechanics, machine construction and gearing, the formulse 
of chemistry, etc., without fixing those principles in the scholar's mind 
by illustrative experiments, the actual handling of apparatus, machin- 
ery and tools, is an imx)ractical method of instruction which, as afore- 
said, has in a large measure destroyed the usefulness of technological 
as well as of iDublic schools. 

WATCHMAKING SCHOOLS. 

In the Waltham Horological School at Waltham, Massachusetts, the 
course of instruction includes watchmaking, repairing, and bench tool 
making, as well as optics and engraving. The school aims to meet the 
needs of two classes of students — those who wish to learn watch- 
making, and those vfho, after experience in the shop, wish to perfect 
themselves in the trade. 

The school claims that under the training given '^not only is the 
American watch system taught in all its branches, from taking the 
rough stock and bringing it to a state of perfection, but all foreign sys- 
tems, such as the Swiss, English, and in fact every known manufacture 
of watches, taught so that the student is not only able to repair Amer- 
ican watches and understand how to make any part to be duplicated, 
but he is equally well posted on repairing foreign watches, and under- 
stands how to make or rei)air any x:>art requiring the skill of a thorough 
watchmaker or repairer." 

It is stated that some students, with -previous experience, graduate 
in six months. The average time of graduation is one year. The tui- 
tion for the course is $200. The graduates of the school number about 
five hundred, most of whom are employed in watch factories or in 
watch repairing shops throughout the country. 

A school of watchmaking, known as the Chicago College of Horologj', 
has been in operation for several years at Chicago, IlUnois. Up to date 
seveiit3^-five i)ux)ils have been graduated at this institution or have 
received certificates of attendance for x)eriods varying from one month 
to a full year. 



100 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

In 1888 a school for watcliinakers was established at La Porte 
Indiana. In this school students are taught the art of making high 
grade chronometers and fine lever watches from raw material. 
Engraving, optician's work, etc., are also taught, and pupils are required 
to master every detail of the work. Twenty-nine pupils were enrolled 
in 1891. The school enjoys an excellent reputation among horological 
experts. Other American schools of watchmaking are the Chicago 
Watchmakers' Institute, at 26 Yan Buren street, Chicago, Illinois j 
Elgin Horological Institute, Elgin, Illinois j Parson's Horological Insti- 
tute, La Porte, Indiana; Saint Louis Watchmakers' School, Saint 
Louis, Missouri; and Woodcock's School for Watchmakers, Winona, 
Minnesota. 

GENERAL SOCIETY OF MECHANICS AND TRADESMEN. 

The General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen of NeAV York city 
maintains a free school of industrial drawing. The classes are com- 
posed of young and middle-aged mechanics, all of whom are daily 
engaged in occupations that demand a knowledge of drawing, of a 
special kind, before they are able to make any advance in their several 
trades. The work of the school, as designed, provides such training as 
will advance them in the most rapid and iDractical manner. The instruc- 
tion is not, properly speaking, class but rather individual instruction, 
the teacher giving each pupil i)ersonal attention and advancing him 
according to his knowledge and capacity. 

The plan of the school comprehends an architectural or builders' 
course, a mechanical course, a course in free-hand drawing, a course 
in cabinet work and decorative design, and a course in modelling.. 
There are, beside, courses in stenography and typewriting. 

The architectural or builders' course is for the study of architectural 
work and drawings as prepared by architects. The object of the in- 
struction is to enable the pupil to fully understand and work from such 
drawings, and to prepare for himself drawings of lesser importance. 
The pupils are masons, carpenters, stone cutters, ornamental brick- 
layers, etc., of all degrees of proficiency from the beginner up. The 
students in the mechanical course are from much the same occupations 
as in the builders' course. The work embraces the geometrical draw- 
ings required by joiners, framers, stair builders, metalworkers, pattern- 
makers, etc., with the special applications in each occupation. 

In the course in free-hand drawing are found engravers, chasers, 
die-sinkers, fresco painters, lithographers, etc., training themselves for 
advancement in their chosen vocations. The course in cabinet and 
decorative design attracts cabinetmakers, furniture designers, deco- 
rators, wood carvers, etc. There is also a course in modelling where 
good work is done. 

Of the good results of the trt^ning, not only the testimonials of former 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 101 

pui^ils, but the better evidence of tlieir work, furnish the strongest 
proof. 

This society also maintains ten free scholarships in the ^N'ew York 
Trade Schools. 

NEWARK TECHNICAL SCHOOL. 

The ]^ewark Technical School of l^ewark, 'New Jersey, according to 
the director's statement, is not a school for teaching trades j it is not 
a school of manual training. The classes of men the technical school 
is designed to reach are abnormally developed, it might be said, in the 
line of manual training, and it is the mental training which is neces- 
sary to round out the comi^lete man. The latter the technical school 
designs to give. 

This institution is, as nearly as possible, a continuation school of 
Europe transported to the shores of New Jersey. The school was 
opened February 9, 1885. 

The sessions of the school are held five evenings in the week, namely, 
from Monday to Friday, inclusive, during the hours from 7.20 to 9.30. 
The course of study requires four years, and is arranged in the follow- 
ing departments : 

Bepartment of science. — Physics with applications j general and agri- 
cultural chemistry with applications. 

Department of mathematics. — Arithmetic, algebra, geometry (plane 
and solid), trigonometry j elementary mechanics, principles and use of 
machinery and tools. 

Department of drawing. — Free-hand, model, cast, architectural, me- 
chanical. 

In 1888 there were 255 pupils in this school, l^one are admitted 
until 16 years of age, except to the preparatory department, which any 
boy may enter, without examination, at 15. Applicants for admission 
to the regular departments must pass an examination in arithmetic, 
geography, history, and English composition, or bring certificates of 
graduation from a grammar school. 

The number of students enrolled in all the classes in 1890 was 286. 
The graduating class of 1891 consisted of 6 members. One is a tool 
maker, one a surveyor, one a machinist, one a clerk, and two are 
draughtsmen. 

SCHOOL OP MESSRS. HOE & CO. 

For thirty years a school has been conducted in New York city by 
the Messrs. E. Hoe & Co., of printing press fame, for the benefit of the 
sons of their workmen. According to the statement made in the fourth 
annual report of the New York bureau of labor statistics, 250 boys are 
employed in the factory of the Messrs. Hoe. Since they can not all be 
taught at the same time, they are divided into classes, receiving in- 
struction two evenings a week. The teachers and the school rooms are 



102 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

provided by the firm; and inasmiicli as the boys liaye already had their 
day's work before they enter on their school duties, Messrs. Hoe give 
them their suppers at the closing of the shops at half past 5 o'clock, 
so that they may not have the need of going home, some of them to a 
considerable distance, and returning for the school, which opens at half 
past 6. 

The school is free. The course of teaching is thoroughly practical, 
with a direct bearing on their advancement in the calling to which they 
have given themselves. The studies are mechanical drawing by rule 
and compass, arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. 

The school has been at work many years, and the results have been 
satisfactory. It has identified the boy beginners with the firm; they 
have developed into workmen who understand their duty and do it in- 
telligently. During the school session, which lasts the greater part of 
the year, with intermission in the summer evenings, the boys are 
further instructed and entertained by lectures and other means of re- 
lieving the monotony of the school routine. 

NEED OP TECHNICAIi EDUCATION. 

The necessity of improving the technical skill of the American work- 
man is urgently demanded both on economic and educational grounds. 
Dr. W. T. Barnard x)uts the case with clearness and -force when he 
writes : 

Skilled labor must be had from some source, and we can not afford to 
import it in bulk, if for no other reason than its expensiveness. Our 
own peoi)le have the first claim upon our industrial occupations, but 
if we are to compete for foreign trade they must be so trained as to 
make and keep them, in knowledge and skill, at least the equals of 
foreign workmen. 

On this subject, indeed, there is a general consensus of opinion 
among those most intimately concerned in the educational and indus- 
trial interests of our people. In a suggestive essay entitled Economic 
Aspects of Industrial Training, Eichard T. Ely, Ph. D., expresses in a 
single sentence the conviction which he shares, in common with many 
of our wisest educators, when he writes: 

Industrial training, not for a few, but for all people, for every boy 
and girl born in the TJnited States, without one exception, is the chief 
economic demand of our time. * * * Comx3aratively little is at- 
tained by ijicking out a few here and there and elevating them above 
the masses by technical schools. We want to extend the benefits of 
industrial schools to all alike. 

The relation of industrial training to commercial pursuits was indi- 
cated by the president of Cornell University in an address delivered 
November 15, 1892, on the subject, Education and Commerce, in the 
following explicit language : 

Commerce has hitherto done its mighty work mainly by rule of thumb, 
but every human pursuit and profession is now maimed in its efficiency 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 103 

by tlie relatively imcley eloped condition of pure and applied science. 
I sometimes hear that we are to win the markets of the world by free 
trade and retain the home markets by protection. Well, the freedom 
in which I see greatest potency is the free instruction of the industrial 
classes, of men and women of all pursuits and professions, in the high- 
est and deepest truths which science can discover. 

The nourishment of science is so costly that it can no longer be done 
without aid from the state. We have not, in all this land, a university 
that even tolerably represents existing knowledge, to say nothing of 
its growth. In the interest of the large majority of our people it is 
both just and politic for the state to offer universal free education of 
the highest as well as of the lowest order. The old fashioned college, 
designed for a few favored classes, belongs to the past. The modern 
democratic and industrial world demands a university as broad as the 
life and interests of all the people. Such a boon is today the greatest 
need in our state of Xew York. 

An intelligent observer, Mr. William Mather, the member of the 
British ro^'al commission, who visited this country in 1883, in his re- 
port on the condition of industrial education in the United States, 
makes a suggestion that is worth recalling in this connection. This 
friendly critic refers to the act of Congress of 1862, granting lands and 
land-scrip to each state for the establishment of colleges of agriculture 
and the mechanic arts; and, while noting the fact that many of the in- 
stitutions founded on this sagacious scheme of statemanship have 
become almost exclusively literary, he predicts that '^ within a short 
time these institutions will become the great technical schools of the 
country." 

It is clearly within the power of the several states to regulate the 
courses of study pursued in the institutions alluded to by Mr. Mather. 
In the act establishing provisions for colleges of agriculture and the 
mechanic arts, we read, '^ The leading object shallbe * * * to teach 
such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic 
arts in such manner as the legislatures of the states may respectively 
prescribe in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the 
industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of life." 

The states have not yet availed themselves of all the T)ri^aleges to 
which they are entitled under this enactment. Mr. Mather, in the 
report already referred to on industrial education in the United States, 
remarks with evident sur^Drise: ^^I have not met with any institutions 
for technical training having any bearing upon the textile industries." 

Sagacious countrymen of our own comment regretfully on the same 
theme. In a letter to this Department under date of October 28, 1890, 
Mr. S. K. D. ^orth, secretary of the National Association of Wool 
Manufacturers, writes : 

I have been convinced that one great reason why our manufacturers 
fail in competition with foreigners in the production of the finer fabrics, 
those which involve the artistic element in-i^attern and manipulation, 
is because neither they nor their employes have the training and edu- 
cation which have permitted the Europeans to achieve such splendid 



i04 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

results. If tlieir attention can once be sharply brought to tliis fact, it ^ 
may inaugurate the system of teclinical training in this country on a* 
basis that will gradually approximate the systems of England and the 
continent. [He adds] I am convinced that there is no branch of in- 
dustry which has so much to gain in this respect as the woollen manu- 
facture. 

In the British royal commissioners' report on technical instruction 
occur the following pertinent remarks: 

In textile industry it is the design that sells the cloth. The 
quality of the fabric may be hard to tell, but every customer forms his 
own estimate of the pattern printed upon it, or woven into it. The 
wool comber, the spinner, the weaver, may each do his part faultlessly, 
but if the design is unsatisfactory or inappropriate, or the color or 
finishing of the piece is ineffective, it will be cast aside by the pur- 
chaser as inferior the moment it is displayed on the shop counter 
against more effective, even though intrinsically less valuable, goods. 

To the same effect spoke Mr. Swire Smith of Bradford, England 
(a large manufacturer and a i)rominent advocate of technical education), 
in an interview reported in the Dry Goods Economist, and reprinted in 
the Irish Textile Journal of June 15, 1890. We copy that portion of 
his remarks which relates to American manufactures : 

In my present extended tour through twenty-four states of the 
Union, I have taken care to ascertain in the several cities visited the 
proportion of foreign goods sold in comparison with those of American 
production. 

In nearly every case I have found that the goods possessing the 
highest value and the most perfect design and workmanship were of 
foreign manufacture, and the lower grades were well represented by 
those of American production. In this I have been forcibly reminded 
of the condition of Great Britain ten years ago, which had, up to that 
time, devoted her manufacturing energies to the production of goods 
for the million, so much so that the greater part of the highest grade 
of goods sold was of foreign manufacture. A very prosperous trade 
had been enjoyed by England until foreign governments shut out these 
goods by tariffs in order to encourage their own industries. 

In this condition English interests were impoverished, and it was 
then that great impetus was given to technical education. This was 
taken in hand so promptly and with such spirit, and manufacturers 
adapted themselves to the changed condition of affairs so quickly, that 
today the chief exports of textile goods from England are not in the 
commoner grade of goods, but in the high class novelties which the 
United States appreciates so highly. As far as my observations in this 
city [Philadelphia] have extended, I have found that goods easily 
manufactured without any special skill are produced in this country, 
whereas the highest grades of goods are imported. There is no coun- 
try in the world that can afford to buy such expensive dress as the 
United States, and the greater quantity of these goods, which are made 
abroad, are sold here. This state of things ought not to be, and that 
it does exist is doubtless due to a want of technical training. 

In conclusion Mr. Smith says : 

This must not be forgotten — that your loeople, in proportion to their 
means and ever increasing appreciation of taste and sterling value. 



CHAP. I.— INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 105 

will give a Liglier x3rice for tlie fabrics that please tliem, even tlioiigh 
made abroad, rather than a low price for fabrics that are ugly or flims}', 
even though made at home. Twenty years ago the textiles from Eng- 
land were mainly common goods, now they are the sn^Derior and attrac- 
tive goods, and this statement applies even more to the imports from 
France and Germany, who have hitherto paid more attention to attrac- 
tiveness than the English. 

To illustrate the methods employed in the best technical schools 
abroad, and to indicate the thoroughness of the instruction which they 
give, let us take, as an example, the weaving school at Crefeld, Ger- 
many. 

Here the course is divided into two sections — the theoretical and the 
I)ractical; the first including a thorough study of drawing, the second 
including instruction on the loom. Drawing and painting are taught 
from copies and models, and from natural plants and flowers, with 
adai)tations to printing and other branches of the textile industr3^ 
Due prominence is given to geometrical drawing, and the drawing of 
machines, particularly of those parts of the loom which affect the pat- 
tern in the woven fabric. 

There are also lectures on textile fibres, on the elements of weaving, 
and on machinery. Fabrics are decomposed and explained, looms are 
arranged for weaving plain goods, or goods with simi)le designs, and 
technical calculations and bookkeeping are carefully taught. 

In the second year lectures are given on the principles which govern 
the ornamentation of woven or i)rinted fabrics, and the art teaching is 
continued until the student is able to invent and apply original designs. 
He is then admitted into one of the studios, where, under the guidance 
of qualified designers, he is encouraged to give play to his own imagi- 
nation. 

At the same time he continues his studies in the decomposition of 
patterns, and in the comi)osiug and calculation of designed materials. 
He attends lectures on the construction, erection, and action of the 
looms and other machines used in weaving; he unntounts the x)ower 
loom, piece by piece, and builds it up again ; he works at the forge 
and learns the use of the machine and hand tools in the workshop ; he 
cuts the cards in accordance with his own design on the paper prepared 
by his own hands; he fixes the cards in the Jacquard machine, and 
at length becomes thoroughly practical in weaving the most complex 
pattern, both in hand and power looms. After two years' instruction of 
the sort above described, the product is an accomplished weaver, 

TEXTILE SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA. 

It must not be suiDposed that America has no trade schools which can 
bear comparison with those of foreign countries. The School of Indus- 
trial Art in Philadelphia has a textile department, established in 1883^ 
which, in the estimation of good judges, is superior even to the famous 



106 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Grefeld scliool. From tlie Pennsylvania Keport on Industrial Statistics 
for 1888 we quote wliat is said of tlie origin of this department : 

Partly from a desire to advance tlieir own interests by educating the 
workmen and designers employed in tlieir own mills to do the higher 
classes of work, which are of course always the most profitable, but 
largely and mainly from motives of pure patriotism and philanthropy, 
to help raise the standard of American productions and to educate 
American youths in such a way as to enable them to occupy the posi- 
tions as designers and superintendents now held almost exclusively by 
men who have profited by the advantages offered by European schools, 
the manufacturers of Philadelphia raised among themselves the amount 
necessary to estabhsh and equip this school. 

These men subscribed in 1882 a fund of $30,000 for tluG enterprise, 
the year lorevious to that in which Mr. Mather visited America and^ 
found no school for instruction in textile industries. The undertaking 
prospered, and now, according to this report, it is no longer incumbent 
upon any one to visit Europe for technical instruction in textile art, 
as this school is fully prepared to supply technical information on all 
subjects connected therewith. 

The status of this institution is justly a source of local pride and of 
national satisfaction. 

The school furnishes not only the first instance of work of this 
character being undertaken by an American school j it is doubtful 
whether certain advantages and merits do not attach to its methods 
over those of even the best known of the European institutions. In 
support of this view is the testimony of several persons who have 
attended this school after having been pupils of some of the best of 
those in Europe, and who cheerfully accord to the Philadelphia scliool 
the first place in regard to the advantages afforded. 

These advantages consist mainly in the more adequate facilities 
which are furnished the x>upil to carry all, or nearly all, the worls: 
projected by him to completion. This is a phase of the plan of in- 
struction to which comparatively little imi)ortance seems to be attached, 
and for the carrying out of which very slender i^rovision is made in 
the European schools. 

At Orefeld, for example, which is usually regarded as quite the 
model textile school in Europe, the looms are kept running but with 
no great variety of i)roduct, but with more or less distinct aim of 
producing goods which shall have a certain commercial value, and 
the puiiils have the opportunity of assisting at their operations as any 
other juniors or apprentices might do ; but, except in rare instances, 
as when one's design is selected at the end of the term from those 
produced by a whole class, the practical work at the loom has no rela- 
tion to the design x)roduced by the student. 

In the Philaclelphia school, on the other hand, the pupil has con- 
tinually to carry his individual design to completion, performing or 
assisting at every process in its progress, from the preliminary sketch 
to the dyed and finished fabric. Whatever this last represents of 
taste, of knowledge, or of skill, whatever calculations are involved, 
the commercial ones as well as those possessing artistic or technical 
significance, all must be the pupil's own. 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 107 

Since 18S7 the school lias received assistance from the state to the 
extent of $10,000 a year, in return for which the school grants free 
scholarships, one for each county, to be filled by appointment of the 
governor. 

The course of technical study in this school extends over three years. 
The circular of the school for 1891-'92 contains the names of 151 for- 
mer students of the school, with their present occupations. This is 
only a partial list^ but it shows that a very large i)roportion of the 
graduates become designers, draughtsmen, dyers, architects, or manu- 
facturers. 

"Were technical trade schools of an equal order of excellence estab- 
lished all over the country, even if there should be only one such school 
in each state, the result would naturally be to give a powerful stimulus 
to industrial education, and to lift the trades to the dignity of the pro- 
fessions, the artisan to the plane of the artist. The special function 
of such a school would depend partly upon the nature of. the industry 
in the region of its establishment, and might be determined wholly by 
local circumstances. It need not be a weaving school j it might be a 
dairy school, or a school of forestry or of farriery, according to the 
special need. 

From another volume of the valuable series of educational reports 
recently issued by the state of Pennsylvania, the Eeport of the Indus- 
trial Education Commission for 1887-'89j we learn that : 

There is not in the CTnited Kingdom a technical institution of the 
grade of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, not a manual train- 
ing school, as far as the commission has been able to ascertain, of the 
grade of the Philadelphia, the Saint Louis, or the Chicago Manual 
Training School. 

And it may not be presumptuous to add that there is probably no 
school in the world where the manufacture of textile fabrics, in all its 
branches, is more thoroughly or more practically taught than in the 
School of Industrial Art at Philadelphia. 

INSTITUTE FOR ARTIST-ARTISANS. 

In this connection we can not forbear to make an appreciative ref- 
erence to the work undertaken a few years since in l!Tew York city by 
Mr. John Ward Stimson. In 1888 this gentleman founded a school for 
artist-artisans at the American Institute. In the Home Journal of Jan- 
nary 14, 1891, a communication was j)ublished giving a concise account 
of the origin of this institute and of its beneficent achievements. The 
writer of the article says : 

Americans are recognized among foreign manufacturers as possessing 
unusual technical skill, but complaint has been made of their lack of 
originality in design. 

This, we may remark parenthetically, is the usual criticism of both 
native and foreign observers who are best qualified to express an opinion 
on the subject. 



108 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Partly, therefore, as a remedy for this [continues tlie writer] we may 
look to the Institute for Artist-Artisans, which has recently attracted 
the notice of artists and leading manufacturers. * * * 

The special teaching begins with a more or less extended course in 
drawing from the flat, from casts, and from life. Natural forms, 
flowers, shells, minerals, etc., constantly illustrate nature's own appli- 
cation of the primary laws of form 5 the student in brief learns how the 
creative spirit works out its expression step by stej), '-'■ that form is but 
the embodiment of law and reason." He learns the true significance of 
design, and where he handles his own plastic material can give it shape 
which embodies thought. * * * Mind and hand are trained to- 
gether, enjoyment waits upon appreciation, and servile imitation gives 
way to the expression of individuality. 

Such, theoretically and ideally, is this school. If achievement lags 
behind aspiration in this instance it is because of the imperfection 
which inheres in all human institutions. It is apparent, however, that 
the institute is winning its way to success. Its second year's work is 
reported to have been double that of the first. " Instead of four rooms, 
there are now ten 5 instead of seven departments, fourteen; instead of 
three instructors^ nine," says the writer in the Home Journal. 

William Hamilton Gibson, the writer and artist, is the latest addition 
to the corps of instructors, assuming charge of the department of illus- 
tration and design. The other instructors and lecturers include John 
Ward Stimson, of the Paris Beaux Arts; Conrad Diehl, of the Munich 
Art School; Frederick Kaiffer, of the Munich Art School; J. A. Blan- 
kenship, pupil of Ohapu, Paris; Lyell Carr, of the Paris Beaux Arts; 
Mme. L. Prince, of Leeds and Paris; H. S. Barnes, E. Hunter, and 
others. 

Among those who are giving this institution financial support, the 
following are named : 

H. O. Havemeyer has sent to the institute $1,000; H. 0. Stimson, 
$1,400; the Paterson Silk Guild has contributed $1,400 toward the 
cooperative fund ; further contributed to by the Kew York jewellers, 
$1,200; George Burnham of Philadelphia, $2,400; and by many New 
York firms and manufacturing companies, including Tiffany, Gorham 
Manufacturing Co., Whiting Silver Co., Durand, Sloan, Cottier, Herter 
Bros., Cheney Bros., Terra Cotta Co., Phoenix Company. The Dry 
Goods Economist has sent and set up a loom in the institute, and the 
Silk Guild will furnish an instructor who will teach the students how to 
apply to the machine the designs they create, furnishing thus the 
nucleus of a textile school which is founded upon an organic basis. 
Many of the larger dry goods dealers have expressed a strong interest 
in this branch of the institute work, and have promised it pecuniary 
support once it is actively put in operation. 

Of the students who have received instruction at the institute several 
noteworthy successes are already reported : 

Mrs. S. Yedder, after two years of training with Mr. Stimson, went 
to Paris, at once stepped to the head of the ficole des Beaux Arts, 
took three medals, and has been accepted in the Salon. Two young- 
students, without consulting Mr. Stimson, entered the competition for 
the if ew York Herald prizes, offered to all students of different schools 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 109 

in tlie country for best work in illustration and pen work for i)ress 
printing. Among four hundred competitors tliey took the first and 
second prizes. A graduate from the institute, now one of Tiffany's 
best designers, gratuitously teaches in the evenings a class of metal 
workers at the institute. * * * 

With such a cori)s of instructors, with such an equipment, with such 
financial backing, and with such a spirit animating its students the 
prosperity of this institute seems assured. 

From a commercial and industrial point of view, the necessity of the 
best art instruction for artisans is becoming more and more a demand 
of the times. In an article of the New York Times of May 6, 1891, the 
failure of American manufacturers of textile fabrics to reach the stand- 
ard of excellence attained by their foreign rivals is attributed to the 
inferiority of American designs, color combinations, and factory work. 

SCHOOL OP INDUSTRIAL ART AND TECHNICAL DESIGN FOR 

WOMEN. 

The School of Industrial Art and Technical Design for Women in 
New York city owes its origin and prosperity to the intelligent pur- 
pose and energetic management of its principal, Mrs. Florence E. Gory, 
who, in October 1881, organized her first class of five pupils, instructing 
them in the principles of design and the practical application of those 
principles to industrial art. 

This institution is said to be the only school of practical design for 
industrial manufacture in the world. In other schools of design the 
teachers might teach a young lady to make a wall paper design j set 
her down with paper, brushes, and colors, she might make a beautiful 
design, but would not know (neither would the teachers) whether that 
design could be printed by machinery or not. She would not know how 
many colors she should use, how the colors should fall, the dimensions, 
or anything of the kindj the teachers do not know. A design may be 
well executed, faultlessly correct, and beautiful, yet worthless to the 
manufacturer because it cannot be woven or printed. Machinery has 
its requirements and its limitations, all of which must be considered 
when making a design, and without the practical knowledge necessary 
to do this an acceptable working design cannot be made. 

In this school pupils are made practically familiar with the workings 
of machinery and the technicalities of design as ai^plied to various 
industries, as carpet designing, wall paper, oil-cloth, linoleum, lace, 
chintz, silk, calico, leather, book covers, etc. 

Two years are required for the completion of the full course of in- 
struction. The first year classes are taught simple designing for calico, 
muslin, stained glass, inlaid woods, jewellery, etc. In the second year 
the pupils learn advanced designs for oil-cloth, silk, carpets, etc. 
Some pupils attend a postgraduate course of one year. During the 
year no formal instruction is given, but orders are received and work 



110 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

is done by the pupils under the supervision of the principal and well 
known designers. 
The principal writes, under date of August 6, 1801 : 

By far the greater number of graduates are at work in their own 
homes, and are not employed regularly at a stated salary by any manu- 
facturer. When their designs are finished they are sold to whichever 
manufactory pays the highest price. 

ART ACADEMY, CINCINNATI. 

The Art Academy of Cincinnati. Ohio, is devoted principally to the 
teaching of drawing and painting, but also to modelling, decorative 
design, wood carving, china painting, etc. 

Mr. J. H. Gest, assistant director, writing under date of August 6, 

1891, states: 

The aim of the school is to give artistic rather than industrial train- 
ing, though many students acquire here a skill as draughtsmen that is 
afterward of service to them in trades, especially in designing. As an 
instance of this I may refer to the Eookwood pottery, which has 
acquired considerable rei3utation for its decorated ware in Euroj^e as 
well as in this country. All of the decorators employed there are 
I)ui)ils of our academy, and all continue to attend the night classes. 

About 400 students annually receive instruction in drawing, i^aint- 
ing, and decorative art. 

OHIO MECHANICS' INSTITUTE. 

The Ohio Mechanics' Institute of Cincinnati has been in existence 
since 1828, and it is, therefore, one of the oldest of the schools of 
industrial art in the country, as it is one of the best. 

It has six departments, viz., mechanical, for engineers, metal work- 
ers, machinists, patternmakers, blacksmiths, etc. 5 architectural, for 
architects, car j)enters, masons, woodworkers, builders, etc.j artistic, 
for free-hand drawing, perspective, crayon, etc., for painters, carvers, 
cabinetmakers, etc., including instruction in designing as applied to 
the manufacture of furniture, jewellery, silverware, carx)ets, lace and 
damask hangings, etc.j practical mechanics 5 carriage draughting j 
mathematics — chiefly to aid work in other departments. 

Since its foundation 9,371 members have been enrolled in the insti- 
tute. During the school year 1890-^91 there were 720 names on the 
roll. 

TECHNICAL DRAWING SCHOOL, PROVIDENCE. 

The Technical Drawing School of Providence, Ehode Island, of which 
Mr. O. C. Anthony is director, was established in 1887 for the purpose of 
giving instruction in engineering and architecture, which, while ex- 
tending over ten months only, should furnish a thoroughly i)ractical 
technical training. 



CHAP. I. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. Ill 

The director, writing under date cf June 24, 1891, sends an incom- 
iDlete list of the former students of the school, with the j)resent occupa- 
tion of each. The list contains 22 names. Of these pupils 20 had 
become draughtsmen, 1 was an architect, and 1 a civil engineer. 

RHODE ISLAND SCHOOL OF DESIGN. 

The Rhode Island School of Design at Providence was opened in 1878, 
and in the year 1891 the number of students in the school was 341. In 
the department of free-hand drawing there were 21G, in that of mechan- 
ical drawing 125. There were 8 in the graduating class. 

Painting, modelling, and wood carving are also included in the courses 
of study. The course in each department is of three years' duTation. 
There are eight instructors. A new building is now being erected for 
the school. 

ART AND DRA'WING SCHOOL, SAINT LOUIS. 

From Mr. G. A. Schenk of Saint Louis, Missouri, we have received a 
circular descriptive of the Art and Drawing School conducted by him 
in that city. 

It appears that there are the following classes under his management : 

Mght school for free-hand drawing (Tuesday and Thursday), from 7 
to 9 p. m. 'y school for machinery, ^perspective drawing, etc. (Wednesday 
and Friday), from 7 to 9 p. m. Day school for drawing (daily, except 
Saturday), and school for carving and modelling (daily, except Saturday). 
Sunday school for drawing, carving, and modelling, and every Saturday 
drawing classes for boys and girls. 

The principal writes us, under date of August 26, 1891, that within 
the past fifteen years he has had over 3,000 pupils in the school. 
Among those who have attended this private school are lithographers, 
engravers, architects, carvers, modellers, designers, draughtsmen, etc. 

LOWELL SCHOOL OP PRACTICAL DESIGN. 

The Lowell School of Practical Design, Boston, Massachusetts, es- 
tablished in 1872 for the purpose of promoting industrial art, is now 
under the control of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Tu- 
ition is free to all pui)ils. 

The school occupies a drawing room and a weaving room in the 
building of the institute on Garrison street. The weaving room affords 
students an opi)ortunity of working their designs into actual fabrics 
of commercial sizes and of every variety of material and of texture. 
The room is supplied with two fancy chain looms for dress goods, three 
fancy chain looms for fancy woollen cassimeres, one gingham loom, and 
one Jacquard loom. The school is constantly provided with sami)les 
of all the novelties in textile fabrics from Paris, such as brocaded silks, 
ribbons, alpacas, armures, and fancy woollen goods. 



112 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

The course is of three years' duration. The nuuiber of students in 
this dei^artmeut is limited to sixty-five. 

MICHIGAN MINING SCHOOL. 

A technical school of high rank, called the Michigan Mining School, 
is locat-ed at Houghton. It might with propriety be called a specialized 
technological school, as its work is essentially the same as that in the 
mining engineering course of institutes of technology. It is especially 
organized to afford training and instruction for the following classe^s : 

(1) Those desiring a practical professional education in mining engi- 
neering, particularly graduates of colleges or schools in w^hich a more 
general or literary education is given. 

(2) Persons desiring as special students to take certain subjects as 
an aid in their practical work. 

(3) Persons wishing as special students to obtain a knowledge of 
some science taught here for purposes of general education, or for use 
in teaching, or as an aid in some other professional course. 

The course of instruction leads directly to a profession. The class 
of 1890 consisted of seven members. Of these four are reported as 
mining engineers, and one as a civil engineer. The equipment of the 
laboratories and shops of this institution is ample. 



AGEICULTUEAL COLLEGES. 

Intermediate in grade between the manual training school and the 
technological institute are the agricultural colleges of the United States. 
The department of agriculture has published a complete list of the 
schools and colleges of this class in forty-three states and territories. 
From an examination of the courses of study pursued in these insti- 
tutions it appears that eleven of these colleges of agriculture and me- 
chanic arts in this country, namely, those of Arkansas, Delaware, 
Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Ohio, Ehode Island, South 
Carolina, Tennessee, and West Virginia, hold out the promise of the 
degree of bachelor of arts to such as complete a prescribed course. 

There are about sixty institutions in the United States devoted to 
agriculture and the mechanic arts, but not all of these are of collegiate 
rank. The state of Georgia has six agricultural colleges, but only 
two of them have power to confer degrees of any kind. It is hoped that 
a symmetrical development of the two coordinate departments of the 
land-grant colleges may soon be witnessed, and that neither depart 
ment may be overshadowed by abnormal growth on the part of the 
other. 

We append a list of these schools, by states, with an outline of their 
courses of study. 



CHAP. I. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 113 

ALABAMA. 

The Alabama Polj^teclinic Institute, located at Auburn, was organized 
under the provisions of the land- grant act of 1862 by an act of the 
state legislature in 1879 as a state agricultural and mechanical college. 
It has received considerable aid from the state from time to time. Its 
teaching staff now numbers eighteen. There are five courses of study, 
three of which require four years each for completion, and lead to the 
degree of bachelor of science, viz., course in chemistry and agriculture, 
course in mechanics and engineering, and general course. The remain- 
ing courses, requiring but two years each, are the course in agriculture 
and the course in mechanic arts. 

The college affords to its students a three years' course in manual 
training, consisting of lessons in carpentering and turning in the first 
year J i^atternmaking, moulding and casting in iron and brass, and 
forge work in iron and steel in the second year j and chipping, filing, and 
machine work in the thirdyear. The Avork is obligatory with the prei)ara- 
tory and with the two lower academic classes, each student being re- 
quired to take three exercises a week of two hours each in mechanic 
arts. With the junior and senior classes the shop work is optional. 

The State Colored Normal and Industrial School at Huntsville 
was organized in May 1875. It has been aided freely by the state from 
the first, as well as by liberal contributions from the Peabody educa- 
tion fund, the John F. Slater fund, and private subscriptions. It 
was by the Alabama general assembly of 1890-'91 made the beneficiary 
of that part of the congressional grant, given under act approved 
August 30, 1890, ^'to the more complete endowment and support of the 
colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts." 

Instruction is given under the dei3artment of mechanic arts in car- 
pentry, i3rin ting, mattress making, and shoemakingj under the depart- 
ment of agriculture, in farming and horticulture, and in dairy and live 
stock; and under the department of domestic industries, in laundry 
work, cooking, cutting and sewing, nursing, and housekeeping. 

The number of students and the time devoted to the work in the 
various branches are shown in the following table taken from the cata- 
logue of 1890-'91 : 



Subject. 



Carpentiy 

Printing 

Mattress making 

Shoemaking 

Farming and horticulture 

Dairj' and live stock 

Laundry 

Cooking 

Cutting and sewing 

Kursing 

Housekeeping 

S^ Ex. 65 8 



students, 



Hours 
per day. 



2 

2 

2 

2 

2 to 8 

2 to 8 

2 to 4 

2 

2 to 4 



Days per 
-week. 



114 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

In addition to the above work in classes regularly organized for spe- 
cial instruction, all receive lessons in domestic affairs. 

All of the departments contribute in some way to tlie equipment of 
tlie institution, and are in most cases a source of income to the student 
as well as a means of training. 

The ISTorth Alabama Agricultural School at Athens has a course of 
studies which is designed as a preparation for the Auburn college. 
The faculty consists of the principal and two professors. 

At Abbeville is located the Southeast Alabama Agricultural School. 
In all there are five teachers, and the school is preparatory for the 
college at Auburn. 

ARIZONA. 

At Tucson there has been recently organized an agricultural uni- 
versity. Courses of study are not yet announced. 

ARKANSAS. 

The Arkansas Industrial University, a state institution, is located 
at Fayetteville. 

There are twenty-five in the teaching staff, and there are eight 
courses of study. The agricultural course of four years leads up to the 
degree of bachelor of scientific agriculture. There is also a two year's 
course in agriculture, but leading to no degree. The degree of mechan- 
ical engineer is conferred on students who have pursued a four years' 
course m that branch. The two years' manual training course does not 
entitle one to a degTee. A four years' course in civil engineering leads 
to the degree of civil engineer, a scientific course of the same duration 
leads to the degree of bachelor of science, and a classical course of four 
years leads to the degree of bachelor of arts. There is^ besides, a 
normal course of two years leading to a certificate of loroficiency. 

A course of manual training has recently been established, extend 
ing through the four years of collegiate study, and in close relation 
with the theoretical teaching. Five hours a week are given to drawing 
and ten hours a week to the shop work. The subjects taught in the 
training shops are carpentry and joinery, wood turning, cabinetmaking, 
patternmaking, foundery work, forging, metal fitting, machine tool 
wook, and care of steam machinery. 

The equii:)ment of the training shops is excellent. In the wood 
working shop there are 18 benches with tools, 7 turning lathes, circular 
saw, scroll saw, band saw, planing machine, etc. The forge shop has 
9 forges and all needed appliances. The machine shox)s have 13 benches 
with vises, sets of tools, etc. The foundery has a CoUan cupola with a 
capacity of a ton of iron. 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDTJCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 115 

Seventy-five stuclents can be accommodated in the shops at one time, 
di\ided among the rooms as follows : 

"Wood ^^vorking room 24 

Metal working room 18 

Forging room 9 

Foiindery 20 

Tool roohi 1 

Engine and boiler room 3 

The department of manual training in this university has been in 
operation for so short a time that there have been no graduates from 
the school. 

CALIFORNIA. 

At the College of Agriculture of the University of California, located 
at Berkeley, there is a four years' course of study, which leads to the 
degree of bachelor of science. Special students, also, are received. 
The faculty includes nineteen i^rofessors, six instructors, and fifteen 
assistant and other officers. 

COLORADO. 

The State Agricultural College of Colorado is located at Fort Collins. 
There are ten members of the faculty. The courses of study are two 
— ^the agricultural and the mechanical — each leading to the degree of 
bachelor of science. Only two years are required to complete either of 
the courses in addition to three years of preparatory work. 

The department of practical mechanics gives a systematic and pro- 
gressive education in the use of tools and materials. It does not teach 
special trades, nor manufacture salable articles. So, without teaching 
any one complete trade, the mechanical principles of many are gained. 

The shop instruction includes courses of 13 weeks each in bench 
work in wood, and iron and steel forging, and courses of 12 weeks each 
in wood turning, patternmaking, moulding and casting, machine work 
in metals, and vise work in metals. 

This course consists of exercises with the different wood working 
bench tools, so arranged in a graded series as to embrace the manipu- 
lation of the tools in their various applications. 

The first class, consisting of three members, was graduated in 1881. 
One of the graduates is a farmer and veterinary surgeon, another is a 
stockman, and the third, a woman, is married and at home. There 
were six members of the class of 1885. Five of them were women, 
four of whom are accounted for as at home, and the other one is a ]}yo- 
fessor in the state college. The one male graduate is assistant to the 
state meteorologist, at the experiment station. The class of 1880 had 
only one member. Four members belonged to the class of 1887. One 
is an engineer, one a librarian, one a county clerk, and one is at home. 
The class of 1888 had four members. One is a farmer, one a suiierin- 
tendent of an experiment station, one a teacher, and one a student 



116 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

abroad. The class of 1889 had but two graduates. One is a farmer, 
aud one a student. Mne students were graduated in 1890. Two are 
students elsewhere, two are at home, one is an engineer, one a clerk 
of a county court, one a teacher, one an instructor in irrigation, and 
one a professor of botany and horticulture in Wyoming. 

CONNECTICUT. 

The Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University at ]N"ew Haven 
is one of the institutions deriving income from the fund created under 
the land grant act of 1862. The teaching staff includes thirty-eight 
professors and assistants. 

The courses of instruction occupy three years, leading to the degree 
of bachelor of philosophy. The first year's course of study is the same 
for all. For the last two years special courses in chemistry, in civil 
engineering, in mechanical engineering, in agriculture, in natural his- 
tory, in biology preparatory to naedical studies, in studies preparatory 
to mining and metallurgy, etc., are provided. 

The state of Connecticut has another technical institution of a lower 
grade at Mansfield, known as the Storrs Agricultural School. The 
faculty consists of the x>rincipal and five assistants. The course of 
study requires three years, but leads to no degree. The course includes 
general and agricultural chemistry, natural x)hiiosoi)hy, farm mechanics, 
elementary geometry, land surveying, botany, zoology (including espe- 
cially domestic animals and insects injurious to the crox)S of the farm 
and garden), geology, human and animal physiology, agriculture, farm 
accounts, stock breeding, milk production, arithmetic, and English. 
Work on the farm of the school forms part of the required course. 

DELA'WARB. 

Delaware College at l^ewark has a faculty of eight professors. There 
are five courses of study, viz., the classical and the Latin scientific 
course, each leading to the degree of bachelor of artsj the course in 
modern languages and sciences, leading to the degree of bachelor of 
science J the course in engineering and science, leading to the degree of 
civil engineer; and the agricultural course, leading to a certificate 
of graduate in agriculture. The first four courses require four years 
each; the last, three years. 

FLORIDA. 

Lake City is the seat of the Florida State Agricultural and Mechan- 
ical College. It was established in 1884, and has military and manual 
trainin g departments. IS'ine professors are on the teaching staff. There 
are two courses of study, each requiring four years for completion. The 
classical, literary, and scientific course leads to the degree of bachelor 
of arts; the agricultural and mechanical course to the degree of 



CHAP. I. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 117 

baclielor of science. There is also a course leading to the degree of 
civil engineer. Tuition is free to all citizens of Florida. 

Concerning the effect of the act of Congress passed March 2, 1887 — 
the HatcTi bill — it is stated in the catalogue of this college for 1890-'91, 
that— 

The funds appropriated by Congress under the Hatch bill have 
become available, and experimental work, in accordance with the pro- 
visions of that billj began duriug the session of 1887-'88. 

During the past year many important improvements have been made, 
such as clearing the ground, erecting needed buildings, fencing, stock- 
ing with thoroughbreds and grades of every descrii)tion, and experi- 
ments extensively carried on with fertilizers and all sorts of crops. 

Nine of its bulletiDS, already published, furnish a partial exhibit of 
what has been done, which promises most valuable results to the farmers 
and fruit growers of the state. * * * This fund * * * greatly 
increases our facilities for teaching the natural sciences and practical 
agriculture, and our students are thus directly benefited through its 
use. 

The manual training department is equipped with tools, engine, etc. 
The college printing office is fully equipped with two good presses, a 
large cutting machine, and a full line of plain and ornamental type, so 
that a cadet may become a practical x>rinter in a short time without 
any expense. 

The course of instruction extends through four years. The shop 
work includes the use of wood working tools during the first year j for 
this work twenty-three double benches are provided with forty-six sets 
of tools. The second year is devoted to patternmaking and moulding, 
sheet metal work, brazing, and soldering. The third year is devoted 
to forge work. In the fourth year the use of machine tools for metal 
work is taught. 

Only students regularly qualified to enter the freshman class of the 
agricultural course will be permitted to take manual training, but for 
all taking the agricultural course it is obligatory, ^o student will be 
permitted to take drawing without the shop work, or vice versa, 

GEORGIA. 

At Athens is situated the Georgia State College of Agriculture and 
Mechanic Arts. There are thirteen in the faculty. The courses of 
study are three, each requiring four years for completion, viz., a course 
for the degree of bachelor of agriculture, a course for the degree of 
bachelor of engineering, and a course for the degree of bachelor of 
chemical science. In the engineering department there is also a par- 
tial course, known as the course in building and architecture, leading 
to a certificate of attainments. 

The Middle Georgia Military and Agricultural College at Milledgeville 
has a course of study preiDaratory to the University of Georgia. Elect- 



118 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. 

ive and commercial studies are provided. There are twelve in tlie 
faculty. 

The ]!^orth Georgia Agricultural College is located at Dahlonega. 
Eight persons make up the teaching staff. The course of study requires 
four years for its completion and leads to the degree of bachelor of artSi 
Partial courses, also, are provided, leading to certificates. 

The South Georgia College is at Thomasville. There are seven mem- 
bers of the faculty. The course of study is preparatory to the University 
of Georgia, including two years' work of the university gTade. 

The Southwest Georgia Agricultural College is located at Cuthbert. 
The function of this college is to prepare students for the University of 
Georgia, w^ith two years' university grade work. There are five in the 
faculty. 

The West Georgia Agricultural and Mechanical College is at Ham- 
ilton. The faculty consists of three members, and the. course of study 
is merely preparatory for the University of Georgia. 

ILLINOIS. 

The University of Illinois at Urbana has a college of agriculture. 
The faculty is composed of fifteen professors. There are two courses 
of study — the full agricultural course of four years, leading to the degree 
of bachelor of science, and the farmers' course of one year, leading to 
no degree. There is a school of mechanical engineering whose aim is to 
fit students to invent, design, construct, and manage machinery for 
any branch of manufacture. 

In the department of mechanical art and design instruction is given 
and i)ractice afforded in five different shops, viz., i)atternmaking, black- 
smithing, foundery work, bench work for iron, and machine tool work 
for iron. The mechanical building of this institution is of brick, 126 
by S8 feet. It contains a boiler room, a machine shop with lathes and 
other machinery, a pattern and finishing shop, carpentry and cabinet 
shops, and a blacksmith's shop, 32 by 36 feet, furnished with forges, 
anvils, and tools, and having a cupola for melting iron. 

This university was chartered in 1867, and opened to students in 
March 1868. 

INDIANA. 

At La Fayette is situated the School of Agriculture of Purdue 
University, a state institution, with free tuition to residents of Indiana. 
Thirty-five professors and instructors constitute the faculty. The four 
years' course of study leads to the degree of bachelor of science, and 
includes instruction in horticulture and veterinary science. 

IOWA. 

The Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts at Ames 
has a faculty of twenty-six professors and instructors. There are five 



CHAP. I. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 119 

courses of study, viz., the course in science and agriculture, leading to 
the degree of baclielor of science ; the course for ladies, leading to tlie 
degree of baclielor of letters; the course in mechanical engineering, 
leading to the degree of bachelor of mechanical engineering; the course 
in civil engineering, leading to the degree of bachelor of civil engineer- 
ing; and the course in veterinary science, leading to the degree of 
doctor of veterinary medicine. This last course requires three years' 
study; each of the other courses, four. 

This institution at first adopted the Eussian system of training to the 
performance of isolated and fragmentary parts of a complete work, but 
this plan has been abandoned and the manufacturing system substi- 
tuted for it. 

KAisrsAS. 

The Kansas State Agricultural College at Manhattan has a regular 
course of study, requiring four years for completion, and leading to the 
degree of bachelor of science. Special and postgraduate courses are 
provided, also. The faculty and other officers number twenty-one. 

KENTUCKY. 

The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Kentucky is at Lexington. 
The teaching stalf consists of seventeen members. There are four 
courses of study, each requiring four years, viz., the agricultural and the 
scientific courses, leading to the degree of bachelor of science; the 
classical course, leading to the degree of bachelor of arts; and the 
engineering course, leading to the degree of civil engineer. ISTormal 
courses of from one to four years are provided, and there is a commer- 
cial and phonographic department, with a principal and four assistants. 

LOUISIANA. 

The Louisiana' State University and Agricultural and Mechanical 
College is at Baton Eouge. Fourteen professors make up the faculty. 
There are three four -year courses. The course in agriculture, and the 
course in mechanics and civil engineering lead to the degree of bachelor 
of science. The literary course leads to the degree of bachelor of arts. 
There is a preparatory department, as well as a two years' commercial 
course, for such as desire instruction of a special character. 

MAINE. 

• 

The Maine State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts is at 
Orono. The faculty consists of twelve professors and instructors. 
There are five courses of study, each of four years. A course in agri- 
culture, a course in chemistry, and a course in science and literature 
lead each to the degree of bachelor of science; a course in civil engineer- 
ing leads, to the degree of bachelor of civil engineering; and a course 



120 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

in meclianical engineering leads to the degree of bachelor of mechanical 
engineering. Special courses leading to certificates are provided. 

As in many of the agricultural colleges, mechanical engineering 
takes precedence of other studies in this institution. Of the gradu- 
ates from this college it is said that ''less than 12 iier cent, are found in 
the learned professions," most of them having adopted mechanical 
pursuits. ''Measured by the money standard, there are graduates 
whose services are valued at from $3,000 to $6,000 per annum." This 
college graduated its first class in 1872. 

MARYLAND. 

The course of study of the Maryland Agricultural College requires 
four years, and leads to the degree of bachelor of science. Seven pro- 
fessors constitute the faculty. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Amherst is the seat of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. 
There are fourteen professors, lecturers, and instructors. The course of 
study requires four years, and leads to the degree of bachelor of science. 

The Bussey Institution of Harvard University is located at Jamaica 
Plain. It is a school of agriculture and horticulture, giving system- 
atic instruction in agriculture, useful and ornamental gardening, and 
stock raising, and is especially adapted for the instruction of young 
men who have been brought up as farmers or gardeners, as well as for 
those who wish to qualify themselves to be farmers or superintendents 
of farms, country seats, or public institutions, or wish to pursue some 
special course in agriculture, horticulture, botany, or entomology. 
There are seven professors and instructors. The course of instruction 
occupies one year, and if preceded by a preliminary course of one year 
at the Lawrence Scientific School, or its equivalent, and supi)lemented 
by a year of advanced study at the university, leads to the degree of 
bachelor of agriculture. 

During the year 1890-'91 there were seven students taking the 
agricultural course in this school. 

The instruction, briefly summarized, consists of lectures on the fol- 
lowing subjects, combined with practical work and exi)erimentation on 
the Bussey farm — theory of farming, horticulture -^and floriculture, 
landscape gardening and greenhouse work, tree culture, agricultural 
chemistry, botany, with special reference to the needs of agricultural 
and horticultural students, and entomology. 

The farm of 200 acres on which the institution buildings are situated 
affords ample facilities for practical experiment and observation in the 
art of agriculture. The farm is devoted primarily to the production o± 
hay, which is consumed upon the farm by horses and cattle taken to 
board. Students have constant opportunity to observe these animals, 



CHAP. I.— INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 121 

as well as the agricultural operations and the courses of crops by which 
the fertility of the soil is kept up. 

The tuition fee for the academic year at the Bussey Institution is $150, 
but this is freely remitted to i)oor and deserving students. A few 
students are boarded free of cost in consideration of services rendered 
upon the farm, in the greenhouses, or about the buildings. Estimated 
expenses, aside from tuition, vary all the waj^ from $200 to $350 per 
annum. 

The Arnold arboretum on the Bussey farm was founded for the pur- 
pose of scientific research and experiment in arboriculture, forestry, 
and dendrology, and as a museum of trees and shrubs suited to the 
climate of Massachusetts. Students of the institution have free access 
to it. 

MICHIGAN. 

There are thirfcy-one members in the faculty of the Michigan Agricul- 
tural College. This institution is located at Agricultural College. The 
courses of study are two — the agricultural and the mechanical, each 
leading to the degree of bachelor of science at the end of four years. 
There is a postgraduate course also. 

MINNESOTA. 

The College of Agriculture of the University of Minnesota is located 
at Saint Anthony Park. Professors and instructors to the number of 
seventeen compose the faculty. The course of study requires five years 
for comioletion, and leads to the degree of bachelor of agriculture. 

The State School of Agriculture is also located at Saint Anthony 
Park. The faculty consists of twelve members. The course of study 
requires two years for comiDletion, and leads to a certificate. 

MISSISSIPPI. 

The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Mississippi is at Agri- 
cultural College. There are nineteen members of the faculty. The 
course of study covers four years, and leads to the degree of bachelor 
of science. Preparatory and postgraduate courses are provided also. 

The Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College at Eodney ofi'crs 
three courses of study, viz., the academic course and the scientific pre- 
paratory course, each requiring two years for completion, and the 
scientific course of four years, leading to the degree of bachelor of 
science. The faculty is made up of nine officers. 

MISSOURI. 

The Agricultural and Mechanical School of the University of the 
State of Missouri is located at Columbia. The faculty consists of 
eleven members. The agricultural course requires three years for com- 
pletion, and leads to the degree of bachelor of applied science. A 
special course in agriculture of one mouth^s duration is provided. 



122 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

President E. H. Jesse, writing under date of Aiignst G, 1891, says: 

Manual training will begin here for the first time in our college of 
agriculture and mechanic arts next September, l^ext year (1891-'92) 
we shall have wood work, the year after iron work. We mean to equip 
the department well and to manage it properly. 

He states, further, that, under direction of Prof. 0. M. Woodward of 
Saint Louis, the institution is making iKovision for one hundred 
students. 

NEBRASKA. 

The Industrial College of the University of j^ebraska is located at 
Lincoln. The faculty has twenty-three members. The courses of 
study occupy four years each, and are specialized as folloAvs : Electrical 
course, chemical course, course in agricultural chemistry, course in 
geology, course in botany, course in zoology, course in agricultural 
biology, and civil engineering course. Graduates of these courses re- 
ceive the degrees of bachelor of science, bachelor of agriculture, and 
bachelor of civil engineering. There is also an elementary agricultural 
course of two years. 

NEVADA. 

The School of Agriculture of the I:^evada State LTniversity is located 
at Eeno. There are ten professors in the faculty. The regular four 
years^ course of study leads to the degree of bachelor of science. A 
short course in agriculture is also i3rovided, requiring five months' 
attendance each year for four yearSj but not leading to a degree. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

At Hanover is located the State College of Agriculture and the 
Mechanic Arts. Twelve professors and instructors comioose the faculty. 
There are two courses of study, each of four years' duration and leading 
to the degree of bachelor of science, viz.^ the course in agriculture and 
chemistry, and the course in mechanical engineering. 

NEW JERSEY. 

Eutgers Scientific School of Eutgers College at j^ew Brunswick has 
twenty-one professors and instructors in the faculty. There are three 
distinct courses of study, each requiring four years' attendance, and 
leading to the degree of bachelor of science, viz., a course in civil 
engineering and mechanics, a course in chemistry and agriculture, and 
a course in electricity. Besides, there is a special course in agricul- 
ture, of two years' duration, leading to a certificate of attainments. 

NEW MEXICO. 

The Agricultural College of Kew Mexico is located at Las Cruces. 
At present the faculty consists of five professors, but additional in- 
structors are to be employed. The college was opened January 21, 



CHAP. I. INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 123 

1890. The courses of study, as now arrauged, include an academic 
and commercial course, a scientific and literary course, a course in 
agriculture and mechanic arts, and the classical course. 

NEW YOKK. 

The College of Agriculture of Cornell TJniversity at Ithaca has a 
faculty of eight members, belonging strictly to the teaching staff of 
this department. But the number of i)rofessors, instructors, and assist- 
ants teaching some part of the work in the college of agriculture is 
fifty-one. The regular course of study requires four years' attendance^ 
and leads to the degree of bachelor of science in agriculture. A post- 
graduate course, leading to the degree of master of science in agricul- 
ture is i)rovided, and special courses also are arranged for such as wish 
to take them. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

At Ealeigh is situated the Il^orth Carolina College of Agriculture and 
Mechanic Arts. The faculty is composed of eight professors and in- 
structors. This college is of recent organization, and its course of study 
has not been defined. 

NORTH DAKOTA. 

The iSTorth Dakota Agricultural College is at Fargo. Its organiza- 
tion is not yet completed, and its officers have not been appointed. 

OHIO. 

Columbus is the seat of the Ohio State University. The facultj^ con- 
sists of thirty-four i)rofessors and assistants. In this institution there 
are three general courses of study, each requiring four years' attend- 
ance, and leading, respectively, to the degrees of bachelor of arts, 
bachelor of philosophy, and bachelor of science. The technical courses 
comprise a course for the degree of bachelor of agriculture, requiring 
four years j a three years' course for the degree of doctor of veterinary 
medicine 5 a four years' course for the degree of civil engineer j two 
courses, one in mechanical the other in electrical engineering, each of 
foui' years, and leading to the degree of mechanical engineer j a course 
of four years for the degree of engineer of mines ; a course for the degree 
of graduate in pharmacy, requiring three years ; also two years' courses 
in agricultiu'e and in mining. PostgTaduate courses are provided. 

OREGON. 

The Oregon State Agricultural College is at Corvallis. The faculty 
is composed of twelve professors. The course of study requires three 
years, and leads to the degree of bachelor of scientific agriculture. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

At State College is located the Pennsylvania State College. There 
are twenty-two professors and assistants on the teaching force. The 



124 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

four years' courses of study are as follows : A general science course, a 
Latin scientific course, a general course in agriculture, an advanced 
course in agriculture, advanced course incliemistry, course in physics and 
electro teclinics, course in civil engineering, course in meclianical engi- 
neering, course in natural history. The college also provides a course 
in mechanic arts requiring three years for completion j a ladies' course 
in literature and science requiring two years j and a special course in 
chemistry of the same duration. The general course in agriculture 
leads to the degree of bachelor of agriculture. The other four years' 
courses lead to the degree of bachelor of science, the diploma desig- 
nating the specialty pursued. 

President Atherton, of the Pennsylvania State College, writing 
August 6, 1891, states that — 

It is only within the last five or six years that the college has paid 
any special attention to mechanical training. The college was origi- 
nally founded as a manual labor and agricultural school, and, after 
many vicissitudes, the manual labor feature was dropped many years 
ago. 

jSTearly all our students are engaged in what might be called, gener- 
ally, the industrial professions. Some of our recent graduates have 
attained remarkable success, and I attribute that result to the fact 
that, without sacrificiug anythiug of thoroughness in the theoretical 
work, we introduce a very large amount of experimental application in 
connection with it. 

RHODE ISLAND. 

Brown University at Providence is one of the institutions deriving 
income from the land grant. Twenty-two professors and instructors 
constitute the teaching staff. There are five courses of study, each 
occupying four years. They lead to the following degrees : Bachelor 
of arts, bachelor of philosophy, bachelor of science, and the degrees of 
civil engineer and mechanical engineer. 

An extended course of study in agriculture is open to all students. 
It includes special lectures on agriculture relating to the history of 
agriculture, the study of soils, fertilizers, rotation of crops, etc.. and to 
applied economic zoology. Under the latter head are discussed the 
distinctive characteristics of the most approved breeds of neat cattle, 
horses, sheep, and swine. Practical instruction is also given upon 
insects, birds, and animals injurious and beneficial to the farmer and 
hortic Lilturist. 

In May 1892 the Ehode Island State Agricultural School at Kings- 
ton was incorporated as the Ehode Island College of Agriculture and 
Mechanic Arts. This change was followed by certain changes in the 
course of study and in the character of the instruction. This school as 
thus reorganized is prepared to fulfil on both the agricultural and me- 
chanical lines the purpose of the land-grant act. , 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 125 

The institution now oifers two courses of study of four years eacli. 
In the freshman year, and to a great extent in the sophomore year, the 
work for the two courses is the same. But from the beginning of the 
junior year the two courses follow lines which have aims clearly differ- 
ent. An outline showing the subjects taken up in the two courses of 
instruction is given in the following tabular statements : 

AGEICULTUEAL COURSE. 





Hours per week. 


Subject. 


Freshman 
year. 


Sophomore 
year. 


Junior year. 


Senior year. 




1st 2nd 
term term 


3d 
term 


1st 
term 


2nd 
term 


3d 
term 


1st 
term 


2nd 
term 


3d 
term 


1st 
term 


2nd 
term 


3d 
term 




2 





2 


3 
2 








3 


4 


3 






^crri culture practical. ........... . 














5 


4 




















Al^'ebra and lo^aritlinis .. ...... 


5 






































2 






AsvrouoTny .... 




















4 




Bench Avork in wood and woodturniTig 


6 


G 
5 








































Botany, elementary and physiological 

mipniistrv . . 








4 


5 
5 


...^. 


2 
9 


















4 
a 6 








Drawin "■ free-liand .............. 






4 


2 
















2 
2 














En o'lisli ........ 


5 


5 


3 


3 






4 


4 


















2 










3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 








3 










Geoloo'j' study and excursions 




















2 


4 






3 


3 
2 


3 
















History 


2 


























4 












Inspection^ . . 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 




" "1 












aQ 








Laboratory work, clicniical ...... 
























Laboratory work;, physical 








2 


2 


2 




















3 
3 












Levellino" and road surveying 


.... 1 






















1 
















3 




Mechann^s, agricultural 




6 












3 


aQ 
























4 


Microscopy 


1 












2 












3 1 2 


2 


2 


2 
2* 


2 












Modelling 
















:::::i:::" 














1 


2 




Patternmaking 






4 






















3 


3 


3 














Pbysioloey 




3 


2 














Political economvand science of gov- 
















4 


4 




ernment. 
Snrvevin <'■ ...... .. .... 












7 










Thesis work 






















■ s 


Ttigonometrv 










3 
















Veterinary science, anatomy, etc 


















5 


4 


4 


Wood work 








3 


3 












Zoology and entomolo"^y 










4 














27 


35 








28 


26 


27 


■ 






Total 


28 


27 


27J 


24 


18 


19 


17 







Elective. 



126 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 
MECHANICAL COUKSE. 





Hours per week. 


Subject. 


Ereshman 
year. 


Sophomore 
year. 


Junior year. 


Senior year. 




l3t 

term 


2nd 
term 


3d 
term 


1st 
term 


2nd 
term 


3d 
term 


1st 1 2nd 
term term 

1 


3d 1st 
term term 

, 1 


2nd 
term 


3d 
term 


Affri culture. ............ ... ... 


2 
5 


..... 


2 










































5 




















Astronomv .......... . --. 




















4 




Bencli work in wood and. wood turning 


6 


6 

5 


































1 






Botany .......... ....^. ............ 








4 


5 


1 




















3 
6 


3 3 
ad 


















5 


7 


ad 


ad 


Constructions., t 








6 








1 












2 








Drawin*"' fres-liand ... ....... .. 






4 


2 
















Drawing, meclianical 






2 


3 


::::.T'"3' 


a3 


















3 










Elef'tT-icity applied 




















a3 


ad 


ad 


En o-lisli- ..'. 


5 


5 


3 


3 


2 




. 


4 


4 










ad 
ad 


ad 
ad 


ad 


Erencli or German 








3 


3 


3 


3 1 3 


3 


ad 




3 












G eometa" Y 


3 


3 


6 






1 










Geometry, analytical 








4 
2 


4 
































History ............. .... 




2 


"i' 


! 




















1 


1 
3 


1 
3 




























Ijal)oratory work, cliemical . . . ' 














a 6 

2 








Eaboratory work, mechanical 1 
























■ 




2 


2 


2 


2 
3 










Latlie work 


... ! 




3 


























6 


6 


6 


M^eclianics agricultural 




6 


















"NTftcliar.ipHJ tiiPOTp+iral anfTftpplipd . 


















5 


4 


5 




: :: : ■ 














3 




Mental science. .'^ 




















4 




3 


2 


2 


2 


2 
2i 


2 














Mlodellin"" 














Orations ? 


















2 


2 










4 
















Physics 






3 


3 


3 














Physiology 




3 


2 














Political economy and science of goy- 
ernment. 
















4 


4 




















2 




Suryeyin''" 












1 












Thesis work 






















3 












3 








































Total 


27 


35 


28 


28 


27^ 


28 


24 


26 


25 


23 


23 


21 















a Electiye. 

The methods of instruction followed pay particular regard to the 
practical application of the various branches. Laboratory or shop work 
is given throughout the courses in accordance with the most approved 
methods. Ghemistryj for example^ is taken up during the second year. 
The work in general chemistry, in which continued applications are 
made in the lines of agriculture, physiology and hygiene, etc., is followed 
by the study of agricultural chemistry, taken up by students of the 
agricultural course in their third year. The laboratory work in this 
branch consists of such exercises as the analysis of milk, butter, and 
cheese, soils, fodder, and fertilizers, tests for poisons in the stomachs of 
animals, the study of chemical changes in soils, and work in artificial 
digestion. 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 127 

The instruction in agriculture includes farm management, buildings, 
tools, crops and their cultivation, soils and drainage, manure and fer- 
tilizers, stock breeding and feeding, with lectures upon dairying and 
specialties in agriculture. The close relation of the school with the 
agricultural experiment station is of great advantage to it, as the work 
of the farm and its equipment in the line of stock, tools, etc., may at 
any time be used in practical illustration of the work of the class room. 
The instruction in agriculture also includes practical field work in the 
afternoons. Gare is taken in the teaching of other subjects, as chem- 
istry, botany, geology, zoology, etc., to show their relations to agricul- 
ture. In geology, for instance, attention is given to the study of rocks, 
their elements, and the processes by which they are changed to soils; 
the study of soils, soil analysis, and the causes of soil sterility. 

In addition to the regular courses just described, during the winter 
a short course in agriculture and mechanics is offered. Persons taking 
this course may have special instruction in. veterinary science, agricul- 
turcj the chemistry of fertilizers, dairying, including milk, butter, and 
cheese analysis, carpentering, wood carving, iron work, and such part 
of the regular courses as they may deem best. This course continues 
through the winter term, about three months. 

The tuition at this school is free to Ehode Island pupils. Both sexes 
are admitted. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

The College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts of the University ot 
South Carolina is at Columbia. There are twenty- two professors and 
instructors connected with the institution. The regular courses of 
study are six in number, each requiring four years for completion, and 
leading to the degree of bachelor of science, viz., a course of general 
science, a course of civil engineering, a course of mechanical engineer- 
ing, a course of agriculture, a course of chemistry, and a course of nat- 
ural history. There are, besides, four special courses, each requiring 
two years for completion, and leading to a certificate: A shorter course 
of applied science, a shorter course of agriculture, a shorter course of 
general science, and a business course. Elective courses are provided 
in special cases. 

The College of Agriculture and Mechanics' Institute in connection 
with Claflin University is located at Orangeburgh. The faculty con- 
sists of seventeen professors and instructors. There are ten courses 
of study: The college classical course of four years, leading to the 
degree of bachelor of arts ; the college scientific course of three years, 
leading to the degree of bachelor of science,- the college philosophical 
course of three years^ leading to the degree of bachelor of philosophy. 
Then there are the college preparatory course and the normal course 
of three years each, leading to diplomas. The English course requires 
six years, leading to a certificate. The kindergarten course of one 



128 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

year also leads to a certificate. The same is true of the four years' 
English Bible course^ the four years' music course, and the three years' 
art course. Twenty industrial courses are provided. 

SOUTH DAKOTA. 

The South Dakota Agricultural College is located at Brookings. 
Nineteen professors and instructors belong to the faculty, and there 
are also a foreman of the farm, a herdsman, and an engineer. There 
are three courses of study, each requiring four years for completion, 
and leading to the degree of bachelor of science, viz., a course in agri- 
culture, a course in domestic economy, and a course in mechanic arts. 
The two years' course in pharmacy leads to no degree. 

Under date of July 7. 1891, the president writes that of the 20 gradu- 
ates 5 are farmers, 2 lawyers, 3 clerks, 6 teachers, and the occupations of 
the others are not certainly known. There are only three graduates 
from the mechanic arts department. Of these 1 is cashier in a bank, 1 
teaching blacksmithing and machine drawing, and 1 wood carving and 
machine shop practice. 

TENNESSEE. 

The State Agricultural and Mechanical College of the University of 
Tennessee is at Knoxville. Seventeen professors and instructors con- 
stitute the faculty. There are seven courses of study, viz., the literary 
scientific course, the Latin scientific course, the course in agriculture, 
the course in civil engineering, the course in mechanical engineering, 
the course in chemistry, and the course in mining engineering. The 
college confers the degrees of bachelor of arts, bachelor of science, 
bachelor of philosophy, and bachelor of agriculture. 

TEXAS. 

The State Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas is located at 
College Station. There are twenty-eight professors and other of&cers of 
the institution. The two regular courses of study require four years 
each, viz., the agricultural course, leading by specialization of studies 
either to the degree of bachelor of scientific horticulture or to the degree 
of bachelor of scientific agriculture^ and the mechanical course, leading 
by the same i3rocess to the degree of bachelor of civil engineering or 
to the degree of bachelor of mechanical engineering. Siiecial and 
postgraduate courses are also provided. 

UTAH. 

The Agricultural College of Utah Territory is located at Logan. The 
organization of the college is not yet comi>leted, and courses of study 
have not been arranged. 

VERMONT. 

The State Agricultural College of the University of Vermont is at Bur- 
lington. The teaching staff includes sixteen professors and instructors. 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 129 

In the department of agriculture there are four courses of study, viz., 
the full agricultural course of four years, leading to a degree; a short 
course in agriculture, requiring two years; a winter school of agricul- 
ture, occupying eleven weeks; and a winter course of lectures to farm- 
ers, without fee for tuition. 

VIRGINIA. 

The Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College is located at 
Blacksburgh. There are fourteen members of the faculty. The regu- 
lar courses of study are four, each occupying four years, viz., course in 
agriculture, leading to the degree of bachelor of scientific agriculture; 
course in mechanics, leading to the degree of mechanical engineer; a 
general course, leading to the degree of bachelor of science; and a 
course in civil engineering, leading to the degree of civil engineer. 
There is also a business course. 

A course of instruction in drawing and in the use of wood working 
tools has been given to successive classes since 1886, and in the use of 
iron working tools since 1887. The course runs through three years, 
and averages six hours of work per week. The school shops are reported 
to be well supplied with machine and hand tools. 

At Hampton is located Hampton Kormal and Agricultural Institute. 
There are sixty-seven members of the faculty, including the instructors 
in the normal department, the night school, the Indian department, 
and the separate industrial departments for the men and the women. 
The course of study occupies three years, but does not lead to a degree. 

WEST VIRGINIA. 

West Virginia University is located at Morgantown. Sixteen pro- 
fessors and instructors constitute the faculty. Two regular courses of 
study, each of four years, lead to the degrees, respectively, of bachelor 
of arts and bachelor of science. In the department of engineering 
there is a four years' course provided, which leads to the degree of 
civil engineer. Provision is also made for preparatory and postgrad- 
uate work. 

•WISCONSIN. 

The College of Agriculture of the University of Wisconsin is at 
Madison. There are twenty-one members of the faculty. The course 
of study in the department of agriculture occupies four years, and 
leads to the degree of bachelor of agriculture. There are also short 
courses designed to occui^y the student during the winter terms of 
two years, viz., a dairying course, a milk testing course, a course in 
butter making, a cheese making course, a course in animal husbandry, 
one in agricultural chemistry, one in veterinary science, one in horti- 
culture and economic entomology, etc. 
S. Ex. 65 9 



130 KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIGNEE OF LABOR- 

MANUAL LABOR IN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGB3. 

The deprirtmcnt of agriculture lias published a valuable report enti- 
tled, Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Convention of the Association 
of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations held at 
Washington, D. C, August 12 to 18, 1891. 

In this bulletin appears a paper prepared by Prof. Massey of l^ortli 
Carolina, and read at the session of August 11, on the subject, ''To 
what extent may manual labor be introduced into the curriculum of 
land-grant colleges?" 

The essayist took the ground that the only manual labor to be re- 
quired in an agricultural college course is such as may properly, come 
under the head of laboratory work. In his own words : 

Statistics show that in colleges thoroughly equipped for their work, 
and in which the laboratory methods are used, and the minor manual 
operations merely incidental, a much larger proportion of the students 
enter agricultural occupations than from the best of those where com- 
pulsory and paid manual labor is the rule. 

Further, the writer quotes Prof. Bailey as saying: 

The graduates from the Cornell College of Agriculture, and they are 
as many as from any bona fide agricultural school in the country, all 
follow agricultural pursuits. 

Prof. Massey continues : 

I do not want it to be supposed that I oppose the teaching of all fjirm 
operations in an agricultural college. They should be taught, but no 
further than they are educational and necessary for the proper under- 
standing of the subject at the time in hand, all partaking of the nature 
of laboratory work. oSTothing further than this should be attem]3ted. The 
effort to make skilful farm laborers at such an institution will necessar- 
ily result in failure, lower the educational standard of the college, and 
as a consequence turn out men with a narrow and incomi)lete education. 

It was shown in the discussion which followed that by actua.1 analy- 
sis the purely agricultural colleges ivere sending 34 per cent, of their 
graduates back to the farm as actual practical farmers, and that doubt- 
less a larger x)ercentage of the graduates of these institutions followed 
the i)rofession for which the institutions were maintained than could be 
claimed for the graduates of the professional schools of any other calling. 

EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 

Each of the forty -three states and territories mentioned in tke fore- 
going list has at least one agricultural experiment station, either di- 
rectly connected with its college of agriculture or under the control of 
the local government, and in several states there are two or more such 
stations. 

LEGISLATION FOR AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 

It is worthy of note that a fresh impetus was given to the work of 
the agricultural colleges throughout the country by the act of Congress 
approved March 2, 1887, providing for the establishment and mainte- 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 131 

imiice of these experiment stations connected witli tlie colleges founded 
in tlie several states under the provisions of the act of July 2, 1862. 

By this act of 1887 (known as the Hatch bill) the sum of $15^000 
was appropriated to each state for the purpose of paying the neces- 
sary expenses of conducting investigations and experiments bearing 
directly on the agricultural industry of the United States. This was 
made a continuing appropriation to be si>eci^lly provided for by Con- 
gress in the appropriations from year to year. 

The act forms an admirable and necessary supplement to the original 
legislation of 1862, and its effect is apparent in the increased efficiency 
of the agricultural colleges previously established, and in the rapid devel- 
opment of new institutious of this character in states which had not, 
l)rior to the enactment of the Hatch bill, availed themselves of the priv- 
ileges offered by the land- grant act. 

But it is none the less true that an important factor in promoting 
the forward movement of technical education in America was the 
land-grant act of 1862, by means of which the colleges of agriculture 
and the mechanic arts have received in the aggregate more than 
$16,000,000. 

The relative amounts realized by the several states from the sale of 
land or land-scrip apportionments are quite unequal. The proceeds 
X)er acre have varied from 41 cents for Ehode Island to $5.57 for Cali- 
fornia, and $6.73 for IsTew York. This variation is due, however, to the 
greater or less skill exhibited by the different states in the financial 
management and final disposition of their holdings. Under the admin- 
istration of Mr. Cornell and (since his death) of the Hon. H. W. Bage, 
the proceeds of the IsTew York state land grant now amount to nearly 
$5,000,000, and this vast sum constitutes the endowment fund of Cornell 
University, affording an ill nstration of the wisdom of the policy, in this 
instance at least, of giving the whole income to a single institution. 
Some of the states, it is believed, made a serious mistake in consent 
ing to a distribution of the educational revenue derivable from this 
source among several collegiate establishments — their well meant im- 
partiality reducing the proportion of each to so small an alloAvance as 
to be of little benefit. But, to quote the words of Prof. H. W. Tyler 
of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in the Forum for Sep- 
tember 1891: 

Although technological schools existed before the passage of the 
land-grant act; although others have been founded and successfolly 
conducted without its aid; although it has been applied to a great ex- 
tent to the promotion of agricultural education ; and although, finally, 
the income from it is often but a fraction of the total revenue of the 
institutions receiving it, yet it can not be doubted that the grant, 
coming at an opportune time, greatly accelerated the development of 
scientific and technological education, and thereby contributed materially 
to the extraordinary industrial progress of the past twenty years. Its 
authorship is not the least among the public services of Senator Morrill 
of Yermont. 



132 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

mSTITIJTES OF TECHNOLOGY. 
RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE. 

" Technological education in the United States," remarks Prof. Tyler, 
in the Forum article before referred to, '^ may be said to date from the 
founding of the Eensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, 'New York, in 
1824. Stephen Van Rensselaer, its founder, as a member of -the state 
board of canal commissioner s^ had been actively interested in the con- 
strution of the Erie canal. 

"Engineering as a profession was unknown j men were educated by 
the^Tork, not for it. The object of the new institution was the general 
dissemination of that moderate amount of scientific knowledge which 
its founder recognized as indispensable to the community. Although 
conducted at one time as a general polytechnic school, the institute has 
been from its foundation primarily a civil engineering school, interxDret- 
ing civil engineering, however, in a sense almost as broad as that which 
once excluded only military engineering." 

The faculty consists of eighteen professors and instructors. The 
course of study in civil engineering is now the only course of the insti- 
tute. All the regular members of the institute pursue this course, and 
the degree conferred is that of civil engineer. It should be stated, 
perhaps, that civil engineering is understood to include mechanical or 
dynamical engineering, road engineering, bridge engineering, hydraulic 
engineering, steam engineering, electrical engineering, mining engineer- 
ing, and sanitary engineering. 

The studies of the course are designed to secure to all the graduates 
a professional preparation at once thorough and practical. The course 
of study occupies four years. The number of students in 1890 was 174. 

About 1,000 students have been graduated from the institute, includ- 
ing the membership of all the classes from 1826 to 1889. Of these 
nearly aU have followed some branch of engineering as a profession, 
though a very few are registered as lawyers, professors, etc. 

;N"othing need be said of the thoroughness of the equipment which 
the training of this institute supplies,- its graduates, fr^om Eoebling 
down, are the best exponents of the school, and attest the value of its 
instruction. 

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OP TECHNOLOGY. 

The Massachusetts Institute of Technology at Boston was char- 
tered by the state legislature April 10, 18G1, and opened in February 
18G5. This institution receives one-third of the income accruing to 
Massachusetts from the land-grant fund. 

There are twelve regular four years' courses of stady, each leading to 
the degree of bachelor of science, viz., civil engineering, chemical engi- 



CHAP. I.— INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 133 

neering, electrical engineering^ mining engineering, mechanical engi- 
neering, sanitary engineering, metallurgy, architecture, biology, chemis- 
try, geology, physics. The studies are the same for all courses during 
the first year 5 after that divergence begins, with specialization for 
professional work. 
Prof. Tyler writes: 

At the end of the first year {a) the student must decide which one of 
the diverging courses to follow, the results of the previous work guid- 
ing or restricting this choice. A student can not, for instance, pursue 
an engineering course without having shown some aptitude for mathe- 
matics. At present the drift is toward the mechanical, electrical, and 
civil engineering courses in the order named, these comprising nearly 70 
per cent, of students pursuing fiill courses. 

In the second and succeeding years, the more important features are: 
First, the progressive substitution of technical for general subjects j 
second, a corresponding increase in the amount of laboratory work j 
and finally, the gradual introduction of more or less independent origi- 
nal work, scientific research, technical investigation, or constructive 
design. Thus, in the fourth year of the course in mechanical engineer- 
ing, the student devotes himself almost entirely to more advanced techni- 
cal work, either in mill or marine engineering, or in locomotive construc- 
tion. Laboratory work takes the form of tests of boilers, pumps, and 
so on, followed by an investigation to be embodied in the graduating 
thesis. It may be added that the engineering laboratories are in no 
sense '^ toy workshops." Among the apparatus for experiment are, for 
example, a 150-horse power engine, and a testing machine capable of 
breaking full-sized beams up to 25 feet in length. 

Shop work occupies a strictly subordinate position. Its object is to 
impart some familiarity with tools and with materials, not to produce 
skilled mechanics. Eegular instruction is supplemented, but not super- 
seded, by excursions to manufactories. 

A noteworthy characteristic of the curricula of the engineering 
courses is the unity secured by basing all ux)on a nearly uniform found- 
ation, not merely of mathematics and physics, but of an extended 
course in mechanics and the strength of materials, with laboratory 
work. All regular students receive systematic instruction in litera- 
ture, history, and political economy, as well as in modern languages. 

The following is an outline of the course in mechanical engineering: 

COUESE ZNT MECHAlflCAL ENGQfEERIKG. 
First year. 



First term. 


Second term. 


Subject. 


Weeks. 


Hours 

per 
week. 


Subject. 


Weeks. 


Hours 

per 
week. 




8 
7 
15 

15 
15 
15 
15 


4 

4 

7 

2 
3 
6 
1 
.♦ 


Plane and spherical trigonometry. 
General chemistry; qualitative 
analysis. 

Political history since 181 5 

French (or German) . ... 


10 
15 

15 
15 
15 

15 


5 


Alo"el)i"a 


6 


General chemistry witli laboratory 

Tfork. 
Khetoric and English composition. 


2 
3 


Mechanical drawing and descrip- 
tive geometry. 
Free-hand dra win"'. 


G 


Mechanical drawing. 
Free-band drawing 


0. 


Military driU 


Military d^m ° 













a Now at ttie end of tlic first half-year. 



134 



KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



COURSE IN" MECHANICAL E]S^GI:^fEE^.IXG— Concluded. 
. Second year. 



First term. 



Subject. 



Weeks 



Hours 
per 

week. 



Second term. 



Subject. 



Weeks. 



Hours 

per 
■week. 



Principles of mechanism 

DraAving 

Carpentl'y and Avood turning 

Analytic geometry 

Descriptive geometry 

Physics 

Englisli literature 

American history 

German (or Erencli) 



Mechanism : gear teeth ; machine 
tools ; cotton machinery. 

Drawiiig .' 

Pattern Avork 

Diflarential calculus 

Physics 

English literature and composi- 
tion. 

German (or French) 



Third year. 



Steam engineering; valA'e gears 
thermodyn amies. 

DraAviug 

Forging^ 

Integral calculus 

General statics 

Physics : heat 

Physical laboratory 

German (or French) 



15 


3 


15 


6 


15 


6 


5 


4 


10 


2 


8 


2 


7 


2 


15 


3 



Steam engineering; boilers 

Drawing,"design, and use of sur- 
veying instruments. 

Engineering laboratory 

Forging ; chipjiing and filing 

Strength of materials; kinemat- 
ics and dynamics. 

Physical laboratory 

English composition 

German (or French) 



15 


3 


15 


6 


15 


2 


15 


4 


15 


3 


15 


2 


15 


2 


15 


3 



Fourth year. 



Steam engineering 

Hydraulics 

Dynamics of ma^thines 

Machine design 

Engineering laboratory 

Chipping and filing ; niachine-tool 
work. 

Strength of materials ; friction 

Metallurgy of iron 

Heating and ventilation 

Elements of dynamo machinery 



Options. 



Marine engineering 

Locomotive construction 

Mill engineering 

Naval architecture 



8 


2 


7 


2 


9 


3 


15 


8 


15 


4 


16 


6 


15 


3 


15 


1 


15 


1 


6 


2 


6 


2 


6 


2 


15 


8 



Hydraulic motors , 

Engineering laboratory 

Mp"chine-tobl work 

Strength and stability of struct 

ures ; theory of elasticity. 
English composition , 

Options. 

Marine engineering 

Locomotive construction , 

Mill engineering 

Naval architecture 



The tuition fee is $200 per year. Api)]icants for admission to tlie 
institute must be 17 years of age, and must sustain an examination in 
aritlimetic, algebra, plane geometry, and history, Engiish language 
and literature, and in Frencli or German. 



VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY. 

At Yanderbilt University, ISTashville, Tennessee, in addition to the reg- 
lar academic course of study, there are various professional depart- 
ments, with, only one of which we are now concerned, viz., the engineer- 
ing department, in which are twenty-two professors and instructors. 
This department comprises three professional schools, namely, the 
schools of civil, mechanical, and mining engineering. A four years' 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 135 

course in eitlier of tliese schools leads to the degree of bachelor of engl- 
neeringj but a fifth year's course is provided for such as choose to 
pursue advanced studies. The first year studies are the same for the 
three engineering classes, but in the second year the courses diverge 
toTrard the seA'eral specialties. The work laid out for each branch of 
engineering is essentially identical vrith that of all first class schools of 
this kind, though more attention is given to modern languages — French, 
Grerman, and Spanish — than in most schools of engineering. 

Tuition in this department is $50 per annum, and necessary expenses, 
all told, amount to $200 per annum and upward, according to the habits 
and mode of living of tlie individual student. Special students are ad- 
mitted to partial courses in this department. The whole number of 
students in the engineering courses in 1890-'91 was oo. 

LAWRENCE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL. 

As befits a great university, Harvard offers faciUties for the success- 
ful prosecution of special and professional stu-dies of every description. 
The Lawrence Scientific School, for example, is a department of this 
university in which the following courses of technology may be pur- 
sued: Civil and topographical engineering, chemistry, geology, biolog}', 
and electrical engineering. The course of study in each of these 
branches extends through four years and leads to the degree of bachelor 
of science, the course of study for which the degree is given being speci- 
fied in the diploma. There were 88 students in the different classes of 
the Lawrence Scientific School in the academic year 1890-'91. 

LAFAYETTE COLLEGE. 

Technical courses of instruction are provided at Lafayette College, 
Easton, Pennsylvania. 

The civil engineering course, leading to the degree of civil engineer, is 
comprehensive and thorough, including not only studies in civil engi- 
neering, but topographical, hydraulic, and mechanical eugineering. Its 
object is to give its students such instruction in the theory and prac- 
tice of engineering as to qualify them for immediate usefulness in the 
field and office, and, after a moderate amount of actual practice, to fill 
positions of trust and importance in their chosen profession. 

The location of Easton is most favorable for an engineering school. 
The city is at the junction of the Delaware and Lehigh rivers, and is 
a great centre for railroads, canals, bridges, founderies, pipe works for 
water, gas, etc., rolling mills, repair shops, and many other industrial 
works. 

The mining engineering course, leading to the degree of engineer of 
mines, includes instruction in topographical and mechanical engineer- 
ing, mining, chemistry, metallurgy, and in other studies essential to 
the thorough preparation of the student for mining and metallurgical 
work. 



136 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Iron mines are close at hand, and the anthracite coal mines and zinc 
mines are easily accessible j these, with the extensive quarries of lime- 
stone, steatite, and slate in the vicinity, offer excellent opportunities 
for the study of mining and quarrying operations. 

The chemistry course includes lectures, text book study, and labora- 
tory practice, and leads to the bachelor o^science degree. An electrical 
engineering course was organized in 1889, conferring the" degree of elec- 
trical CDgineer on those who graduate in the course. Each course ex- 
tends through four years. 

UNIVERSIT-S- OF CINCINNATI. 

A four years' course in civil engineering is open to students at the 
University of Cincinnati, of Cincinnati, Ohio. This is the only technical 
department of the university now in active operation, though provision 
for other special studies is soon to be made. 

A peculiarity of the university is that all departments of it are virtu- 
ally a part of the public school system of the city. Instruction in the 
university, as in the high schools, is free to all residents of the city. 
Even necessary expenses, such as laboratory fees, are reduced to the 
lowest i)racticable limits. There is not a family in the municipality that 
may not educate its sons and its daughters thoroughly without charge 
at every stage from childhood to manhood and womanhood. The in- 
come from the endowment funds of the University of Cincinnati is aug- 
mented by an annual city levy of one-tenth of a mill. 

LBLAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY. 

The first school year of the Leland Stanford Junior University at 
Palo Alto, California, began October 1, 1891, and, as a matter of course, 
the character and gradation of its educational work in all departments 
have not yet assumed an ultimate form. Departments and courses of 
instruction in mining, civil, mechanical, and electrical engineering have 
been organized. 

The purpose of the university, as expressed in its charter, is to estab- 
lish ''such seminaries of learning as shall make it of the highest grade, 
including mechanical institutes, museums, galleries of art, laboratories, 
and conservatories, together with all things necessary for the study of 
agriculture in all its branches, and for mechanical training, and the 
studies and exercises directed to the cultivation and enlargement of the 
mind." 

■WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE. 

The Worcester Polytechnic Institute at Worcester, Massachusetts, 
though sometimes classed with schools of manual training, is virtually 
an institution of college rank. The requirements for admission to its 
lowest class are fully equivalent, except as to Latin and Greek, to the 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 137 

standard of entrance examinations in the best Kew England colleges. 
Candidates must be sixteen years old, and must be well iirepared in 
arithmetic, geography, grammar, United States history, French, plane 
geometry, and algebra as far as quadratic equations. As a fact, the 
average age of those admitted is over eighteen years, and under that age 
candidates are seldom mature enough for success in the work required. 
The faculty deem it advisable that the candidates, before applying, take 
a full high school course, including, if possible, such knowledge of Latin, 
Greek, and ancient and mediseval history as is generally required for 
admission to college. 

The courses of study and practice in the Worcester institute are 
comprised in the following departments, viz., mechanical engineering, 
civil engineering, chemistry, electrical engineering, x)hysical and politi- 
cal science. The mechanical engineering course occupies three and 
one-half years 5 the course in electrical engineering four and one-half 
years; in each of the other departments three years. 

The institute is organized on the same general plan as the European 
polytechnic schools. Its faculty consists of twelve regular instructors 
and professors, and eleven assistant instructors. One hundred and 
ninety- six students were in attendance in the classes of all departments 
of the institute for the year 1890-'91. 

Statistics concerning the graduates of this institute, covering the 
twenty years, 1871 to 1891, show that more than 90 per cent, of the 
graduates are engaged in occui)ations for which their training at the 
institute specially prepared them. 

At the Washburn shops connected with the institute are manufac- 
tured for sale machinists' tools, engine and speed lathes, twist drill grind- 
ers, emery grinding machinery, hydraulic machinery, direct plunger 
elevators, accumulators, general wood work, school apparatus, etc. 
Thus students of the institute have the advantage of practice and 
training in shops where the actual business of manufacturing salable 
articles is carried on. They do not merely mark time — they advance. 

The cost of tuition is $150 per annum j but several free scholarships 
are open to Worcester county students, and, under certain conditions, 
to residents of other i3arts of the state. 

Students who satisfactorily complete the prescribed course of studies 
in any department of the institute receive at graduation the degree 
of bachelor of science, the diploma merely designating the dej)art- 
ment of study which the graduate has pursued. 

ROSE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE. 

The Eose Polytechnic Institute of Terre Haute, Indiana, was founded 
in 1874 by the late Chauucey Eose of Terre Haute, and was opened 
March 7, 1883. It is devoted to the higher education of young men in 
engineering. Ihis term inclu€les all those productive and constructive 
arts by which the forces and materials of nature are made subservient 



138 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

to tlie ueeds of man, together with the i)rmciples which underlie those 
arts. 

Tlie faculty consists of fifteen members^ and there are, in addition, six 
instructors in the various shops. The course of study lasts four years, 
and a high standard of excellence is required of the student. Tuition 
is free to residents of Yigo county j all others pay $75 a year each. 

This institution has graduated seven classes, inclading^ the class of 
1891. The class of 1885 consisted of 3 members, all of whom are 
now engaged in some branch of engineering. The graduates in 1888 
numbered 16 j of these, 12 follow engineering. In 1887 there were 8 
graduates 5 5 are engineers. The class of 1888 was composed of 11 
members j 9 of them are engineers. In 1889, 9 students were gradu- 
ated ; 8 are now engineers. Fourteen students were graduated in 1890 -, 
12 are engaged in engineering specialties. The catalogue of 1892 
states that 8 of the class of 1891 are engaged in various branches of 
engineering- 3 are students, 2 are teachers, 1 is a draughtsman, 1 is a 
railroad emx)loye, 1 a confectioner, and there is 1 whose occux^ation is 
not given. 

STEVENS INSTITUTB OF TECHNOLOGY. 

The Stevens Institute of Technologj^ at Hobohen, 'New Jersey, is es- 
sentially a school of mechanical engineering. It has been in operation 
twenty years, and its reputation is firmly established as one of the best 
of technological schools. Eighteen professors and instructors make up 
the teaching staff. The course of study occupies four years. Tuition 
fees amount to $150 a year for state residents 3 all others pay $225. 

Each senior class has an opijortunity to go on an inspection tour, 
visiting the principal centres of locomotive and machine manufacture, 
as Philadelphia, Hartford, Springfield, Boston, Providence, Fall Elver, 
etc. 

The list of alumni who have received the degree of mechanical engi- 
neer from this school, as given in the catalogue, contains the names of 
nearly 400 graduates, most of them now engaged in some branch of 
engineering. 

CASE SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE. 

The Case School of ApiDlied Science at Cleveland, Ohio, was opened 
September 15, 1881. There are eleven members of the faculty all 
told. 

There are seven regular courses of study : The general course ; civil 
engineering 5 mechanical engineering; mining engineering j electrical 
engineering J physics ; and chemistry. Each course requires four years' 
study. 

Freshmen must be at least sixteen years old and must satisfy th€ 
faculty of qualification. 



CHAP. I. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 139 

The wliole number of studeuts in the scliool, according to tlie cata- 
logue of 1890-'91, was 103; of these, 51 belonged to the freshman class. 
The whole number of graduates up to 1890 was 41. 

One member of the class of 1887 is reported as pursuing postgradu- 
ate studies at Zurich. One of the class of 1889 is a vstudent at Heidel- 
berg, and another in Paris. All the rest of the graduates are engi- 
neers, chemists, drau ghtsmen, assay ers, or instructors in science. There 
were 7 members of the class of 1890; 2 are engineers, 2 are chemists, 
2 are draughtsmen, and 1 is an electrician. The courses in chemistry 
are open to students, not candidates for a degree, who desire to pre- 
pare themselves for work in special lines. 

MISSOURI SCHOOL OF MINES AND METALLURGY. 

The Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy is an institute of tech- 
nology with civil and mining engineering and metallurgy as specialties. 
It is a college of the University of the State of Missouri, and is located 
at Eolla, Phelps county, on the line of the Saint Louis and San Fran- 
cisco railway, about 100 miles southwest of Saint Louis. 

The usual courses in the diflerent branches of engineering are pur- 
sued in this school, and degrees are conferred at the end of the three 
years^ courses on graduates in civil, mining, and mechanical engineer- 
ing. 

Certificates of proficiency are given also to such as pass an examina- 
tion in special studies. The total number of graduates is 46; of these, 
24 are engineers, 13 are assayers and chemists, 3 are teachers, 2 are 
daughtsmen, 1 is an editor, 1 a doctor, and 2 are at home. 

UNIVERSITY OP MICHIGAN. 

The University of Michigan at Ann Arbor has incorporated shop 
work with its theoretical engineering courses. It was originally the 
plan of the trustees to open the mechanical laboratory to all classes 
of students, biit on account of the large number of applicants in excess 
of the capacity of the shops, it became necessary to Umit the admission 
to engineering students. 

With the $9,500 appropriated in 1888-'89 the laboratory has been 
finished and is now receiving additional equipment. An instructor in 
forging has been added, so that now in addition to the sui^erintendent 
there is a skilled mechanic in each of the four shops. The capacity of 
each of the shops is approximately as follows : Wood room, 18 at one 
time, 2 sections, 36; iron room, 12 at one time, 2 sections, 24; forge 
shop, 12 at one time, 6 sections, 72 j foundery, 12 atone time, 3 sections, 
36j total, 168. 



140 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

COLUMBIA COLLEGE SCHOOL OF MINES. 

The School of Mines of Columbia College, in the city of 'New York, 
is a general technological school of the highest class. The school offers 
seven courses of four years each leading to professional degrees. In 
addition, the school offers a graduate course of two years leading to 
the professional degree of sanitary engineer. The regular courses are 
in mining engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, metal- 
lurgy, geology and paleontology, analytical and applied chemistry, and 
architecture. 

As in all the best schools of the kind, lectures and recitations are 
supplemented by constant laboratory and field work. A feature of the 
course in mining engineering, that, perhaps, better than any other, 
represents the tendency of the instruction in technological schools, is 
the summer school of practical mining, held for six weeks during June 
and July at some mine selected for the purpose. Attendance upon this 
summer school is a part of the required work of the third year. It is 
not an experiment, but has been in successful operation since 1877. 

The course of study in this summer school includes shaft sinking, 
drifting, stoping, timbering, underground haulage, hoisting, mine 
drainage, ventilation, surface plant and machinery, mine buildings, 
shops, houses, etc., water supply, drainage, organization, and adminis- 
tration. The students are divided into small squads, and assigned to 
a foreman, or a working gang of miners, for the study of some defi- 
nite subject. Each squad of students is visited several times during 
the day by the instructor, who supplements the explanations of the 
miners, and indicates subjects demanding special study and observa- 
tion. Manual labor and the acquirement of manual dexterity by the 
student are subordinated to the development of his powers of obser- 
vation, and to the careful and critical study of the work going on 
about him, and the recording of his observations and study in notes 
and sketches taken on the spot. The work is not confined to a single 
mine, but excursions are made to other mines and mining regions. 

It may not be out of place to repeat what has already been said in 
the introduction, that the plan of this report did not contemplate a 
census of the various schools. The schools that have been mentioned 
here may be taken as representative of what is being done in the line 
of technological education in the special schools and in the colleges 
and universities of the best class. 



CHAPTER IL 



PRESENT STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN 

AUSTRIA. 



141 



CHAPTER II. 

PEESEUT STATUS OF HfDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA. 

MANUAL TRAINING. 

In its general outlines the system of education in Austria is almost 
identical with that of Germanj^ Its machinery consists of a series of 
schools, supi^orted Tvholly or in part by the municipal authority, by the 
government, or by local societies. There are, for example, kindergar- 
tens, primary schools, intermediate, manual training, trade, real, and 
high schools, gymnasia, etc., forming successive gradations calculated 
to facilitate the pupil's progress through all the stages of his physical 
and mental development from infancy to maturity. The relation be- 
tween the several consecutive grades, however, is not so close as this 
statement, if left unqualified, might lead one to infer. In Austria, as 
in nearly all civilized lands, there is a gap between the kindergarten 
and the i)i^iniary school [Yollcss elude). 

Herr Eiss, of Vienna, a member of the provincial diet, who, in the 
capacity of delegate from Austria, attended the manual training con- 
gress held at Munich, September 22 and 23, 1888, and made an inter- 
esting rej)ort before that body of educators ui)on the condition of the 
work school movement in Austria, referred on that occasion to this 
defect in the school system of his native land. 

None but boys from 11 to 14 years of age are now admitted to the 
school shox)S supported by the association for the establishment and 
maintenance of school workshops in Oisleithania (a). 

The association fully recognizes the existence of the chasm in the 
system, extending from the first to the fourth class of the x)rimary school; 
and it is of the opinion that the aims of educational hand work can 
never be attained until they are expanded in both directions so as to 
embrace the kindergarten system of Froebel and all grades above it from 
the first class of the primary school to the highest class of the citizens' 
school (Bilrgersclnde). It is, according to Herr Eiss, a matter for regret 
that the Austrian schools are not today in a condition to reduce to 
practical eifect this ideal. 

The object of the school workshops is, first of all, x>edagogic. The 
aim is to hold the shops in strict and intimate relation with the school 

a Cisleithania, this side of tlie Leytlia — a river of that name forming a part of the 
hounclary between Austria and Hungary — is a local appellation of Austria, used to 
distinguish that country from Transleithania, that is, Hungary. 

143 



144 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

of tlieoretical. instruction, and it is believed that this purpose is best 
subserved by selecting for shop construction such objects as the pupil 
studies about in the school. IJaturally, the choice of objects depends 
upon the kind of school to which the pupil belongs. As has been indi- 
cated, the Austrian system is not a rigid one, but is adjustable to vary- 
ing conditions and circumstances. 

Without presuming to decide which method is to be preferred, we 
note the difference between this system of imparting manual instruction 
in shops separate and apart from the school, and the method pursued in 
the manual training schools, for example, at Saint Louis, Chicago, and 
elsewhere in this country, where shop iDractice and the ordinary studies 
of the high school grade are taught conjointly under one roof, and, for 
the most part, by the same teachers. In Austria no attempt is made 
to combine in the same institution the discipline of shop work and tui- 
tion in the academic branches of the public schools. 

In the Austrian school shops, according to Herr Eiss, the boys are 
taught modelling in clay, wood carving, carpentry (bench work), and 
card work. Each of these exercises, it is explained, has a distinctive 
educational idea behind it. The first two branches serve to broaden 
and deepen the knowledge of drawing acquired by the pupil at school. 
Physical training is the main purpose of carpentry, while card work 
afibrds illustrations of the applications of geometry. 

The first school shop in Vienna was instituted by the aforementioned 
association in the ISTeubau district August 10, 1883. It opened with 60 
13upils, classed in two divisions. The second school shop followed on 
February 16, 1887, with 40 pupils. The erection of school shops is now 
looked forward to in the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and eighth 
districts of Vienna. In the ninth and tenth districts shops are main- 
tained by other societies, whose discipline differs in some respects. 

In Simmering, two miles below Vienna, a school shop, patterned after 
those in Vienna, has been founded through the initiative and sacrifice 
of the teacher. Wiener-J^eustadt, the second largest city of Lower 
Austria, has, by authority of the diet of Lower Austria, opened a 
school shop in the teachers' seminary, located there under the director- 
ship of one of the Vienna pupils. School shops have also been recently 
established at Griitz, Lemberg, Troppau, Bielitz, Memos, Prague, and 
Eeichenberg, some conducted and equipped according to the Swedish 
model, but most of them formed on the Vienna system. At Prague, 
during the vacation time of the school year 1887, a three weeks' course 
in card work was carried out. 

As long ago as 1884, however, a course of manual training for teach- 
ers was opened in Vienna. Beginning October 1, in that year, it con- 
tinued until the end of March 1885, and thirty teachers from Vienna 
and its suburbs received instruction during the course. The time 
allotted to work was two hours and a half on two evenings in the week. 

Since then this teachers' course has been maintained every year, and, 



CHAP. II. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA. 145 

ill all, one liundrecl and forty teachers fromYienna and its vicinity have 
enjoyed the advantages of the instrnction. During the vacation season 
of 1887 (from July 18 to August 22) a five weeks' course was conducted 
in Vienna, open to the teachers from all the provinces of the Gisleitha- 
nian half of the empire. Ninety-nine teachers attended this vacation 
course, of whom 38 were from Bohemia,* 10 from Moravian 13 fromGal- 
iciaj 5 from Silesia j 16 from Lower Austria j 2 from Upper Austria; 1 
from Carinthia; 7 from Oarniola; 2 from the Tyrol; and 5 from Klis- 
tenland. This shows the lively interest felt by the profession in Austria 
in the promotion of this branch of instruction. 

During * the summer course of 1888, 28 citizen school teachers and 
primary school teachers were in attendance, together with 1 imperial 
district school inspector, 2 teachers of practice schools, and 1 director 
of a citizens' school. The working time in this course was seven hours 
a day, and each hearer was required to choose a principal and a sub- 
ordinate specialty. It should be added that these teachers worked 
with untiring zeal, x)ractising both before and after the api:)ointed hours. 
Almost all of those pursuing the course of 1888 enrolled themselves for 
the next vacation session. The state grants a subvention for the six 
months teachers' course of 300 florins ($102.30) a week, and the same 
sum is now appropriated, through the ministry of instruction, for the 
vacation course. Eoyalty, also, has manifested a personal interest in 
the work of the association, his majesty Emperor Franz Josef I. contrib- 
uting 200 florins ($68.20) towards its support in 1888. 

The association now has more than 300 members, all of whom are 
active and earnest in promoting the establishment of the school shops. 

The teachers of Yienna and, so far as can be ascertained, of Austria, 
are, by a great majority, friendly to manual training; and the people, 
so far as public opinion can be known, are in sympathy with the new 
branch of instruction, recognizing fully the advantages which their 
children derive from it. 

Speaking of the future work of the association, Herr Eiss said : 

I believe that the association, which has so far confined its activities 
to Yienna, should now. change its tactics, and in the future work for 
the spread of its cause throughout all Oisleithania by the organization 
of local associations, by newspaper articles and pamphlets, by aiding 
in the equipment of school shops, etc. 

In this way the promise which I made at Magdeburg last year will 
be kept, that Yienna, as the most southerly point and centre of the 
manual training proi^aganda, will do her frill duty. 

In conclusion, Herr Eiss said : 

Yienna and Oisleithania will labor indefatigably, in concert with 
Sweden, France, and Germany, for the extension and promotion of 
manual training. 

From the ofiS^cial and authoritative statement of Herr Eiss we turn 
to consider next the history of the manual training system in certain 
municipalities of Austria. 
S. Ex. 65 10 



146 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

At Budapestli, for example, the organization of manual training 
scliools was effected in 1886. The new system has already almost 
entirely superseded the repetition schools ( Wiedernolungsschulen) which 
were formerly so common. 

Tlie reasons for the change are given by Herr Josef Korosi, director 
of the bureau of communal statistics. He says that parents often 
objected to their children attending the evening school ( Wiederholungs- 
scliule) after working through the dayj and, as attendance was 
optional, the classes Avere apt to dwindle to very small proportions. 
At the close of the year only two or three, often only one pupil, would 
remain in attendance j that is, on paper, while in fact the class had 
become extinct. 

To counteract this evil schools of manual training were instituted, 
and the attendance of apprentices at these schools was made obliga- 
tory. The fact that these schools are properly classified as manual 
training schools is evident from the description of their function, for 
they serve to supply apprentices with the theoretical and practical 
knowledge (of drawing and modelling) which is necessary for admis- 
sion to a trade school, where they may continue their studies with suc- 
cess. There are also i^reparatory classes for iDupils not sufficiently 
advanced to pursue the regular course with profit. 

The plan of studies in the new schools requires a three years' course. 
In the preparatory class, six hours a week are occux)ied with theoretical 
studies, and four hours with drawing. In the regular course, during 
the first year, ten hours a week are allotted to the following sub- 
jects: Accounts, literature, geometry, free-hand drawing, and model- 
ling. The second and third years carry forward these studies, and 
physics is added to the curriculum. 

Only ten hours a week are devoted in the aggregate to school work 
during any year of the course j and drawing and modelling include all 
there is of manual training at Budapesth, for no attempt is made to 
familiarize students with wood turning or iron working tools. 

Under the municipal statute every district must maintain at least one 
manual training school, and, as a matter of fact, each district has one 
such school j districts 5 and 6 have two each, and districts 7 and 8 three 
each — sixteen in all. 

The whole number of pupils enrolled in the sixteen schools, for the 
year 1888-'89, was 7,357. Of this number 5,499 belonged to the schools 
at the close of the year, and of those belonging there were — i3repara- 
tory class, 1,808 j first year course, 2,195 j second year course, 1,120 j 
third year course, 376. Pupils are admitted to the preparatory classes 
at the age of 9 years and upward, but the average age is from 13 to 
17 years. The larger part of the iDupils become apprentices of lock- 
smiths, masons, carx^enters, tailors, and printers. 

At the beginning of the period covered by the report (1885-1889) 
there were six schools of industrial drawing in the city. In 1889 all 
but one of them had been discontinued. The attendance at the remain- 



CHAP. II. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA. 147 

ing scliool lias steadily declined from 1,714 in tlie year 1885 to 98G in 
1888-'89. The i)rincipal reason for tMs falling off in numbers is to be 
found in tlie fact tbat the majority of the pui)ils attend the manual 
training schools, in which drawing forms a required study. 

Another tj^^ical Austrian school of manual training is described in 
the second annual report of the State Imx)erial School for Artisans at 
Klagenfurth. We glean from the pages of this report all that is perti- 
nent to our i)urpose. 

The KaiserUcli-Kbnigliclie StaatsSandicerlcerscJiiile in Klagenfurth 
is essentially a manual training school, since its object is by means of 
theoretical instruction and practical exercises to impart the knowl- 
edge and skill which are desirable as a preparation for learning an 
industrial occupation, especially a manual trade. The teaching force 
consists of the director and 9 teachers, and 2 master workmen (1 for 
wood and 1 for metal work) give practical instruction in the shoi^s. 

Architectural, free-hand, geometrical, industrial, and technical draw- 
ing, technology, commercial arithmetic and commercial bookkeeping, 
natural science, a knowledge of materials, religious instruction, geog- 
raphy, business customs, the German language, manual training, and 
shop work are the subjects taught. The term of study and practice 
in this school lasts ten months in each year. The number of pui)ils 
for the year 1890-^91 was 41. The course requires two years work for 
its comi)letion . 

In connection with the manual training school are two other depart- 
ments — the public drawing class (in which the instruction lasts seven 
months, with thirty hours practice each week), and the industrial con- 
tinuation school, which also gives a seven months' course, with nine 
hours instruction each week. 

During the school year 27 iDupils were enrolled in the drawing class, 
and 147 in the two continuation classes. For admission to the first 
class of the manual training school, the pupil must be twelve years 
old. There is no age limit for entrance into the other departments. 
The school is yet only three years old. 

It is unnecessary to attempt making a full enumeration of the Aus- 
trian manual training schools, and the only remaining institution of 
this class to which we shall now direct attention is the Fadagogium of 
Yienna. This is described as " unique of its kind, not only in Austria, 
but perhaps in the whole of Europe, " since it gives " attention to every 
side of the teachers' training, " including in its course exercises in 
turning and sewing. 

It is a normal school organized on a i^eculiar plan. It was opened in 
the autumn of 1868, under the directorship of Dr. Frederick Dittes, with 
a three year's course of instruction. Dr. Emil Hannak, speaking of 
the school at that period, says : " The Fadagogium soon won for itself 
a rei)utation reaching far beyond the boundaries of Austria, and was 
jfrequently sought by teachers from southeastern Europe. " 



148 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

In 1881 tLe Pddagogium was reorganized. As Dr. Dittes liad re- 
signed, Dr. Emil Hannak, director of the seminary establislied at Wiener- 
j!!Teustadt, and previously engaged nnder Dr. Dittes at the Padagogmm^ 
was called to the head of the institution, and entrusted with the man- 
agement of the same. 

This institution had its origin in the conviction that the well-being 
of the public schools depends upon the careful training of the teachers 
in all that loertains to the acquisition of knowledge, the art of imparting 
it, and the best methods of instruction, supplemented by experimental 
practice in teaching under competent supervision. 

COXTmUATIOK AND TEADE SCHOOLS. 

Continuation schools (ForthildungsseJmlen) in the smaller cities assume 
a general character. Apprentices and young workingmen of all trades 
are assembled indiscriminately in the same schoolrooms; and while 
general subjects of education are imparted to all alike, special theoret- 
ical instruction pertaining to the trade of the individual i)upil is given 
to him. For instance, the shoemaker is instructed in the anatomy of 
the foot, and his drawing models are feet, boots, shoes, etc. The tailor 
is instructed in the general anatomy of the human body and must draw 
patterns of clothing according to certain measurements, and so on for 
all the other trades where feasible. But no practical instruction is given, 
no actual tuition in the use of tools. 

In the large cities like Vienna, for example, every prominent trade 
has its own FortMldungsschule, supported by the guilds composed of 
the owners of trade establishments. Thus there are schools for car- 
penters, joiners, turners, painters, printers, confectioners, watch- 
makers, locksmiths, etc. 

This tendency to establish special schools is seen in Vienna in a 
Forthildungsscliule for restaurant waiters. In this school instruction 
is given in French, in deportment, in the first principles of calisthenics, 
and in rapid commercial calculation. The school is supported by hotel 
keepers and restaurant owners, who send there, for a few hours each 
day, boys that wish to become expert waiters. 

Geiverheschulen are true trade schools of a high grade. A pupil 
entering one of these becomes a ftiU-fledged workman at graduation. 
All Geiverheschulen in Austria are conducted in strict accordance with 
one model — the Gewerbe-Museiom in Vienna, which exercises a general 
supervision over that class of schools. All the drawing and clay mod- 
els are the same throughout the empire, and it may be safely asserted 
that when one has seen one school he has virtually seen all of them. 

These schools are scattered over the whole of Austria, and they are 
located mainly with a view to supply the wants and necessities of the 
geographical position. The schools for weaving and knitting and the 
manufacture of textiles in general are nearly all located in Bohemia, 



CHAP. II. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA. 149 

Moravia, and Silesia, tlie inliabitants of the provinces named liaving 
pursued these industries from time immemorial. 

Tke schools of artistic wood carving are found for the most iiart in 
the Tyrol and in Stj^ria and Oarinthia, whose inhabitants are appar- 
ently endowed by nature with a special talent for this class of work. 

Schools for the building trades, etc., may be found everywhere, while 
schools for special trades are located in certain isolated spots where it 
is deemed necessary by the government to create or foster home indus- 
tries. 

All recognized trades and branches thereof are represented by schools, 
for example, of the art trades, building trades, machine industry, chem- 
ical industry, textile industry, lace making, every species of wood 
working, stone and marble cutting, willow working, pottery, brass 
working, glass industry, gunsmithing, locksmithing, watchmaking, 
iron and steel industry, musical instrument making, of jewel manufact- 
uring, and of leather working. 

In order to exemplify the methods of instruction i3ursued in the Aus- 
trian trade schools and to convey to the mind of the reader a distinct 
idea of the variety of branches taught and the results attained in the 
Fachscliulen, we select a few of the establishments of this character for 
detailed description, beginning with the school of the wood working 
industry at Bruck. 

The school year 1890-'91, which the present report covers, is the tenth 
of the existence of the Eoyal School of the Wood Working Industry 
{KaiserUcJi-Kdnigliclie JFachschule fur Holzindustrie) at Bruck on the 
Mur. The school year began September 15, 1890, and closed July 31, 
1891. During the year 31 regular trade pupils {FachscJiiiler) were 
enrolled, of whom 26 were in the division for joiners and furniture 
makers, 7 in the carpentry division, and 1 in the turning department. 
Six of the number were new members, and 2S were hold-overs from the 
preceding year. Of the whole number 2 are dead, 2 left the school in 
the course of the year and chose a different callings and 30 remained to 
the close of the year. 

In addition there were 17 young people in attendance as extraordi- 
nary pupils, 11 of whom were unemployed laborers, who desired to 
improve their education during the winter season. All of these were 
day school pupils, but, besides, instruction was given in two classes 
of the industrial continuation school (Forthildungsscliule) connected 
with the FaclisclmJe. These classes were held in the evenings and on 
Sundays, and boys only were received as pupils. 

The term began October 15, 1890, and closed May 15, 1891. In the 
first year's course 52 apprentices were enrolled j in the second, 15. The 
teaching staff of this wood working school consists of the director and 
5 assistants, 4 of whom are master workmen. Four additional teachers 
are employed as helpers, though not on the regular force. The subjects 
taught are special and industrial drawing for builders and cabinet- 



150 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



makers, free-liancl drawing^ shades aud projections, arcliitectural draw- 
ing, wood turning, religion, geography, correspondence, business forms, 
arithmetic, bookkeeping, shop practice^ etc. 
Following are the statistical data of the first decade of the Bruck 

Fachschule : 



ATTEND AK"CE AT THE BEUCK FACWSCMTTL E,lSSl-lSdl. 





Pupils. 


. Pupils in each trade. 


Year. 


Enter- 
ing. 


At end 
of year. 


Gradu- 
ated. 


Joiners. 


Pattern- 
makers. 


Type- 
cutters. 


Turn- jCariien- 
ers. I ters. 


1881 '82 


8 
17 
30 
33 

28 
20 
22 
3G 
45 
34 


:? 

26 
26 
22 
20 
20 
32 
37 
30 


2 

5 
6 
4 
7 
2 
5 
4 


7 

14 
24 
18 
15 
13 
11 
24 
35 
26 


2' 

5 
9 
8 


1 

1 
1 
1 






IBS'-" '83 


i 


1883 'S-t 


1 


1884 "85 


2 
3 
3 
4 
5 
1 
1 


3 


1885 "86 




188(5 '87 


4 


1887 '88 


2 

1 





5 


1888 '89 


6 


1889 '90 


9 


1890 '91 . 






7 






. .. 





In the continuation classes of this school there were, besides, 101 
l)upils during the year 1890-'91. 

Gratz is the seat of a flourishing state industrial school {Kaiserlicli- 
Kihiigliche Staats-Geicerheschule). Herr Karl Lauzil is director. With 
him are associated 13 professors, many of whom are eminent men. In 
the supplementary list are the names of 29 additional instructors, 4 of 
whom are female specialists in the art of embroidery. 

There are four divisions of the school : A, the division of the building 
trades; B, the industrial art division j 0, the public drawing and 
modelling school (for pupils of either sex) ; D, the industrial continua- 
tion school (for apprentices and helpers in the building, machinist, and 
other industries). 

During the school year 1890-'91 there were in all 812 pupils enrolled 
in this school, distributed as follows: Division A, 202; division B, 111; 
division C, 81; division D, 418. 

The length of the course varies for the several specialties. In divi- 
sion A, for example, five winter sessions are requisite for comi)leting the 
course for masons, practical builders, etc. For joiners and locksmiths 
the course in this division is of three years' duration. In division B 
the course for modellers is of four years' extent; for ceramic painting, 
three years; for the wood and metal industries, four years each; for 
white embroidery, two years; for color embroidery, three years. In 
division there is no fixed term of study. In division D the course is 
for three years. 

The course of instruction in the classes of division A for builders and 
masons lasts five years, aud embraces the following studies : First year, 
German language, geography, accounts, geometry, geometrical draw- 
ing, elements of free-hand drawing, calligraphy; second year, German, 
business forms, accounts, natural science, geometry, projections, free* 



CHAP. II. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA. 151 

Land drawing, calligTax:)hy, tlie buildiug art, arcliitectural drawing; 
tliird year, German, business principles and coiniuercial bookkeeping, 
sliades and x>rojecfcions, arcliitectural dravv-ing, knowledge of building- 
materials, building art (wood), architecture for stone masons, algebra, 
free-band drawing from models, study of arcliitectural forms, arcliitect- 
ural drawing and modelling; fourth year, principles of the building art, 
rural architecture, study of architectural forms, architectural drawing, 
architecture (stone and iron), free-hand drawing, i)rojections, street 
building and hydraulics, modelling, etc.; fifth year, architecture, men- 
suration, street construction and hydraulics, projections, free-hand 
drawing. 

In division B there is a common FacliscJiule of industrial art, £iFach- 
scliule (with workshoj)) of pottery, and special schools of the w^ood 
and iron industries, with shops. The studies in this division are 
as thorough as in the preceding one, of which we have given the x>ro- 
gramme in detail. 

In di\ision G (the public drawing and modelling school for men and 
women) the instruction is specialized according to the needs and the 
previous attainments of the pupils. Modelling in wax and clay, the 
technics of painting, ceramics, etc., are the branches pursued. 

Industrial and machine drawing, free-hand and geometrical draw- 
ing, commercial arithmetic, bookkeeping, and business usages are the 
chief subjects taught in division D to the evening and Sunday classes 
for apprentices and helpers. 

There is a special three years' course in the Facliscliule of Qmbvoia&Tj^ 
consisting of- instruction in drawing, the study of patterns and materi- 
als, the technology of embroidery, from studies in the art of embroid- 
ery, pattern cutting, etc. 

Those who have completed the course in the lower divisions of the 
school of artistic embroidery may pursue a x)ractical working course in 
the establishment, in which they can exercise themselves in undertak- 
ings of greater difficulty, thereby rendering easy the transition from 
the school to practical life. 

At Innsbruck is another state industrial school {Kaiserlicli-Kdmgliclie 
Staats-Gewerheschule), with which there is connected a Fachschule at 
Hall, in the Tyrol. The director is Herr Johann Deininger, with whom 
are associated 9 professors and 5 master workmen as instructors in the 
industrial school. Besides these, 3 master workmen act as teacliers in 
the Fachschule at Hall. 

There are six divisions of this industrial school: The building trades 
division; industrial art division; special course for makers of instru- 
ments of precision; drawing course for women and girls; industrial 
continuation school; public drawing school for men. 

The Hall Fachschide has two divisions: For v/ood carving and join- 
ery, with shops; and Sunday courses. 



152 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

During the school year 1890-'91 there Avere 272 regular pupils in all 
departments of the school in the winter course, 163 in the summer 
course, and 72 guests (Hospitanten), i. e., attendants of the continua- 
tion classes and the Sunday courses. 

The organization of the Innsbruck Industrial School and its courses 
of instruction are almost identical with those of the Griitz school. The 
special course for makers of instruments of precision comprises three 
sections — one for makers of cutting instruments, one for makers of 
electrotechnical apparatus, and one for makers of the parts of clocl^s 
and watches. 

A collection of models of wood carving, designed especially for use 
in furniture decoration, is a part of the equipment of this school. The 
list includes ninety-seven specimens of leaves, buds, flowers, and other 
ornamental designs. 

The workshops for instruction in mechanic arts at Klagenfurth 
(constituting a Fachseliule fur das Mascliinengewer'be) are intended to 
instruct the pupils of the higher real school in mechanics, and also to 
afford an opportunity for metal and wood workers to educate themselves 
in the fundamental i)rinciples of their specialties. 

The course occupies three years. The school year 1890-'91 opened 
September 16. Twenty-seven new pupils entered the school at that 
time, who, with the 42 xmpils of the preceding year,^ made up a class 
of 69 regular students at the beginning of the school year. The faculty 
consists of the director, 2 special teachers, 5 master workmen, and 6 
professors giving theoretical instruction. 

In the theoretical department are taught German and geography^ 
natural history, i)hysics and chemistry, electrical science, and bookkeep- 
ing. The director himself oversees the instruction in the shops, and 
teaches mechanics and technology. Free-hand and machine drawing, 
arithmetic and geometry, are taught by another; technolo gy^ calligrax)hy, 
etc., by a third. Machine construction, carpentry, t^e> elements of the 
locksmith's trade, patternmaking, and smith work are practically taught 
by master workmen, one for each specialty. 

A special course for locomotive firemen and engineers was instituted 
in 1889. The first term in this course opened in I^Tovember 1890, and 
24 pupils attended it. Sixteen attended the second course, which 
began in March 1891. 

At Salzburg there is a state industrial school {KaiserUch-KdnigUclie 
Staats-Gewei'heschiile),^^}! Si' Goiitmnation school annex. The director 
is assisted by 20 associate i^rofessors and special teachers. 

There are four departments of the school, comprising a building 
trades department, an industrial art department, a public drawing and 
modelling department, a department of female employments and free- 
hand drawing. 




CHAP. II. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA. 153 

The statistics of attendauce for the year 1890-'91 \Yere as follows : 

Pupils. 

Department. 

Eiiildiiig trades division 

Indnsiilal art division: 

Carving, modelling, etc 

Drawing and textile work for adult women. 

Public drawing and modelling room 

Continuation scliool 

Total 

At Triest there is an iudustrial school {KaiserUch-KdnigUcJie Staats- 
Geicerheschule or Imperiale Beale Scuola Industriale), which has five 
divisions : An advanced industrial school, which has a section of the 
buildiiig trades and a mechanical sectiou, each with a four years' 
course j a master workmen's school, with a special school of the wood in- 
dustry, a special school of the stone industry, and a special school of 
decorative painting; an evening and Sunday school, with a building 
trades section, an iudustrial art section, and a mechanical section, each 
with a three years' course; a general continuation school, with a two 
years' course; and a division of embroidery, with a three years' course, 
and lace making, with a one year's course. 

The programme of this school is published in Italian and German, 
both languages beiug used in the class room. 

The advanced industrial school (liohere Gewerhesclmle) aims to impart 
the special knowledge necessary for the principal branches of the build- 
ing and mechanical trades. The plan of studies includes arithmetic, 
geometry, physics, chemistry, drawing, etc. The tuition, payable in 
advance, is 7 florins ($2.39) per semester for citizens of Austria, and 20 
florins ($6.82) for foreigners. Puj)ils must provide themselves with ma. 
terials and instruments for drawing and writing, but the school supjAies 
I)atterns and models. 

The master workmen's division of the school ( Werlcmeisterschtde) is 
intended for the education of intelligent craftsmen in the specialties of 
wood work, stone work, and ijainting. The section of wood work has 
furniture, turning, and wood carving shops. A special school (Fachschule) 
of the stone industry furnishes instruction in the art of sculpture, and 
there is a special school of decorative painting for pupils in that art. In- 
struction begins about the middle of September each year, and closes 
in the middle of July. The full course in wood work and sculpture oc- 
cupies 8 semesters; in decorative painting, 5 semesters. Tuition in this 
division costs the Austrian pupil 5 florins ($1.71); the foreigner, 15 
florins ($5.12). 

The evening and Sunday school {Abend- imd Sonntagsscliule) is de- 
signed for apprentices and helpers in the building, industrial art, and 
mechanic trades. There are in this school the following special courses : 



154 KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Special courses in the building trades for masons, architects, and car- 
penters, for stonecutters, for joiners, for locksmiths; special course in 
the industrial arts for sculx^tors and modellers, for furniture makers and 
cabioetmakers, for artistic locksmiths, lithographers, and decorative 
r>ainters; special course in the mechanical industries for machinists, 
for mechanics and v,^atchmakers. The instrnction in each of these 
courses continues three years. At least ten hours a week are required 
for instruction throughout the course. On Sundays from 8 a. m. to 12 m. ; 
and for three days in the week, from 6,30 to 8.30 i). m. Every x^upil 
pays an admission fee of 1 florin (34 cents) each year, and this sum 
is applied to the increase of the school api)liances. Certificates of at- 
tendance are given at the end of the year, and at the close of a three 
years' course a leaving certificate {A'bgangs-Zeugniss)^ as it is awkwardly 
styled, is granted to each ijupil. 

The evening continuation school {allgemeine geiverhlicJie Forthildungs- 
schiile) is a school of a more general character than the preceding. It 
gives a two years' course of instruction, and serves as a feeder to the 
other dei3artments of the institution. 

The last division has two sections, a si^ecial school of lace making 
{FacJiscliule filr Spitzenarheiten)^ with a one year's course ; and an em- 
broidery school {Faclischule filr Kunststiclcerei), with a two or three years^ 
course. Tliere are daily sessions of these schools on all week days, 
from 9 to 4 in winter, and in summer from 9 to 5 o'clock. Instruction 
is also given in the several specialties every Sunday from 9 to 12. The 
conditions of admission are that the pupil must be 14 years old, must 
bring a certificate from the imblic school {Vollcssclnile)^ must i)ossess 
some skill in lace making, in plain embroidery, and in drawing. The 
tuition is 2 florins (68 cents) per half year for regular pupils j for 
guests, 5 florins ($1.71); for foreign students, 15 florins ($5.12). 

The general studies, pursued to a greater or less extent in all divis- 
ions of the school, include the Italian and German languages, geogra- 
phy, physics, chemistry, algebra, geometry, free-hand and geometrical 
drawing, topograjphy, penmanship, mechanics, architectural drawing, 
mensuration, hydraulics, bookkeeping, and technology. 

The Technological Industrial Museum of Vienna {Kaiserlicli-KonigUclie 
TechnologiscJies Oewerle-Museum) was opened in 1879. On October 
26, 1889, it completed the first decade of its existence. This museum 
was founded by the Industrial Society of Lower Austria on the model 
of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers in Paris. The project had been 
under consideration for several years. Many financial difficulties were 
encountered, but at last, in March 1879, it was decided to make a be- 
ginning by establishing a section for wood industries, leaving the 
further development of the scheme for a museum to be accomplished at 
a later period, according to the needs and x)ossibilities that might ap- 
pear. 



CHAP. II. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA. 155 

Witlioiit following- out tlie details of its growtli, the statistics of 
attendance for the decade may be cited here: 



Year. 


Tupils. 


Year. 


Pupils. 


187D '80 


« 

90 

92 

100 

224 


1884 '85 .. 


228 


1880-'81 


18S5-'8G 1 


309 


1881-'S2 


188G-'S7 


319 


3832-83 


1887-88 


353 


1883 '84: 


1888 '89 


406 









The director of tlie Vienna Museum is Herr W. F. Exuer. In the 
section of wood industry there are three professors, an assistant, and 
a master workman on the teaching staff. In the chemical section there 
are four professors, an assistant, and a master workman. In the sec- 
tion of metal industries and electrotechnics are a professor, an adjunct 
professor, an assistant, three master workmen, and two special teach- 
ers. There is also a brewing section, called the Austrian Exi^eriment Sta- 
tion for Brewing and Malting {OesterreicMsclie Yersiichsstation fur 
Brauerei und Mdlzerei). At the head of this section is a professor, 
with two adjunct professors, an assistant, a superintendent of machin- 
ery, an engineer, etc. 

Standing committees and societies connected with the museum do 
much to promote the success of the several sections. Twelve such 
organizations are reported. Through their agency laboratories have 
been opened in the museum for experimental work in paper manufact- 
ure 5 in the chemistry of dyeing 5 in rendering wood firej)roof by satu- 
ration with non-inflammable materials 5 in the composition of asphalt- 
in making matches non-poisonous, etc. j in discovering new means of 
disinfection, new explosives, etc. 

There is, besides, a special course of instruction with evening and 
Sunday classes. In this section the teaching is conducted by means 
of lectures for the most part. The subjects discussed have a direct 
bearing upon i)ractical industries. For exami)le, the mechanical and 
chemical technology of wood and metals, the most important building 
woods, industrial hygiene, workshop eguipment, etc., were among the 
topics of the year,1889-'90. 

In the electrotechnic section instruction is given on batteries and 
accumulators, the telegraph, telephone, electric clocks, dynamo- elec- 
trical machines, etc. Technical drawing for joiners and cabinetmakers, 
and for machinists and locksmiths, is taught in special evening and 
Sunday courses. So, also, instruction is given in commercial book- 
keeping, industrial comj)utations, and the system of calculation for 
Qietal and wood Y>^ork. 

The programme of the special schools of the museum for the school 
fear 1891-'92 indicates that a new course has been added under the 
title of school of the chemistry of dyeing (Seminar fur Tinctorial- 
Chemie). The design of this section is to ground pupils in a knowl- 



156 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

edge of geueral chemistry, of tlie mauipiilations of qualitative and 
quantitative analysis, and to train tliem by experimental work in the 
laboratory for independent research in their sj^ecial callings, as chem- 
ists of dyes, colorists, master dyers, etc. 

At Yillach there is a special school of wood industries {KaiserUch- 
Kbnigliche Facliscliule fiir Solzindustrie). 

The school year 1890-'91 — the nineteenth since the establishment of 
the institution — began, in accordance with the announcement of the 
programme, September 16, 1890, and closed July 31, 1891. The indus- 
trial and mercantile continuation schools (connected with the Fach- 
scliule) and the course in stenography opened October 5, 1890, and con- 
tinued until the end of May 1891. 

The Facliscliule^ in the strict sense of the term, is a day school, taught 
by the director and ten associate teachers. The continuation depart- 
ment is an evening school, with twelve instructors, four of whom are 
also teachers in the day department. 

A two years' preparatory course was arranged for the oi^ening of the 
school year 1891-'92, and it probably went into effect at that date. 
The regular course in the Facliscliule last s four years. 

In this school there is a section of drawing and modelling for menj 
a similar section for women ; one for pupils of the Yolksscliule; a' sec- 
tion for evening instruction (two years' course in this industrial contin- 
uation school) j a mercantile continuation course of like duration j and 
a course of stenography. 

In the preparatory course reading, writing, accounts, and drawing 
occupy the first yearj special courses in drawing (building, technical, 
industrial, mechanical), commercial accounts, commercial bookkeeping, 
and modelling occupy the second year. 

In the day school of wood work there are subdivisions for cabinet- 
making, joinery, wood carving, and wood turning. In each of these 
specialties the course lasts four years. The conditions of admission 
are that the pupil must have completed the Volksscliule studies and 
possesses sufficient bodily strength to pursue the course profitably. 

Free-hand and geometrical drawing, shades and projections, drawing 
from models, architectural form study, drawing for furniture makers 
and joiners, carvers, and turners, modelling, arithmetic, geometry, lan- 
guage and business usages, commercial bookkeeping, the elements of 
the technology of wood, finishing and practical instruction in furniture 
making, joinery, wood carving, and wood turning are the subjects taken 
up in the regular Facliscliule. 

The industrial continuation school gives to apprentices special theo- 
retical and, as far as practicable, actual shop work instruction in each 
industrial art specialty and technical or commercial pursuit which is 
needed in the exercise of their respective callings. Attendance upon 
this instruction is obligatory for all apprentices. 

The mercantile continuation course aims to teach apprentices to trades 



CHAP. II. IXDUSTEIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA. 



157 



tliose teclinical and coinmercial specialties wliicli are of imx^ortauce in 
the bnsiuess of a merchant. The snbjects taught are the German lan- 
guage, trade geography, arithmetic, and iDenmanship in the first year; 
in the second- year course, correspondence, accounts, bookkeex)ing, 
knowledge of goods, mercantile accounts, and the laws of trade and of 
business. The courses in drawing and stenography are of indefinite 
duration. The enrolmeut in all departments for the school year 1890-'91 
was 400. These were distributed as follows: Day school, 50; public 
drawing school (women), 16; public drawing and modelling school (men), 
30; drawing and modelling pupils [Volksscliule)^ 98; preparatory divi- 
sion, 44; industrial continuation school, 126; mercantile contiuuation 
school, 28; stenographers' course, 8. 

Of the 73 day school pui^ils who have finished the course of instruc- 
tion at this establishment since 1877 (inclusive of those graduated in 
the year of the rejDort) 2 are dead, 65 remain in the occupation learned 
in the school, and 6 have made choice of a different life work. 

The subjoined particulars afford a general idea of the station in life 
of the 65 graduates : 

OCCUPATIOXS OF GEADUATES. 



Occupation. 


Gradu- 
ates. 


Occupation. 


Gradu- 
ates. 




I 

2 
2 

12 
8 
2 


Independent master -workmen : 






3 


roremen : " 


Joiners 


4 


Joiners . .. .... . .. 


Furniture makers 


g 






9 


Helpers : 


students : 

Vienna Art Industrial School 

Vienna Technological Museum 

Teachers, industrial Fachschulen 

Total 


3 


3kIasoiis ............. . ...... 


2 




4 


In military service 






65 









The data for the foregoing summary were obtained by means of cir- 
cular letters from the school, in which the graduates were solicited to 
state their position in life, their income, and give their conclusions con- 
cerning such things, noting whether they were satisfied with their 
situation, and what influence the training of the Facliscliule had exer- 
cised upon them and their condition. 

It is to be regretted that there is not space to reproduce a part of the 
highly interesting answers, even in an abbreviated form. In general, 
it may be said that the most of the pupils are content with their con- 
dition in life; that some of them have, after severe struggles, attained 
to a favorable position; and that finally aU, without exception, recog- 
nize the value of the Fachschule training, and sometimes give expres- 
sion to their gratitude for it in an extravagant fashion. 

The best situation held by one of the former pupils is that of director 
of a pottery manufactory at Bonn. The salary attached to the position 
is 3,000 marks ($714), in addition to which he receives other fees amount- 



158 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

ing to 1,000 or 1,500 marks ($238 or $357). Then come tlie teacliers in 
the Faclischule. The lowest wages are reported by a pupil who went to 
work at Gratz at 6 florins ($2.05) a week. Between these extremes 
there lie very many grades, which are x)artly dependant upon local 
conditions. Higher salaries are paid abroad than at home. At 
Munich a joiner receives from 3 to 5 marks (71 cents to $1.19) a daj'j 
a cabinetmaker, 21 marks ($5) a week; a mason, 28 to 30 marks {$6M 
to $7.14) a week. Most pupils give 2 to 4 florins (68 cents to $1.36) a 
day as the amount of their income. In Austria helpers report their 
monthly incomes at 24 florins, 32 florins, 40 florins, and 50 florins ($8.18, 
$10.91, $13.64, and $17.05),* master workmen and foremen, 48 florins to 
70 florins ($16.37 to $23.87) a week. 

The commercial schools {Randelsscliulen) of Budapesth are organized 
on a plan similar to that of other commercial schools of Austria, but 
with certain differences. Under the law of the people's schools a boy 
can not be apprenticed until he has attained his twelfth year and 
passed through the sixth class of the elementary school. From the 
elementary school the pupil ]>asses to the lower grade of the commercial 
school, attendance in which is obligatory. These schools ha,ve a three 
years' course, with seven hours of study x)er week. The students are for 
the most part clerks and apprentices in mercantile business. 

In the lower commercial schools the course includes reading, mer- 
cantile arithmetic, bookkeeping, correspondence, a knowledge of salable 
goods, national economy, etc. 

The higher commercial schools approach more nearly to the character 
of special schools. Yet, besides commercial specialties, they make pro- 
vision for teaching various branches of general knowledge. 

Pupils are admitted to these schools at the age of 14. The first year's 
course consists of instruction in the Hungarian, German, and French 
languages, geograi)hy, history, mathematics, chemistry, technology, 
physics, commercial arithmetic, business methods, correspondence, and 
accounts; altogether, thirty hours a week. In the second and third 
years the same subjects are continued, with the addition of bookkeep- 
ing, the laws of trade, national economy, and finance; thirty hours per 
week during the second year and twenty-six hours during the third. 
The optional studies are English and Oriental languages, the applica- 
tions of chemistry, etc. 

In the year 1888-'89 there were three commercial schools of the lower 
grade in the city, with an enrolment of 419 pupils altogether. Of 
this number 356 remained in the schools at the end of the year. In the 
three higher or intermediate commercial schools 466 x)upils were 
enrolled, of whom 413 remained at the close of the year. 

Such is the record of the commercial schools in Budapesth as 
reported in the Statistilc des UnterricMswescns for 1885-1889. It does 
not appear that manual exercises and workshop practice have any 
place in the course of instruction, except to this extent, viz., that 



CHAP. II. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA. 



159 



drawing and modelling are made obligatory. The schools give no 
indication of being specially adapted to qualify students for any 
particular trade. They apparently aim simply to give a thorough 
general business education. 

An obscurity exists in the statistical report concerning the trade 
schools of the city of Prague. In this case the calling for which 
students are prepared in the several schools is carefully noted; but 
nothhig is said of any auxiliary educational discipline. The special 
schools of industry and trade in the city of Prague are catalogued as 
follows, with the number of teachers and pupils for the year 1888: 

ES'DUSTEIAL SCHOOLS OF THE CITY OF PKAGUE. 



School. 



Bakers 

Barbers 

Bookbinders . 

Butchers 

Carpeuters... 
Confectioners 

Coopers 

Glovers 

Goldsmiths -- 
Locksmiths . . 
Merchants ... 



Teachers. 


Pupils. 


2 


97 


3 


107 


3 


155 


2 


99 


1 


57 


1 


45 


1 


35 


4 


159 


12 


539 


1 


55 


7 


237 



School. 



Shoemakers , 

Tailors 

Typographers 

Varnishors 

Waiters 

Other trades 

Preparatory school. 
Continuation school 

Total 



Teachers, 



Pupils. 



365 
221 
141 
111 
63 
63 
185 
207 



,G01 



There is also a city continuation school for girls, with 7 teachers and 
191 x>uinls. A school for beer brewing, with 6 teachers and 37 i)upils, 
and a school of instruction in the manufacture of spirits, with 5 teach- 
ers and 10 luipils, are maintained; and the unions of working women 
support 41 classes, in which 47 teachers are employed, and which are 
attended by 1,147 pupils. In addition to these there are 10 classes, 
with 516 students, taught by 15 teachers, in the si^ecial mercantile 
school. 

Besides there are two mercantile academies, one for Bohemians and 
the other for Germans, in Prague. In the first there were, in 1888, 12 
teachers and 188 pupils; in the German academy, at the same date, 
there were 16 instructors and 333 pupils. The name given to these insti- 
tutions implies that some form of business education is carried on in 
them, but no exi)lanation of its nature or extent is afforded for the sat- 
isfaction of piqued curiosity. 

Of the various private schools in Prague there is little to report. There 
are, however, two industrial schools under private management in the 
city, with 2 teachers and 58 pupils; seven schools for teaching dress- 
making, with 7 teachers and 47 pupils; four trade schools, with 27 
teachers and 300 pupils; and a school of telegraphy, with 2 teachers and 
40 i)apils. But in no case is the length of the course, the programme 
of studies, or the cost of tuition stated. 

Prague has an industrial museum, freely open to the public, in which 
there is a rich collection of specimens in 15 different departments. 



160 EEPORT OF TRE COIVO^IISSIONER OF LABOR. 

The Academy of Commerce at Prague was opened in 1856. Like 
most institutions of tliis class, tliis scliool lias a three years' course of 
study. The age of entrance is 14. The government grants a subvention 
to this school, and exempts its graduates from two years' military service. 

Other schools of a similar grade exist at Yieuna, Pest, Gratz, and 
Lintz. 

In Austria there are 302 establishments that give instruction in com- 
merce to 6,000 regular students and to nearly 40,000 clerks and appren- 
tices. 



CHAPTER III 



PRESENT STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN 

BELGIUM. 



161 
S. Ex. 05 11 



CHAPTER III. 

PRESENT STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 

THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM. 

Public education iu Belgium, dating back to 1842, was organized as 
it now exists under the law of July 1, 1879, and is controlled by the 
ministry of the interior and i:)ublic instruction. It comprises — 
I. Primary education. 
II. Intermediate education. 
III. Higher education. 
I. — Primary education embraces — 

(rt) The kindergartens {ecoles gardiens or jardins Wenfants) which, by 
the last official report (Anmiaire StatisUqiie de la Eelgique. 1890), num- 
ber 1,042 schools and 104,760 pupils. 

(&) Primary schools, 5,614 in number attended by 614,671 pui:)ils. 

(c) Special classes for adults corresponding to our night schools? 
and, besides, all iustruction i)roYided for inmates of asylums for deaf 
mutes, and for inmates of i:>risons and reformatories. 

(d) Primary normal classes, normal schools, and schools for regents — 
a grade above the normal. 

(e) Private schools under state inspection. 
11. — Intermediate education includes — 

{ci) Intermediate schools of three divisions, stat«, communal or 
district schools, and private and sectarian schools which are inspected 
and sometimes subsidized by the government. 

(h) High schools {athenees royaux) and communal and sectarian col- 
leges, also insi:)ected and partly supported by the state. 

III. — Higher education is represented by the two state universities 
at Ghent and Liege, and the two free universities at Brussels and 
Louvain — free in the sense of not being state institutions. 

Under this heading also may be comprehended special examinations 
for degrees before the university faculties and central board. 

SINDBRGARTEHS. 

The direct relation of the kindergarten to manual training and to 
trade schools is being earnestlj^ studied and experimented with in Bel- 
gium. 

Everywhere the kindergarten forms a large, important, and well 
organized part of the public school system, and in several cities a 

163 



164 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

woman inspector devotes lier wliole time to tlie improvement of these 
infant schools and to the proper training of teachers to preside over 
them. 

Chiklren enter the kindergartens at 3 years of age and remain till 
they are 6 or 7. At Brussels, Liege, and Yerviers, experimental 
transition classes exist, wluch prolong kindergarten methods into the 
primary grades, the manual training exercises of Froebel reappearing 
in the primary schools and there developing into some simple form of 
actual hand labor with paper, pasteboard, or clay. The results have 
been very satisfactory. 

In the city of Liege there were, according to the report of 1891 
(Ha/pport sur V Administration et la Situation des Affaires de la Ville), 
4,717 children in attendance at the kindergarten. All of these children, 
of course, learn the alphabet of manual traiiiing. 

A normal course for kindergarten teachers {Cours normal de lametJi. 
ode Froehel) is also maintained in Liege. During the school year 1890- 
'91, 18 pupil teachers attended this course, and 5 took the final exam- 
ination and received diplomas in that year. 

This Department has received from one of the Liege kindergartens 
(Jar din WBnfants des Frh Saint Denis) an album filled with specimens 
of paper work executed by pupils . of that school. These specimens 
consist of artistic designs wrought in colored paper, and the interwoven 
figures make patterns that are most pleasing to the eye. Such work 
affords an excellent discipline in form study and in the combination 
of colors. 

MANUAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 

Sewang, drawing, and gymnastics have long been taught to some 
extent in various Belgian schools. In 1887, however, the director of 
primary education. Monsieur A. J. Germain, was charged to report to 
the ministry on the advisability of incorporating throughout all the 
primary and normal schools of the kingdom, classes in domestic work 
and housekeeping. One result of this valuable report (De VEnseignement 
des Travanx dii Menage) was the imi)rovement and extension to cJl the 
schools' of those sewing classes previously existing only in a few^ and 
a no less important consequence was the adaptation to the public 
school system of courses in cooking and dressmaking which had already 
proved successful and useful in institutions founded and supported by 
private effort. Trade instruction for girls, started by private initiative, 
having taken firm root and flourished in Brussels and other Belgian 
cities, the idea was adopted by the more progressive communes and 
was ax)plied in their primary or intermediate schools in the form of 
trade classes (colors ^9ro/<2S6'io?i?ie7s). Tried as an experiment at a few 
points only, it was found too expensive to attempt to give such special- 
ized industrial training to the whole school population ^ but the num- 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 165 

ber of centres wliere trade instruction is provided in connection witli 
tlie free schools is constantly increasing. 

The oldest and best of these trade classes engrafted on the commu- 
nal public school was established in 1886 at Saint-Josse-Ten-]Sroode, 
Brussels, by Monsieur H. Frick, the alderman of imblic instruction. 
In the girl's x>rimary school, rue de la Limite, lessons in plain sewing, 
dressmaking, cutting and fitting, and pattern draughting are given. 
The course covers three years, and arouses much interest. It is entirely 
gratuitous. The school day is divided into two egual iDarts. During 
the morning, i^upils follow the comx)lete primary studies; during the 
afternoon, they learn special trades, electing either commerce and book- 
keeping, or dressmaking, including cutting and fitting, or underwear 
making. Industrial draAving is an important feature of each course. 
At the close of the third year the pupils pass an examination before 
teachers and technical judges {gens demetier), and then readily find em- 
ployment in work rooms or commercial houses. 

In connection with the higher divisions of the primary schools in 
Yerviers, classes in domestic economy and housekeeping have been 
opened, which complete the x)rescribed course in one year. They com- 
prise cooking, washing and ironing, household economy, how to make 
a fire and manage it economically, ventilation, the uses of various 
kinds of fuel, precautions to be taken in the use of combustibles, means 
employed for illumination, precautions requisite in certain modes 
of lighting, household and personal hj^giene, classification of foods, 
their nutritive value and medicinal properties ; potatoes of different 
species, relative price of the various kinds, nutritive principles of, 
industrial use of, etc.; bread, varieties of, nutritive value of; meat 
(beef, pork, veal, mutton, etc.), uses of different parts in culinary pre- 
parations; meals, ordinary, for a workman's family of six persons; for a 
spread for a workman's family of twelve i3ersons ; bills of fare for a middle 
class family of six persons; the iDurchasing of provisions, counsel as to 
buying to advantage for winter use; drinks — water, milk, beer, coifee, 
tea, chocolate; i>ernicious effects of alcoholic liquors; .condiments, pre- 
serves; table service; household medicine; furniture; accounts; plant 
culture, etc. 

MANl^AL TRAINING FOR GIRLS IN THB INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 

So great was the success of the free classes in the i3rimary schools at 
Brussels that, on the demand of patrons, this identical type of instruc- 
tion, uLit more advanced, has been adapted to the intermediate school 
of the same commune, rue Musin, under the capable direction of Made- 
moiselle Destree. Here a small fee is charged for the special courses, 
remitted, however, as a reward to the brighter pupils from the trade 
classes of the primary school who wish to profit further by industrial 
training. The mornings are devoted to the usual intermediate branches, 
and in the afternoons the industrial pupils jDursue whatever trade 



166 



EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



course tliey may liave elected. The number of special courses is larger 
in this school than in that of lower grade, and painting on porcelain is 
carried to great perfection. 

The difiereiice between the book work done in the ordinary interme- 
diate grades and that co veered by the trade classes in the same years 
is shown by the following table : 

COTJPwSE or STUDY UN" THE INTEEMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 



Subject. 



Bookkeeping 

Drawing 

English 

Flemish 

Erench 

Geography 

German 

Gymnastics 

History 

Industry 

Mathematics 

Painting and drawing. 
Science.- 



Total. 



Hours per week. 



Intermediate course. 



Eirst 
year. 



Second 
year. 



3 
4 
G 
2 

f 

4 
12 

2 



Third 
year. 



45 



511 



Industrial course. 



Eirst 
year. 



2 
1 
5 

f 

3 

2 
1 
10 

4 
12 

1 



47i- 



Second 
year. 



1 
2 
3 

4 

1 

2i 

1^ 

1 
10 

4 
12 

1 



4% 



Third 
year. 



Com- 
mercial 
course, 
first 
year. 



2\h 



In the first year the industrial i)upils give but one hour a week each 
to science, history, and geograx)hy, while the regular intermediate 
classes give, respectively, two, two and a half, and two hours. The 
industrial pupils devote ten hours to trade instruction, while the inter- 
mediate pupils devote only two hours to sewing. The time for drawing- 
is largely increased, that for languages is diminished, in the second and 
third 57 ears. 

At Molenbeek commune, Brussels, a trade school similar in charac- 
ter has been added to a public school ah^eady containing a kindergarten 
and a creche. At Ixelles, another commune of the capital, thorough 
and practical trade courses have been in operation three years, and 
cooking has also been introduced by means of a cookery centre similar 
to the English central stations for the use of classes from many schools. 
This cookery centre has grown to its present im];)ortance from a small 
housekeeping school first established by a committee of ladies interested 
in giving domestic training to the children of the j)eoi)le. The Countess 
of Kanders is x^resident of this society, through whose efforts house- 
keeping schools have been opened in various parts of the kingdom. 

Beginning at Ixelles, with six workingmen's daughters as i>upils and 
an old concierge of the building as cooking teacher, this housekeeping 
school now employs a directress and three assistants. Several hundred 
girls, coming in classes of twelve from adjoining public schools during 
stated hours weekly, receive instruction. Other classes attend from a 
neighboring convent, and Thursdays are set apart for young girls who 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 



167 



wish to remain all day. These are usually little housekeei^ers in charge 
of the homes of absent workers. The course will be more fully described 
under housekeeping schools for girls, but in a general way it may be 
said to comprise cooking, cleaning, washing and ironing, mending, 
darning, marketing, keeping accounts, writing out receipts, and describ- 
ing methods and domestic economy and hygiene. 

MANUAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS IN NORMAL SCHOOLS. 

In other communes of Brussels and in other cities of the kingdom 
the grafting of trade and housekeeping courses on the public school 
system is x)roceeding so rapidly that teachers to conduct these indus- 
trial classes in a scientific way are not numerous enough. Candidates 
are therefore being traiued in special normal classes, and industrial 
instruction now forms a part of the curricula of all the normal schools. 

COTJESE or STUDY li^" KOEMAL SCHOOLS- 



Subject. 



Hours per week. 



First 
year. 



Second 
year. 



Third 
year. 



EeligioB and morals 

Precepts of morals and etliics 

Elements of the theory of constitutional goveniment. 

Pedagogy and method 

French"] an guage.-- 

A second language, obligatory 

Arithmetic and geometrical forms 

Geography 

History 

ITatural science and domestic economy 

Hygiene !'. 

A\ rlting and bookkeeping -. 

Drawing 

V<K-al music , , 

Gymnastics 

!Needlevrork 



The directress of the Brussels iSTormal School, 22 rue des Yisitandines, 
writes as follows : 

The programme of domestic economy and housekeeping classes is 
perfectly practicable and has for years been followed in its entirety in 
my school. Young women have a natural aptitude for housekeeping 
pursuits and the apprenticeship need not be long. The theoretical part 
of tbis iirogTamme has always figured in our school work ; the practi- 
cal part is newer, and we take this up after regular hours in order not 
to interfere with other branches of instruction. 

Thus, in the second year, on Thursdays, from 2 to 4 o'clock, laundry 
work is thoroughly taught, the pupils coming in groui^s and each group 
having a turn once a fortnight. In the third year, once a week from 
October to the end of May, from 4.30 to 7.30 o'clock in the afternoon, 
cooking lessons are given. All the class learns the chemistry of cook- 
ing, while the active group prepares the repast, cleans the utensils, 
dines with the teacher, and then puts everything in order. Each group 
is in active service once a month. 

Thus conducted, domestic work does not encroach upon the scientific 
and literary courses, and has tlie happiest effect upon the dispositions 
of the girls, their tastes, and even their character. 



168 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Everywhere in Belgium drawing is a most important essential in 
public school instruction, both for girls and boys, and needlework 
occuines always two hours a week, the instruction in this branch being 
usually given by the regular teacher of the grade. In some schools 
more time is devoted to sewing. At Ostend girls continue to receive 
needlework training throughout the entire course. The work in this 
departmeiit is carried forward by a series of progressive lessons, and 
in the advanced grades the cutting and making of garments receive 
attention, with mending, darning, etc. Later in the course the ele- 
ments of domestic economy are taken up. 

MANUAL TRAINING FOR BOYS. 

While industrial training for girls from the i)rimary to the normal 
grades has thus been inaugurated, the boys have not been neglected. 
Belgium has always been quick to profit by new methods in use in other 
countries, and with a view to introducing manual training into the 
boj's' public schools, in 1882 the minister of public instruction sent 
Prof, van Kalken to Dresden to take a course under Herr'Clauson- 
Kaas. In 1883 Prof, van Kalken and M. Sluys, director of the Brus- 
sels Normal School for Males, were deputed to go to Sweden and 
study the system i)revailing at E'aas. 

Prof, van Kalken, in his address before the German manual training 
congress at Munich in 1888, says: 

The defeat of the liberal party in 1884 interfered for a time with the 
execution of this plan, * * * but in 1885 M. Sluys was authorized 
(by the new minister) to introduce manual trainiug, in accordance with 
our report of 1883. Since then the normal school pupils have regu- 
larly received instruction in modelling, pasteboard work, and wood 
work for four hours each week. The city of Brussels has also intro- 
duced some form of manual training into all of her primary schools. 

In order to form a teaching force that shall be competent to impart 
this instruction, the city has instituted various temporary courses 
under the direction of M. Sluys, with the assistance of well qualified 
teachers. M. Calozet manages the pasteboard work, which is his 
specialty, at the normal school at Brussels and in several tem])orary 
courses. He has established a journal of manual training and has pub- 
lished a book entitled School Pasteboard Yv'ork, in which he describes 
his series of models. This series is somewhat like those of Leonard and 
Kummer of Dresden. 

The commune of Saint-Gilles, Brussels, is entitled to the honor of 
having opened the first course for manual training in Belgium. Wood 
and pasteboard work were there taught. On October 1, 1885, there 
was begun a course of wood work for the ux^per class pupils of school 
Ko. 5, under the direction of M. van Sweevelt. In March 1886 
Froebellian exercises were introduced into the lower grades and 
pasteboard work into the intermediate grades. * * * XJp to the 
year 1887 the, models of the normal school at Niias had served as guides 
in wood work, because this series had a genuine pedagogic value. 
* * * Yet the Swedish models could not be slavishly followed in 
Belgium, and it w^as aj)x>arent that it would be necessary to prepare 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 169 

an advanced series of models adapted to tlie national genius. M. van 
Sweevelt had begun in 1886 to execute this conception, and in the 
month of August 1887 he had formed a new series of 100 models of 
wood worJi. 

* * * Minister Thonissen had great faith in manual training, and 
resolved to escablish temporary courses for the teachers of the whole 
country. Accordingly, in September 1887, the first course of six weeks' 
instruction was opened at Mvelles, and in the corresponding month this 
year (1888) it will be repeated. After March 1889 the teachers will have 
to undergo an examination in hand labor before an examining commis- 
sion appointed by the state. The course at l^ivelles was attended by 
60 teachers. M. van Sweevelt instructs in wood work, M. Oalozet in 
pasteboard work, and M. Stepman in modelling, I am engaged to 
lecture on the following subjects: 

(1) Analysis of the ideas of Locke, Eousseau, Froebel, and Bieder- 
mann concerning manual labor. 

(2) The different systems now in vogue. Manual training wears a 
special character in France, Sweden, and Germany. Comparison of 
these systems. 

(3) The true character of the work in the elementary school j what 
distinguishes it from the instruction of the artisan. 

(4) Pasteboard work: Description of the Dresden series. Wood 
work : The Kaas series. This series, admirable for Sweden, is not alto- 
gether suitable for Belgium. 

(5) Hand labor in connection with drawing and geometrical form 
teaching; working after a pattern; drawing of patterns; the making 
of an object from the drawing. 

(6) Suggestions on beauty, harmony of colors, etc. 

(7) Workshops, their equipment, the minimum number of tools req- 
uisite, materials, etc. 

Since 1887 the state has made manual training obligatory in the 
state normal schools. All these institutions have received a full set of 
working tools for modelling, pasteboard work, and wood work. About 
fifty communes, also, have introduced this instruction into their schools. 

To recapitulate : 

The number of manual training schools: All state normal schools; 
about fifty primary schools. 

Subjects of instruction: Pasteboard work, modelling, and wood 
work obligatory in state normal schools ; elective in primary schools. 

Assistance given by the state: Temporary courses established by 
government; special examinations before an official examining commis- 
sion ; the introduction of manual labor into all state schools. 

As to teachers, there are two parties; some are adherents, and a 
smaller number are opponents, of the new system. 

Public opinion: All journals, Catholic as well as liberal, favor the 
movement, but artisans are in general inimical to this instruction. 

Manual training teachers: The instruction in hand labor will be 
given everywhere by special teachers. 

Prom 1888 to 1892 brilliant results have been achieved in the multi- 
plication of these manual training classes all over the kingdom. 

In Liege, at the primary school rue des Eivagois, encouraging re- 
sults have been obtained in modelling, pasteboard and wood work. 
The city opened, besides, a special course for teachers lasting niue 
weeks, held from 5 to 8 i). m., and attended by thirty teachers. In 



170 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

tlie intermediate scliools of Liege classes in domestic economy and 
housekeeping have been created. An interesting variation of tliese is 
to be seen in four cooking courses opened in connection with as many 
night schools in central localities. 

At one night school visited by an agent of this Department over 100 
pupils were present, nearly all of whom were workers in shops — tailor 
esses, vestmakers, dressmakers, the remainder, as a rule, being house- 
keepers for the workers of their families. Twice a week cooking lessons, 
theory and practice, are given. The kitchen eq[uipped by the city is 
altogether in white, so as to inculcate extreme neatness. The city, 
moreover, furnishes all materials used in the cookery demonstrations. 
The needlework course comprises cutting and fitting, and careful 
drawing of patterns, while the general literary course is that of the 
intermediate grade condensed. Prizes are awarded by the city to the 
six pupils who stand highest, this reward taking the form usually of 
a little free summer journey, on which the winners are escorted by a 
teacher. In 1889 the successful scholars were sent in this way to the 
Paris exposition for several days, with ample opportunity for observa- 
tion and enjoyment. 

At Yerviers wood work classes for boys have x)roved highly success- 
ful, and the objects made, both by the sloid method and by the adapted 
methods devised by Belgian teachers, equal in finish and scientific gra- 
dations the best work done in American schools. The city has also 
created carpentry centres,, classes fi?om several neighboring public schools 
frequenting the one shop, which was fitted up at remarkably small cost, 
considering its excellent appointments. 

SPECIAL, IKDUSTEIAL, AITO TECHOTOAL SCHOOLS. 

That portion of industrial education in Belgium with which this re- 
port more particularly deals — the special, industrial, and technical 
schools — falls under the supervision, not of the ministry of the interior 
and of public instruction, but of the ministry of agriculture, industry, 
and i)ublic works. 

By an agreement made in 1889 the ministry of public instruction 
controls all theoretical teaching of hygiene and domestic economy 
in the i)rimary and night schools, all manual training and needlework 
classes, and certain normal courses and object lessons. The ministry 
of agriculture, industry, and public works sux)ervises technical and 
trade schools, organizes the housekeeping schools proper {ecoles me- 
nageres), and all trade and domestic training classes in the pnblic 
schools. In addition it has for years carried on the great work of 
developing, subsidizing, and inspecting the large drawing schools, 
industrial schools, api)rentice and agricultural schools. 

To this ministry of agriculture, industry, and public works belongs 
the duty of insi^ecting workshops and enforcing factory laws. Being 
thus intimately connected with the industries of the kingdom and 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 171 

brouglit into contact with its industrial needs, by an easy transition 
the oversight of technical and industrial education in all its phases was 
confided to this ministry, and a complete service of inspection was 
established, both of industry and of trade instruction. Since 1891 the 
organization and inspection of all the housekeeping schools grafted on 
the public school s^^stem, as well as of independent institutions for 
domestic training and trade instruction, have been turned over to the 
same department, and the official force of inspectors includes both 
women and men. 

The fact that the state organizes and aids public instruction, that 
there is one enlightened head, one policy, one system of inspection 
with a very high standard, instead of many independent superintend- 
ents with different x)olicies, conduces not a little to the excellence and 
practical utility of industrial teaching in this x)rogressive nation. At 
the same time full play is afforded for private munificence, initiative, 
and experiment. Every man's system is given a fair trial, his pet 
ideas free scope. The government merely strengthens where private 
hands are weak, guides where they are inexperienced, supplies omis- 
sions, and supers' ises firmly but not offensively. 

Special, industrial, and technical instruction in Belgium may be 
classified as follows : 

I. Apprenticeship schools and ouvroirs, or workshop and school com- 
bined. These were established as charities, and are diminishing in 
number and importance. 

II. Agricultural and horticultural schools, and schools for training- 
dairy maids. 

III. Girls' housekeeping schools, rapidly developing, over 250 having 
already been established. 

lY. Trade schools for girls, of which all the principal cities now 
boast one or more. 

Y. PaTOchial trade schools, those of Saint Luke being the highest 
type. 

YI. Trade schools supported by guilds and trade unions, such as 
the brewers' and tailors' schools. 

YII. Trade schools having day classes and shop work. Their design 
is to fit for a trade and to do away with the often misdirected drudgery 
of api^renticeship. 

YIII. Large industrial schools, sometimes combined with drawing 
schools, sometimes separate, where classes are held in the evenings and 
on Sundays and where the course is widely eclectic. 

IX. Drawing schools, existing in every town of any size in the king- 
dom. 

X. Commercial schools, the most important of which is at Antwerp, 
with the object to prepare accountants, merchants, consular and com- 
mercial agents for home and consular service. 

XI. Schools of industry and mines, highly scientific in character. 



172 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

These confer the much esteemed degree of engineer, and correspond in 
a measure to our institutes of technology. The new Technical Institute 
of Electricity given by M. Montefiore-Levi to the city of Liege ranks in 
this category. 

The aim of technical and industrial schools in Belgium is trade pro- 
ficiency rather than all-around education. They are designed to train 
the artisan rather than to develop the man. Apprentices, workingmen, 
and would-be workers awaiting employment attend these industrial 
courses to increase their own technical efficiency in the trades they are 
already following or mean to adopt, and also with the hope of improv- 
ing their chance of obtaining better occupation at those pursuits in a 
labor market seriously overcrowded. Although joint instruction, men- 
tal and manual, is generally provided, the mental is usually sacrificed 
or at least subordinated to the manual; and it is intended not so much 
to add to the pupil's sum of knowledge in all lines as to aid and de- 
velop his capacity in his present or future calling. Considered as mere 
trade schools, it is their strong x)oint that time is not lost in acquiring 
facts which have no bearing on the life work. Considered as educa- 
tional factors, however, these great industrial institutions are some- 
times called narrow and one sided. In their favor the fact should be 
emphasized that a great variety of teaching in all J)ranches is offered, 
courses as purely theoretical and scientific as American colleges afford. 
The workingman or student in any walk of life who chooses to attend 
night school during six, eight, even ten years — and some men study 
twelve and fifteen years — gets a very comprehensive literary and 
scientific as well as industrial course. Degrees are given, however, 
after three and four years for x)roficiency in any one branch or course, 
and the majority of pupils frequent the school no longer after winning 
the certificate they set out to gain. A great many young men, many 
men of mature years, indeed, take course after course, and degree after 
degree, after having succeeded in mastering the branch which will 
best serve in their chosen occu]pation or life work — an occupation sel- 
dom changed in the stable and conservative social order and traditions 
which distinguish the Belgian people. 

In many provinces the age of admission to industrial schools of the 
higher grade is 12 and 13 years, and the course of instruction is meant 
to make up to the pupil workman for his lack of further public school 
tuition. Institutions of the most advanced standards he enters at 15 
or 16, and the book work he accomplishes is always less than that 
prescribed in public schools of similar grades, for drawing and prac- 
tical applications take up much time. 

The money to support the industrial, art, trade, and special schools in 
Belgium is derived from various sources. The government subsidizes 
nearly all these institutions freely, thus acquiring the right to inspect 
them, and also, to a limited degree, to impose special lines of study or 
curtail others. The communes or counties, besides, contribute funds, 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 173 

and usually the city as well, sometimes more liberally than the others. 
In some towns the educational institutions, of whatever kind they may 
be, are maintained wholly by certain districts (communes); and these 
communes, instead of duplicating by means of poorly equipi^ed schools 
in their own midst the great central or special schools, wisely content 
themselves with giving scholarships in the latter to deserving students. 
Molenbeek and Saint- Josse-Ten-Noode at Brussels boast that no boy or 
girl within their limits need go without the best special training the 
kingdom affords, the commune bearing the pupil's expenses while in 
attendance at the university or art and trade classes not provided by 
the commune itself. In Liege, in Yerviers, in Brussels, the municipal- 
ity assists even the most heterogeneous educational ventures, giving a 
room or building, furnishing teachers, supplying books and materials 
to be used by the cooking and sewing classes, and even aiding an en- 
terprise not entirely educational, like the working girls' clubs, to which 
Brussels presents a vacation purse of 500 francs ($96.50). 

A remarkable feature of Belgian industrial education and worthy of 
all emulation is that many firms and industrial establishments, im- 
pressed with the need of having better trained workmen, and actuated 
by motives of genuine philanthropy, create and support technical and 
sj)ecial schools. The large and admirably managed industrial school 
at Morlanwelz was founded and is partly maintained by M. Arthur 
Warocque, owner of the neighboring mines of Mariemont and Bascouj). 
The course of study comprises general branches usefal to all workers 
and, in addition, special instruction bearing on mines and mining. 
At Seraing the great Cockerill iron worlis, spending nearly 200,000 
francs ($38,600) a year in advancing the welfare of its operatives by 
means of hospitals, societies, and pensions, also supports in great part, 
without monopolizing, the flourishing Seraing industrial school. The 
comi)any is, moreover, making a unique experiment — that of teaching 
the young boys over 12 years of age employed in their coal mines, so 
that they may not forget the instruction gained in the primary schools. 
The lads stop work at 4 p. m. and go at once to the school for two or 
three hours, learning enough to keep their minds active and thus coun- 
teract the stultifying effects of their toil. This same firm maintains at 
Hoboken, near Antwerp, an important industrial school, modified to 
the requirements of the shii3 building trade pursued in their shops 
(chantiers) at Hoboken. The faience manufacturers at La Louviere 
have organized a special drawing school which all of their decorators 
must attend. Indeed, every technical and industrial educational estab- 
lishment in the kingdom is aided financially by the large firms and 
employers of labor whose workmen are enrolled as students. 

A striking characteristic of industrial training in Belgium is its adapt- 
ability to local needs. For example, the industrial school at Soignies, 
where the chief industry is stone quarrying, strikes out of its curricu- 
lum much irrelevant matter that may with propriety be taught in other 



174 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

industrial schools, such as Brussels, which aim to fit men for a dozen 
vocations. Soignies, on the contrary, directs its efforts to studies that 
will be useful to quarrymen, stonecutters, and even stone carvers, the 
artistic side never being neglected in this land of wonderful ancient 
architectural *ionuments. At Ostend, where the fisheries are the pre- 
dominating industry, a class in fishery has been successfully carried 
on by a priest, and a special room has been arranged in the public schools 
as a fisheries museum or workshop, containing all the api^liances used 
in this trade. To this room are brought daily all the sons of fishermen 
among the 500 pupils in the building, and these boys, probably des- 
tined to a life on the Channel and the Il^orth Sea, learn what pertains 
to that pursuit. The geography of the district is taught by means of 
ocean and land charts, the use of the compass, the manoeuvres of fish- 
ermen, the tying of knots and the setting of sails, the forms of sailing 
boats, the kinds and habits of fish, etc. Of course, the ordinary book 
work of the gTade had to be lessened to make room for this special class. 
As yet the course is only tentative and applied to boys under 12 years 
of age, but such interest does it awaken and so successful has ifc been 
that the intention is to continue this instruction into the higher grades. 
Moreover, the large and imi)ortant iiidustrial school at Ostend is more 
developed than any other in all teaching which x)ertains to ship building. 
Even in the lowest drawing classes the instruction is directed toward 
that trade. Instead of drawing ordinary machines the pui)ils draw 
boats, and though the institution is i^oorly housed on one of the worst 
streets of Ostend, it possesses a collection of models and ships that 
any museum might be proud to own. 

At Ghent, too, where cotton and linen are manufactured the teaching 
in the industrial school conforms to the needs of local industries, and a 
finely equipped weaving school is maintained, with day and Sunday 
courses. Each impil begins with the simi)lest form of hand loom and 
learns every process up to the management of the most complicated 
modern i>ower loom. The combination and analysis of warp and woof 
in fabrics is studied thoroughly, and those who fiuisli the lessons marked 
out are fully capable of conducting the business of cotton manufactur- 
ing for themselves, or of taking charge of any weaving room and of 
reproducing any sample. Candidates who wish to master the art of 
dyeing, with reference to print works and designing, iDursue an elaborate 
chemical course. The sketching of textile machinery, setting it up, and 
taking it apart are important exercises for such as are or intend to be 
loom fixers and mill machinists. IsTor are women operatives forgotten, 
special Sunday and evening lessons being provided for darners and 
burlers, which are shared by tailoresses and dressmakers as well. 

What is true of Ghent applies with equal force to Yerviers, the 
classes there being adapted to the woollen industry, and special instruc- 
tion is carried very far. At Charleroi, with its network of coal seams, 
the instruction is suited to miners, with technical teaching for those 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 175 

who work underground. These student workmen walk 5 and 6 miles 
and back to the Sunday classes; and so indispensable is the training 
deemed that men have little chance to become boss miners or foremen 
without holding certificates from the industrial school. 

The eclectic character of industrial training in Belgium is another 
inestimable advantage. For instance, the Flemish i^easant, long i)ast 
his school days and toiling seven days in the week for the necessities 
of life, may double his opportunities and advance his career by learn- 
ing French thoroughly in the night classes of the industrial school of 
his commune. Another gets aid at drawing, mechanics, whatever 
branch he most needs, without wasting time on non-essentials. The 
tradesman acquires bookkeeping and commerce, the designer takes an 
elaborate course of free-hand drawing and modelling, the machinist 
draws to scale or reproduces machinery in time sketches. 

The practice, common to trade and manual training institutions in 
Belgium, of paying the pupil low market rates for the work accom- 
l^lished has this good result, that as part of the wages are set aside 
each week and given the student workman only after he finishes the 
prescribed programme, he has a fund with which to start in life. This 
fund enables him sometimes to leave the thronged marts of his native 
country and seek more remunerative employmont in foreign lands. 
Expatriation of the graduates of the industrial school at Tournay is 
almost universal, and most of the ex-pux)ils occupy positions of trust 
in other countries. 

Payment for the day's weaving in rural apprenticeship schools is an 
aid to the i)oorer peasantry and serves to lighten the burden of the 
bureaus of charity. Ai)prenticeship schools of this type are numerous 
in Flanders and are often kept up in connection with x)arochial schools 
or coiivent workshops. The pupils, it is true, learn a trade, and often 
follow it in after years. Some of these ouvroirs are, however, nothing 
more than workshops, clean and under good moral influences, where 
young and inexperienced labor is utilized at low pay; the peasants 
gladly accepting any stipend in return for having their children under 
proper care. 

The economy with which the technical and industrial schools are ad- 
ministered in Belgium is remarkable. Considering their equipment, 
the excellent qualifications of the men who compose their faculties, the 
practical utility of their teaching and the results achieved, the Belgian 
schools are perhaps the cheapest in existence. The power of organi- 
zation and administration is conspicuous; the sense of personal respon- 
sibility for the use of trust funds is very high; and the interest m 
education is both unselfish and widespread. More than all, greed for 
gain is not a ruling spirit. Men realize that there is something better 
to strive for than mere money getting; and foremost citizens lend their 
talents and efforts to the cause of education. As a proof of the admir- 



176 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

able character of the promoters and directors of these iustitiitions, the 
fact may be cited that^ in almost every city^ the alderman of public in- 
struction or the mayor, who chiefly controls the schools, is either a 
university professor or a member of the national chamber of deputies 
or a professional specialist, in every case familiar with i)ublic needs 
and vowed to the public service, whether he be a renowned artist or a 
distinguished engineer. 

The latest information with regard to industrial education in Bel- 
gium, later in most cases than the official school rej^orts, is found in the 
admirable treatise, IJUnseignement S])ecud en Belgiqiie^ by Monsieur H. 
Bertiaux. This book will be freely quoted in the following pages. 

APPEEKTICESHIP SCHOOLS. 

The interesting report of M. de Eidder, i)rofessor at the university 
and alderman of public instruction at Ghent, made to the government 
in 1882, gives a discouraging account of these institutions. 

AiDprenticeship schools were established by the state as early as 176G 
to teach lace making to the indigent peasantry. At successive financial 
crises occupation of one kind or another was provided by the authorities 
to relieve the destitution of the poor. As the introduction of machinery 
at the beginning of this century revolutionized Flemish industries, 
esi)ecially the flax manufacture, hosts of workers were without employ- 
ment, and several communes opened weaving schools where even very 
young children were received and taught to read as well as to vrork. 
But in these workshops and schools combined, the educational features 
were in time sacrificed to the financial interests of exx')loiters of labor. 
Abuses grew uj) ; work crowded out lessons completely, the hours of 
toil became excessive j children 5 and 6 years old were overtasked at 
lace making, the women lace makers and weavers grew more and more 
ignorant and incaj^able of performing household duties ; the pay 
dwindled to a ridiculous pittance, and great misery ensued. 

To counteract tliese results the state tardily intervened and limited 
hours of labor, insisted upon less work and more study, and prescribed 
a minimum comi^ensation. Gradually, however, the apprenticeship 
school has languished and many have been suppressed. Such as are 
now maintained aim to supi)ly emiDloyment during the winter to the chil- 
dren of the agricultural classes until the field work can begin. 

In some localities a fine quality of work is produced and the training 
has a most salutary effect ui)on the young workers. 

In the kingdom on December 31, 1889, as many as forty apprentice- 
ship schools (ecoles d^ajpprentissage) were subsidized by the state, with a 
total of 990 pupils (906 boys and 84 girls), 341 comx)leting the course 
of instruction during the year. 

These institutions have had their day of usefulness, and their impor- 
tance is now declining, although they still receive subsidies. More than 



CHAP. in. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 177 

one-lialf the expense of maintenance in 1890 was borne by the state, 
about one- sixth by the provinces, and one-fourth by the communes, 
leaving one-twelfth only to be supiDlied from other sources. 

The first apprenticeship school founded at Ghent in 1817 was dis- 
tinctly a charitable institution. All branches of the flax and woollen in- 
dustries were taught, and lace making, embroiderj^, sewing, shoemaking, 
and carpentry, with book lessons of an elementary kind. In 1841 the 
state and the provinces granted subsidies to this and similar enter- 
prises which resulted in their rapid multiplication. But, since 1849, 
every school thus endowed has been placed under the supervision of a 
commission named by the administration. Two inspectors visit the 
apprentice workshops at fi?equent intervals to see that the rules 
are observed. They promote the theoretical and practical education 
of the apprentices, and develoi) the technical knowledge of the fore- 
men by means of lectures. Every year they make a report concerning 
the object of their mission. 

In 1890, 35 of these workshops were in active operation, 26 in 
western Flanders, 8 in eastern Flanders. In the province of I^amur, 
at Jemelle, is a school for girls, differing from the other ateliers d^ap- 
prentissage in giving only trade instruction, including hand and machine 
sewing, the making of common articles of dress, washing, ironing, and 
kindred pursuits. In 1890, 84 pupils attended. The course lasts two 
years and instruction is free. 

Certain other apprenticeship shops possess special elements of vital- 
ity and admit of such development that at last they are transformed 
into trade schools, where the course of instruction includes, besides 
theoretical and practical weaving, the principles of mechanics and 
drawing, and the elements of primary education. Eight regular weav- 
ing schools have been recently founded, six being in western Flanders, 
where the children pursue primary studies at least an hour a day, 
under a public school teacher. Their labor at the looms is paid for at 
rates depending both on the pupiPs aptitude and the contract with the 
manufa<iturer in charge of the shops — a part of the wages being held 
back, however, to purchase such an outfit as the pupil at leaving may 
need to carry on his trade at home. Prizes of money are also awarded 
for the same purpose, with the object of encouraging home industries 
and of giving the peasantry a resource on which to draw at seasons 
when agriculture can not be followed. 

SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTUEE AND HOETICULTUEE. 

There are several important schools of veterinary science, of agricul- 
ture, and of horticulture in Belgium. Of these the oldest and perhaps 
the best is the State Agricultural Institute at Gembloux. In 1890 this 
institution had 115 students pursuing agricultural studies. 

Candidates for admission must be 16 years old, and, if not holders of 
a degree, must pass an entrance examination. 
S. Ex. 65 12 



178 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

The course of instruction occupies three years. The studies of the 
first year are mathematics, rural engineering, land surveying and level- 
ling, physics and meteorology, inorganic chemistry, botany, anatomy of 
the domesticated animals, general agriculture, external characters of 
the domesticated animals, sylviculture, mathematical drawing, practical 
farming instruction, and excursions. 

The second year deals with hydraulics and irrigation, drainage^ or- 
ganic chemistry, analytical chemistry, mineralogy, geology, general 
zoology, aniinal physiology, management of domesticated animals, 
general agriculture, sylviculture, and horticulture, rural and constitu- 
tional law, bookkeeping, practical instruction, and excursions. 

The final years studies embrace general mechanics, mechanics ap- 
plied to agriculture, rural buildings and country roads, agricultural 
technology, chemistry, zootechny, microscopy, special cultures, sylvi- 
culture, rural and political economy, agricultural bookkeeping, x^racti- 
cal instruction, and excursions. 

Connected with the institute is a farm of 165 acres, in ihe cultivation 
of which the students take part. The cultivation of sugar beets is suc- 
cessfully carried on, and, notwithstanding the fact that in this industry 
the products of the soil are sold on, necessitating the purchase of large 
quantities of artificial fertilizers to maintain the x)roductiveness of the 
fields, this farm yields an annual profit of $1,500. 

Among the horticultural schools of Belgium may be mentioned the 
State Practical School of Horticulture at Yilvoorden, and that at Ghent 
bearing the same name. 

In each of these schools the course of studies includes the French and 
Flemish languages, arithmetic, geography, geometry, and the elements 
of chemistry, physics, and geology. Bookkeepbig, the construction of 
greenhouses, laying out of gardens, and the various branches of horti- 
culture are also taught, and practical instruction is given in the gar- 
dens, nurseries, and greenhouses. At Yilvoorden candidates are admit- 
ted to the school at 17 years of age. The full course extends over three 
years. Resident pupils are charged about $40 per annum for tuition j 
non-residents, about $20. Many applications for admission are refused 
for want of room. The number of students in 1890 was 40. 

The minister of agriculture, industry, andi^ublic works, M. de Bruyn, 
has taken si3ecial interest in tlie improvement of agricultural methods 
in Belgium. To that end, also, he has established dairy schools for 
women and girls in various farming districts. Competent men and 
women were first sent to study the agricultural and dairy schools of 
Germany, France, and England, who, besides, are well acquainted 
with all achievements made in this line in the United States. 

The young woman who conducts the dairy school at Wevelghem, 
v/hich may be taken as a type of this instruction, had been a delegate 
to England, and her methods are of the most practical character. A 
fine farm was first selected as an experiment station; and the pupils, 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 179 

wlio arc farmers' daugliters or candidates for teacliersliips in tlie neT^:er 
dairy scliools, board with tlie owner's family. Tiiey milk tlie cows, 
overlook tlieir feeding and lioiising, study cattle diseases, and inform 
themselves about loastures and foods. The dairy itself is equipi)ed with 
the best and most imiiiroved apparatus, often two objects of the same 
kind but of different make or patent being provided to facilitate com- 
parison of methods. For certain i)i-i^iTOses English appliances are 
best liked; for others, American or German patents give best results, 
the pupil in each case making her own tests. A small chemical labora- 
tory is usually at hand, where experiments of all kinds germane to the 
work go on. Lessons on subjects iDcrtaining to agriculture and the 
dairy and exercises in bookkeeping and accounts occupy a few hours 
each day. Exact record is preserved of the amiount of milk each cow 
gives, the quantity of cream taken from it, and the amount of butter and 
cheese produced. In short, after two or three years of such training, 
the pupils become either i^ractical dairymaids or competent teachers, and 
leave the school with vastly higher ideas of tne dignity and imT)ortance 
of farming as a life pursuit. When housewives ma-y thus acquire a 
scientific grasj) of the di:fficulties whicli beset the farmer's family and 
incline his womankind to desert the country for the overcrowded 
towns, it follows that the depopulation of the rural districts in favor 
of cities will be checked. Moreover, even in the remotest places, the 
government i)rovides funds for and causes to be given annually a cer- 
tain number of free lectures on farming topics, so that the whole agri- 
cultural population may learn something of modern progress. 

HOCrSEKEEPmG SCHOOLS FOE GIELS. 

To supxdy the deficiencies of female education, and to qualify girls 
for the positions as wives and mothers which they are predestined to 
fill, housekeeping schools have been established all over the kingdom, 
and classes in domestic work have been attached to many public 
schools. 

To a manufacturer, M. Smits of Couillet, belongs the honor of 
founding tlie first housekeeping school in Belgium, in 1872. The chil- 
dren of his workmen learned to sew, knit, mend, darn, trim, cut and 
fit, not only underwear and women's garments, but men's trousers, 
blouses, and waistcoats j to repair cloth, to cut patterns, and to use the 
sewing machine j to wash and to iron, to cook, and to make and bake 
bread. This school coming under the notice of the Prince de Chimay, 
governor of Hainaut, he started a similar one at Frameries in 1874. 
After having maintained this and several institutions of like character 
from his own purse for a number of years, the prince in 1877 requested 
the minister of the interior to incorporate the schools for domestic in- 
struction with the ofilcial system of education. Kow a network of 
such institutions covers the whole country. 

Some of the most successful of these classes are conducted by the 



180 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Catholic slsterlioods in J>russels and in the provinces. Those carried 
on in convents and in public and parochial schools are administered on 
the most economical basis, the cost of superintendence being practi- 
cally nothing. Moreover, almost every woman of rank in the kingdom 
has one or more such schools under her special charge, either in town or 
country, and overlooks every detail with the sisters. ,The wives of 
manufacturers, too, and other women in private life are founding courses 
for domestic work in villages and in districts which the government has 
not yet reached; so that here, as in the trade schools for girls to be 
described later, i3rivate initiative has been the entering wedge in bring- 
ing about these reforms. Already marked improvement may be ob- 
served in the homes of the miners and other working people within the 
radius of this instruction. 

In 1889, under the auspices of the ministry of public works, a cen- 
tral committee of women devoted to the interests and proi)agation of 
housekeeping schools was formed, with the Countess of Flanders as 
I)resident. In 1890 there were 20 communal or public housekeeping 
schools, 31 free housekeeping schools, 44 classes in household work 
annexed to communal schools, 15 classes attached to schools adopted 
by the committee, and 34 classes belonging to free schools. In 1892 
these numbers had increased to 250. Appliances for teaching all 
branches of domestic economy are ample. For cooking classes the 
Cv-^uipment is complete, all necessary kitchen utensils being supplied. 
Collections of various edible commodities are also furnished, and 
pupils are carefully taught the cost of the different articles of food. 

HOUSEKEEPING SCHOOL, RUB LOCQUBNGHIEN, BRUSSELS. 

Of the many housekeeping schools established in connection with 
public, parochial, private, and trade schools for girls in Belgium, the 
best equipped, most scientific, and most advanced is located in the rue 
Locquenghien, one of the poorer quarters of Brussels. This is not 
connected with any other school. The pupils devote all their time to 
the course of instruction. The object is to train girls to be good house- 
wives, or to become cooks, laundresses, and maid servants. Pux)ils go 
at 8.30 and remain till 4 or 5 o'clock, with interval for dinner, which is 
prepared by the group assigned to cook on that day, each group taking 
turns at all kinds of household work, washing, ironing, cleaning, filling 
lamps, marketing, cooking, darning, setting the table, and serving the 
meals. All the studies pursued bear on these practical exercises, theory 
and practice being united in every lesson. The girls are supposed to 
remain in the school three years, when they receive certificates of pro- 
ficiency. The menus selected are such as would be used in poor and 
middle class households, with a view to encouraging the puT)ils to 
make the most in after life of small resources. 

Every week two mornings are given to cooking by sections of the 
class in turn, and one day to washing, another to ironing. The rest 



CHAP. III.— INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 181 

of the time is devoted to sewing and theoretical lessons. The cooking 
pupils work under the supervision of the teachers, purchase the su^)- 
plies, settle the accounts, make and bake the bread, prepare the meals, 
and serve at table. In the sewing course the girls mend, darn, 
remake old garments, cut and fit, draught patterns, and in fact com- 
plete entirely the ordinary under and over garments worn by women 
and children. Tuition is free. Three courses are held each year. 

HOUSEKEEPING SCHOOL; MORLANWBLZ. 

The equipment of this school includes a kitchen, laundry, sewing 
room, bread oven, provision room, and cellar. 

Classes are held every week day from 8.30 a. m. to 4 p. m. with an 
interval of an hour and a half at midday. The attendance reaches 
from 59 to 80 pupils, who, to enter, must be 13 years old and must 
have comxDleted the primary school studies. A forfeit of 3 francs (58 
cents) is deposited, to be returned if attendance has been regular. 
Instruction is free and the course ma,y be completed in one year. 

The x)rogramme of study includes domestic economy, elements of hy- 
giene and of accounts, kitchen work and needlework — in fact, practice in 
all the duties of housekeeping, with instruction as to qualities of foods, 
the greater or less nutritive value of different food-stuffs, their relative 
digestibility, the best modes of cooking, etc. Opportunity is thus 
afforded to acquire the knowledge and skill necessary to conduct a 
modest home, or to secure good positions in well-to-do families. 

A convent school at Morlanwelz has a domestic section subsidized 
by the government and well managed, where all the housekeex)ing arts 
are taught — cooking, laundering, sewing, and fine embroidery. These 
classes are numerously attended and productive of much good among 
the working population. Small wages are paid to the children for 
sewing and embroidery. 

HOUSEKEEPING SCHOOL, LOUVAIN. 

This school for domestic work at Louvain has been opened in connec- 
tion with a convent where boarding pupils are received^ and the cook- 
ing and housekeeping classes are turned to practical use in providing 
for the daily twants of these internes. The intention is to train domestic 
servants; and a few girls who have foUowed the course have already 
secured positions in families. The classes are of too recent establish- 
ment to enable one to say whether they will succeed as a domestic 
training school. Of the utility of the instruction to the pupil in her 
own home and in after life there can be no question. 

To multiply examples of these excellent housekeeping schools is use- 
less. Whether annexed to the public schools, as at Yerviers, Ixelles, 
and Ostend; to the night schools, as at Liege; to trade schools, here- 
after to be described; to normal schools, as at Brussels j or whether 
existing as separate institutions with a corps of teachers and assistants, 



182 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

the domestio classes are fulfilling a most useful mi^sioDj and bid fair to 
mitigate, if not to cure, some of tlie ^^orst evils of industrial life. 

TEADE SCHOOLS FOE GIELS, 

The Association for the Technical Education of Women was 
founded in Brussels in 1865, with a view to supplying omissions in 
the education for girls organized by the public authorities. Women 
dependent on their own exertions found themselves, it was urged, sub- 
ject to most unfavorable conditions. Compelled to undergo a long 
apprenticeship under direction far from intelligent, or under em i3loyers 
bent on keeping their work people in menial and i*nTe3;ior positions, the 
toiler labored for the meanest wages. Chance, too, not aptitude, gov- 
erned the choice of a profession ; and competition and superior skill, on 
the part of rivals in industry, often drove the most deserving workers 
to the wall. 

TRADB BGHOOL FOR GIRLS, RUB DU MARAIS, BRUSSELS. 

With the aim of ameliorating the evils of apprenticeship, of training 
girls for special pursuits and opening up resources which can be pur- 
sued at home, of enlarging and extending the education acquired in 
l^rimary schools — but which is so often forgotten in the struggle for ex- 
istence — ,the first trade school for girls was established at Brussels. 
Eigiity-four members agreed to pay annually 36 francs ($0.95), and sev- 
eral subscribed largely. The munificence of Senator J. E. Bischoif- 
sheim, however, put the enterprise later on a firm basis, and it was 
installed in its present quarters, 94 rue du Marais. Erom 1868 the 
city of Brussels adopted the school as a communal institution, without, 
however, depriving it of its independent government. It is still man- 
aged by a council of administration composed of fifteen members. Their 
meeting room is filled with the best i^roductions of the drawing and paint- 
ing classes. Every three months a conference, presided over by a gov- 
ernment inspector, unites all the teachers for the purpose of discussion 
aud criticism of a lesson given by one of the staff of the school, either 
I)ractical or scientific. In 1878 the award of prizes was abolished, the 
pupils being trained to work well for work's sake, and not for the sake 
of obtaining a recompense. Exhibitions are given constantly, enabling 
the T)ublic to see the high standards attained in all branches, and put- 
ting the pupils ill communication with employers to whom their skill 
and services may be useful. 

The school was intended more for children of the middle ranks than 
for the very poor. In fact, it is the hardest working parents who are 
obliged to avail themselves of the earnings of their offspring and can 
not i)ermit them to remain in class long enough to be reaUy trained. 
In arranging the course of study such branches were selected as would 
afibrd a girl the best chance to become self su]_3porting. Indeed, Indus- 



CHAP. TIL INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 183 

tries iiever before pursued in Brussels were actually created, as tliat of 
making artifi.cial flowers, for wliicli article Belgium liad liitlierto been 
dependent on Paris. Tliougli tlie attempt was greatly opposed, tbe 
result lias been that many Brussels sliops now manufacture flowers. 
The pux)ils trained at the school are competent forewomen and teachers 
of the art, because their instruction covered the making and putting 
together of all kinds of flowers, whereas shop ax)prentices usually learn 
only one branch of the business. At first the pupil of the classes is 
not so rapid as the shop ai)prentice who turns out one flower year after 
year; but with some training at the shop she becomes a far better 
worker than those never at the scliool, and she is besides capable of 
teaching scientificallj^ So good is the class work, however, that the 
flower dealer who furnishes material for it and buys the product from 
the school makes money by his contract. 

The introduction of trade classes was opposed, too, by well estab- 
lished industries,^ such as dressmaking. Dressmakers wanted api^ren- 
tices who would drudge, run errands, or fashion one part of a garment all 
their lives. They objected to applicants who claimed to be able to make 
all pai?ts of a garment, and who espected higher pay in consequence. 

The more enlightened women of the x)rofession, however, lend all their 
influence to the trade school. Through the efforts of two of the leading 
dressmakers of Brussels, artists in their x^rofession, who serve on the 
jury of award, drawing was made obligatory in the trade school, rue 
du Marais. In first-class establishments, they insisted, theworkwonen 
first see the client, then sketch a design that suits her, draw the cos- 
tume, and calculate by measureihent the amount and cost of material, 
thus securing appropriateness and economy. Again, the fashionable 
dressmakers of Brussels furnish the school with new patterns as styles 
change. Their testimony is that girls vfho are graduated from the insti- 
tution are more valuable, after some shop training, than workers not 
educated there, and that they often become forewomen and heads of de- 
partments. Indeed, the pupil, after getting a few years' practical experi- 
ence in the work room, threatens to supersede the old line dressmaker en- 
tireh/, since she knows more theory; she can design, she can create. On 
the other hand, girls leaving the school after three j^ears' training some- 
times assume to possess knowledge which only current practice can 
give. They have the theory of ordinary garments only, not of the 
higher creations of the dressmakers' art — artistic toilettes such as the 
luxury of the present day demands. 

This school has taken almost a normal character and aims to reach 
young women in fair circum. stances who are unwilling to work under 
the disadvantageous conditions that obtain in most workrooms, with 
long overtime and small pay. The intention is to train teachers 
and head workers. An important study is the history of costumes, 
and the drawing courses are very full and advanced, reiDroducing 
the costumes of all nations in all ages. The student knows just where 



184 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. 

to seek sketches of toilets of a certain fashion or period, whereas un- 
educated dressmakers, i^reparing for historical pageants, fancy balls, or 
theatrical performances, spend hours in a library without finding the 
desired drawings. 

Severe competitive tests are imposed on all applicants for teachers^ 
places. Five candidates for a position as director of dressmaking at 
a school in the provinces were each given five separate tests before a 
committee: 1st, to write a descrii:>tion of a costume; 2nd, to draw it; 
3d, to calculate the materials required and the cost; 4th, to make it; and 
5th, to fit and adjust it finally. 

Three applicants were marked 70 each, and two 100 each, the latter 
having had, beside the school course, two j^ears' practice in a shop. 
Moreover, each candidate was required to give a lesson on this costume 
to a class; and in this demonstration all five were found deficient, none 
as yet having mastered the science of pedagogy. All, therefore, must 
study for some time before reporting for a second examination in the 
art of imx)arting ideas. 

As 5^et in Brussels painting on china has not become a remunerative 
industry for girls, great experience being needed; but excellent work is 
done at the school of the rue du Marais. Some students go on into higher 
art, some give lessons, and a few successfully design stained-glass win- 
dows. In order to establish pupils and at the same time advertise the 
institution an employment bureau is conducted, through which gMs 
are placed in good positions in industry and commerce. 

The course of general instruction, pursued in the forenoon while the 
trade classes occupy the afternoon, includes French, Flemish, arith- 
metic, history, geography, natural science, hygiene, domestic economy, 
drawing, singing, and, in the commercial course, English or German. 
Drawing is the basis of preparation for all the trades, and is thoroughly 
taught. Lace designing, x^ainting on porcelain, dress and underwear 
making, millinery, and the manufacture of artificial flowers are the 
chief industries followed. Girls who take the course in commerce un- 
derstand bookkeeping by double entry, speak German or English, and 
have some acquaintance with geography and commercial law. The 
number of pupils is nearly 400, and the school budget amounts to 60,000 
francs ($11,580). 

The Association for the Technical Education of Women believes that 
it is a mistake to teach women to earn their living unless they are also 
taught culinary arts. When one can earn in two hours enough to hire 
service for the day there is great temptation to neglect the household, to 
spend one's life abroad, to go to restaurants and cafes. To counteract 
this tendency cooking is taught in the school of the rue du Marais ; 
and in the vigorous new offshoot of the parent school in the rue des 
Torres Neuves housekeeiDing lessons are a specialty. Parents pro- 
tested; they objected to their children becoming "domestics.'^ The 
I)resident and council of administration persevered and finally declared 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 185 

that 110 child should have lunch in the building except those who would 
enter the cooking classes and prepare a meal at stated times. At last 
that department proved a success; and in most other trade schools of 
the kingdom cooking classes are now established features, started either 
by the government or by committees of women interested in indus- 
trial education; but there are yet great gap^ to fiU in this species of 
training. 

Graduates from the rue du Marais school are employed as teachers 
in almost every trade school for girls in Belgium, and also in Holland 
and other foreign countries where their services are in great demand. 

TRADE SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, RUE DU POIN^ON, BRUSSELS. 

A trade school nearly as old as that of the rue du Marais and equally 
important is in active operation in the rue du Poingon, under the pat- 
ronage of liberal thinkers and progressive educators—the outgrowth 
of private initiative also. Beginning with extremely modest resources, 
and about 70 pupils in 1873, in 1874 it had 150 students and the city 
of Brussels recognized its usefulness and subsidized it. In 1879 it 
moved to its present quarters, rue du PoinQon, with 229 puiDils, of whom 
101 held free fellowships. In 1882 it became a communal institution, 
managed by an administrative council of fifteen members. 

The instruction comprises general studies, obligatory upon all pupils, 
and special or trade courses, one or the other of which each student must 
follow. Study is pursued in the afternoon , trades are taught in the morn- 
ing, consisting of sewing in all its branches, underwear making, dress- 
making, embroidery, drawing, and commerce. This school took the 
prize in Antwerp in 1885 and at Paris in 1889 for the most practical 
work exhibited. The courses aim at being practical above aU things, 
and the results are admirable. In the dressmaking classes it is inter- 
esting to see any wrap or gown a visitor may have on sketched rap- 
idly on the blackboard by a pupil, reduced to scale, a pattern of the 
garment cut out of muslin and fitted on the form, all in about twenty 
minutes. 

In the sewing departments pupils the first year make up their own 
materials or sew for the creche. By the third year they are able to do 
dainty work, ball dresses and bridal robes; but on graduation the fact 
is impressed on them that they lack practice in details of the art and 
knowledge of fashions and styles, and that, before setting up in bus- 
iness for themselves, they should serve a year or two in a dressmaking 
shop of the highest class. 

The history of art is carefully studied, and pupils originate designs 
for embroidery and lace. In embroidery there are special courses. 
The Bohemian government sends pupils to this school to learn the 
art in order to teach it in the schools of Bohemia. Great attention is 
paid to the drawing; and the exercises of students of 13 preparing to be 
dressmakers compare more than favorably with what is called high 



186 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. 

art in AmericaiL academies. Every step of every process in dressniak- 
iag is first sketclied^ and tken tlie pattern is dranglited. Flowers for 
lace and embroidery are drawn from nature. Drawing is the founda- 
tion of the instruction in every trade. 

Final examinations determine promotions to higher grades, and fre- 
quent exhibitions of work are held. Certificates are given to all who 
attain a certain high standard of excellence at the end of the course. 
The number of i)upils is about 350. 

The records as to the present occupations of graduates are more per- 
fect in this school than anywhere else in Belgium. Many of these 
graduates are teaching in the city and provincial schools, and are hold- 
ing positions of trust in foreign countries. The annual expenditure 
for the institution is about 40,000 francs ($7,720). 

TRADE SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, RUB DES TBRRBS NEUVES, BRUSSELS. 

The Association for the Technical Education of Women v,^as forced, 
on account of the number of applicants Vv^ho could not be accommo- 
dated at the rue du Marais, to open, in 1888, a new trade and house- 
keeping school for girls. It is installed in handsome quarters in a 
populous industrial neighborhood, and already has a^ihieved signoi 
success. 

Both the general literary studies and the domestic classes are oblig- 
atory for all pupils. The trades taught are underwear making, dress- 
making, laundry work, and millinery. The school has three aims, viz., 
to aid pupils to obtain a trade or business suited to the female sex and 
to help them to an independent position^ to initiate young women into 
domestic work and prepare them to direct their households with intelli- 
gence, order, and economy j to continue their primary studies and turn 
the lessons to useful account. 

The domestic classes are a direct application of the lessons given in 
hygiene and domestic economy. The cooking course is varied with the 
seasons, and pux)ils go to m.arket, purchase supplies, and calculate the 
cost of every ingredient and every meal. In other respects the school 
resembles its model^ rue du Marais, and bids fair to equal it in point of 
numbers. On the practical side the instruction is more thorough j on 
the ornamental side less extensive than at the parent school, rue du 
Marais. 

The general course comx3rises French, Flemish, arithmetic, accounts, 
geometrical drawing, history, geography, natural science, hygiene^ 
domestic economy, maternal instruction, singing, and gymnastics. 

The trade course includes sewing, dressmaking, underwear making, 
washing, starching, and ironing. 

The housework course consists of mending, patching, and the neces- 
sary sewing for the family, cooking, house and furniture cleaning, the 
washing of toilet articles, and various other household duties. 



CHAP. Ill, INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 187 

IKTERMEDIATS TRADE SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, ANTWERP. 

This school was created in 1874 by an association whoso object was 
first to prepare j^oung women for the normal schools, and then to train 
them for trades withont the intervention of the usnal apprenticesliip 
in sliops. Subsidized by state and city, it is, like the Brussels trade 
schools, governed by a council of administration of fifteen members, 
and the instruction follows much the same lines. The studies last five 
years, two of which are i)reparatory. Of trades the pux^il may select 
underwear making, dressmaking, cutting and fitting, and drawing and 
painting applied to various industries. The school is so largelj^ at- 
tended til at its present domicile is almost inadequate. 

TRADE SCHOOL FOR GIRLS; GHENT 

In 1888 the city of Ghent transformed its communal ouvroir or ap- 
prentice school annexed to the jiublic school of the rue du ^ouveau Bois 
into a regular trade school for girls. 

The literary and trade courses resemble those of the other Belgian 
trade schools, lasting three years, and presupposing a primary educa- 
tion. At entrance the parents or guardian of the pupil agree to x^ay 
when the young girl shall have completed the course the sum of 90 
francs ($17.37) as tuition, v»^hich, hovv^ever, is always remitted to stu- 
dents who finish with credit, as a recompense for faithful application. 

The dressmaking department, following the plan of tlie Paris scliools, 
has established an outside clientele^ and sevv^s for regular customers j 
the workers being sui)posed to gala greater practical knowledge by 
making costumes for outsiders than in sewing on their own materials 
or constructing useless models. Pupils assist the mistress in fitting, 
draping, and trying on. The proceeds of the work go to the school fund, 
although this plan is sometimes varied by paying the workers sm.all 
wages, as in the tailor schools for boys. 'Drawing is here, as elsewhere, 
a prominent feature of the industrial training.' 

TRADE SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, VERVIERS. 

This school was established in 188G by private initiative, and is 
managed by a committee of nine members. The course of instruction 
combines literary studies and certain trades. Modifications have lately 
been made by which more attention is paid to natural science, hygiene, 
and domestic economy. The other branches pursued are commerce, 
German, industrial drawing, with special relation to trades, dressmak- 
ing, underAvear making, and painting. Much stress is laid on profi- 
ciency in drawing, and the achievements of the pupils are extremely 
creditable. Certificates are given to pupils passing good examinations. 
The attendance numbers nearly 200. 



188 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

INTBRMBDIATE TRADE SCKOOI. FOR GIRLS, LIEGE. 

The city of Liege supports a trade scliool for girls as important and 
useful as those in Brussels. Besides the obligatory general studies, 
divided into inferior, intermediate, and superior, seven special courses 
may be pursued, viz., history and literature, commerce, dressmaking, 
underwear making, artificial flowers, drawing, and painting. In the 
literature classes there were in 1892, 37 pupils; in commerce, 86; in 
dressmaking, 182; in underwear making, 53; in artificial flowers, 16; in 
drawing, 26; in painting, 17; making, with si)eeial pupils, a total of 
437 in attendance. 

The lessons in flower making commence, with the cloth in the bolt, 
and cover every step — dyeing, making, assembliEg; they last four years 
and are taught by a practical flower maker, the head of a large manu- 
factory. Many advanced trade pupils omit the literary studies of the 
morniug and i)ursue only the industrial work of the afternoon. The 
method of instruction is founded on the intuitive princix)le, and aims 
to develop originality and to reveal natural aptitudes. The school 
possesses good collections of casts, charts^ chemical and physical ap- 
paratus, and a small library. The trade instruction is graded, draw- 
ing forming the basis of it. After studying the first elements of form 
models are found in life and in nature, in landscapes, in plants and 
flowers. Geometry and i^erspective are insisted on, and the aesthetic 
in art and the history of art are presented in a way to appeal to the 
imagiiiation and to furnish exercises useful in the practice of the 
pupil's future trade. 

The teaching staff consists of a director, a subdirector, ten teachers 
of the highest or regent grade, two governesses, five mistresses for 
Flemish, German, and English, a professor of natural science, a teacher 
of gymnastics, a superintendent of industrial work, six dressmaking 
and two underwear making teachers, one mistress for artificial flowers, a 
professor and three drawing 'teachers, and a i)ainting teacher besides. 
The important work accomplished by this excellent institution justifies 
the employment of so large and competent a faculty. 

PAEOOHIAL TEADE SCHOOLS. 

The parochial trade and industrial schools in Belgium deserve men- 
tion, the admirable schools of Saint Luke being by far the best. 

These Saint Luke schools complete, as it were, the course of Catholic 
instruction, receiving the pupils after their first communion and teach- 
ing them until they are about 20 years of age and have become self sup- 
porting workmen. Graduates are in great demand by employers, be- 
cause of their skill as artisans, and many have set up in business for 
themselves, and in their own shops direct large numbers of workers at 
wood, stone, metal, decorativ^e painting, stained glass, engraving, and 
building. Two ex-pux)ils are architects of wide renown, two are univer- 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 189 

sity professors, and many others are teachers of drawing and architect- 
ure in imx:)ortant schools. In foreign countries, too, they have had signal 
success, having established industries in France, Holland, and England. 

The Ghent school was the first of the Saint Luke schools, having 
been founded in December 1862 by the Society of Saint Yincent de 
Paul. In January 1863 it was formally opened with 12 pupils from 
12 to 15 years of age. By October of the same year 40 boys were 
enrolled J and at present 600 students of various ages, from 13 to 25, 
are in attendance. 

At the anniversary of the founding of the Ghent school the associa- 
tion of alumni gave to the institution a fine building, consisting of a 
museum and library combined. 

Under the same authoritj^ and pursuing the same course of study 
schools have been established at Tournay, Liege, Brussels, and Oourtrai 
in Belgium, and at Lille in France. 

The Saint Luke schools aim to aid young men, particularly the sons 
of artisans, to acquire the theoretical and practical knowledge necessary 
to attain an honorable position and insure their efficiency in various 
occupations, as architects, managers of public works, sculptors, wood 
engravers, and painters. All the instruction is essentially practical, 
and the importance of drawing is fully recognized. 

Ten years are required to complete the full course, but only those 
pupils destined to be architects remain so long. Four or five years 
suffice to give a good, artistic training as skilled workmen. 

Tuition is free, and the financial resources of the Saint Luke schools 
are derived principally from subscriptions. The Ghent school, with 
600 pupils, receives from the state a subsidy of 5,000 francs ($965), 
and from the province 1,500 francs ($289.50). The Tournay school has 
150 pupils, Liege 100, and that at Schaerbeek, Brussels, founded in 
1887, is attended by upwards of 400 pupils, and gets from the state 
5,000 francs ($965). 

TEADE SCHOOLS FOUNDED BY GUILDS AND TEADES. 

Trades and trade unions in Belgium recognize the importance of 
giving apprentices more thorough training than is now generally ob- 
tainable since old fashioned apprenticeship, under which a boy might 
be bound out to a master, no longer exists in the kingdom. Just as 
the ancient guilds of London are at present endowing and even found- 
ing technical schools and classes, so the time honored " syndics " or 
guilds of Belgium, or their modern reioresentatives, the master tailors 
and brewers, are taking steps to train workmen to greater technical 
proficiency. 

At Louvain the Saint Peters Trade School was founded in October 
1888 by the corporation of trades and commerce of Louvain. The 
course was fully organized in October 1889 in a fine domicile, and the 



190 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. 

plan of study embraces drawing and elaborate trade instraction. The 
trade classes comprise tailoring, both cutting and sewing; carpet 
making, shoemaking, blacksmi thing, stained glass, carpentry, joinerj^, 
decorative painting, plumbing, slating, masonry, and a botanical course 
for gardeners. The teachers are either scientific and technical school 
graduates or practical manufiicturers and foremen of workshops. 

In each department instruction is given also in physics and in com- 
mercial accounts. The object of the lessons is to obviate routine and 
to suT)ply to the student workman those omissions in his all-round 
training vfhich the specialized shop work surely entails. 

Pupils must be at least 12 years of age in order to enter. The school 
administration is carried on by a commission appointed by the grand 
coujicil of the corporation, and is comi)osed, for the most part, of em- 
ployers and workingmen. One member of this commission is charged 
with the daily direction of the school. Its expenses for 1890~'91 
amounted to 7,450 fi:anc3 (|1,437.85). In 1891 there were a hundred 
pupils in the drawing school and a hundred in the trade classes. 

SCHODI. FOR TAILORS, BRUSSELS. 

The master tailors at Brussels, finding no properly qualified jour- 
neymen tailors, resolved to establish a school for training skilled 
workmen. 

The first Belgian school for tailors was opened at Brussels, April 
12, 1880, under the control of the master tailors. The theoretical 
course includes French, arithmetic, accounts, geography, history, and 
drawing, while in the practical department ixiijiis undergo a three 
years' training vrhieh qualifies each one to make his garment (faire sa 
piece). The first year is devoted to a complete course in sewing j the 
second year to completing the separate parts of a garment j the third 
year to putting together, pressing, and finishing the suit. A fourth 
year is sometimes added, after which the pui)il may consider himself a 
finished workman. 

Cutting lessons were purposely omitted from the course of study to 
counteract the tendency in the trade for all men to become cutters, 
while nobody was left to do satisfactory work with the needle. The em- 
ployers believed that to create a supply of skilled journeymen would 
conduce to their own advantage and greatly hnprove standards in 
the business of custom tailoring. They agreed to give preference, 
always, to workers completing the x>rescribed course j and to the i>ro- 
gressive vSpirit of the master tailors of Belgium the credit is due for the 
creation of excellent trade schools. 

On account of the sedentary nature of the trade a complete course 
of gymnastics is obligatory, under a competent professor connected 
with the school. The teaching stafc' consists of a director, professional 
tailors to supervise the actual v>^ork of the shops, and a professor of 
science. 



CHAP. III.- — IXDUSTFvIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 191 

A tuition fee of GO francs (§11.58) a year is charged all inipils, but 
tlie Brussels poor T)ay no entrance feej otlier x)ui)ils of tlie city X)ay an 
entrance fee of 50 francs ($9.05), and those living outside tlie city 
limits 100 francs ($19.30). After six months' probation, for all lads who 
have been faithful there is set aside in the school treasury a certain 
wage, consisting of 1 franc (19 cents) a week the first year, 2 francs 
(39 cents) a week the second year, and 3 francs (58 cents) a week the 
third year J and the total is given to the X)upil on graduation, but he 
forfeits it if lie leaves without comx)leting the course. In the fourth 
year the vs'orker receives all that he can earn. The school is well man- 
aged and is fulfilling admirably the ends for which it was estab- 
lished. Ex-i)upils holding certificates of i^roficiency have obtained 
lucrative emr)loyment in foreign countries. 

In 18S9-'90 there were 32 boys in attendance. In 1802 applicants 
were being refused. The annual budget amounts to 12,000 francs 
($2,316), the state aiding with a subsidy of 2,000 francs ($386), the city 
paying 1,200 francs ($231.60), and the province 700 francs ($135.10), the 
master tailors subscribing the balance over and above receix)ts. 

SCHOOL FOR TAILORS, LIEGE. 

On a similar basis is organized the School for Tailors at Liege, 
founded October 2, 1888, under the patronage of the government, the 
province, and the city. In 1890, 33 pux)ils were enrolled,* the state sub- 
sidy was 2,000 francs ($386), that of the commune and province being 
750 francs ($141.75) each. In 1891 there were 4-8 pupils. The earn- 
ings reserved for the boys amount to less than at Brussels, but the 
quality of work done is so fine as to have excited the admiration of 
renowned London firms. 

At Binche a school for tailors was opened in 1890, by the com- 
munal government, with 20 attendants. 

SCHOOL OP TYPOGRAPHY, BRUSSELS. 

The School of Typography {JEcoIe de TyiJogra^hie) at Brussels orig- 
inated in the efforts of the compositors' union to improve the conditions 
of apprenticeship. 

In most printing rooms the child entering to learn the trade of type- 
setter was a mere drudge and runner, carrying proof sheets, and doing 
almost menial work, and, after passing years at the business, he did not 
know even the elements of his trade. So many incomi)etents were 
thus enrolled in the calling that the union asked employers to require 
candidates to pass an examination, and in 1882 this rule was adopted. 
The large number of candidates rejected, though the test was simple, 
dismayed the union and x>roved the great need for proper technical 
training. In 1886 the union called a joint meeting of its members and 
the largest printing firms, with a view to establishing a trade school j 



192 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

and tliroiigli tlie efforts of tlie Printing Glub and Library, the Printing 
Guild, M. Jean Dumont, editor of Le Typograjphej and others inter- 
ested, the Brussels School of Tj^ography was opened in 1888. The 
significant fact was recognized that, in those countries where tech- 
nical instruction was advanced, as Germany, Austria, and Italy, print- 
ing had reached great artistic perfection J and France, not to be out- 
done, had opened a school for compositors at Paris, and was then build- 
ing a model institute for teaching the art of book making. 

As a result of prolonged conferences and mutual concessions on the 
part of employers and the union the school was at last established, 
the publishers of Brussels agreeing to accept no workmen under 14, 
and to send all beginners to their free trade school. 

After five years' attendance pupils pass an examination and receive 
a dii)loma which entitles them to the wages of a skilled workman. The 
governing committee of the institution is made np half of employers, 
half of -workmen. 

The course is divided into two parts, one giving technical, the other 
literary instruction. Technical teaching keeps pace with that of the 
text book, and the pnpil advances systematically in the knowledge of 
his trade to a full mastery of the printing art. During 1890, 71 young 
men were enrolled — 19 in their first school year, 24 in their second, 18 
in their third, and 10 in their fourth. The classes are held at night, 
and during the day the pupils may be found scattered throughout the 
principal composing rooms and publishing houses of Brussels. The 
expenses amount to about 7,500 francs ($1,447.50) annually. 

BRE^WING SCHOOL, GHENT. 

A model brewing school was opened at Ghent in October 1887, 
founded by the Belgian Society of Brewers. 

The school is divided into two sections. The first section is designed 
for the theoretical and ]3ractical training of foremen and journeymen 
brewers j tuition is free. The second section, not gratuitous, provides 
a complete education in the art of brewing for proprietors or directors 
of breweries. 

During the first year 36 pupils were in attendance j of whom 13 were 
established brewers, 14 were sons of brewers, and 9 were aspirants to 
the position of brewers or directors of breweries. All these were pay 
pupils; but, besides, 27 attended the gratuitous section. 

Stimulated by this success the organizers of the school still further 
developed their plan, and, in 1890, completed their work by the estab- 
lishment of a scientific station, similar to those that exist in Germany, 
in England, and in Denmark, whose of&ce is to study all the questions 
of a scientific nature that pertain to brewing. 

The school now consists of three sections — a free section, a techni- 
cal pay section, and a higher pay section. The gratuitous branches 
are French and Flemish brewing, applied mechanics, practical work 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 193 

m tlie brewlioiise, aud excursions to breweries. The course includes 
instruction as to waters available for brewing purposes, the barley, 
its germination, drj-ing of the malt, methods of testing the malt, 
brewing by the methods of infusion, decoction, etc. In short, every 
process of the art is fully exi)lained and demonstrated. The courses 
are given alternately in French and in Flemish, for 24 consecutive 
Sundays -, and, on certain week days, pui)ils practise in the breweries 
of the city. At the close of the school year the pupil is examined by 
a committee comi)osed of two professors and four members of the ad- 
ministrative council of the school. With a possible 1,000 points the 
pupil may obtain 100 points for diligence in study, 600 points for the 
highest excellence in the course of brewing, and 300 points in me- 
chanics. Graduates of the Ghent school are highly esteemed, and 
they obtain large salaries. The average is 1,800 francs ($347.40) a 
year. 

The technical coiu^se, for which 500 francs ($90.50) a year is paid, 
and the higher course, for which 250 francs ($48.25) is paid, include 
much more of the theory, chemistry, and technology of brewing. A 
complete bacteriological laboratory has been equipijed, and a model 
brewery is connected with the school, with a library containing Belgian, 
French, English, German, and American brewing journals and reviews- 

The school budget of 1890 amounted to 30,000 francs ($5,790); state 
subsidy, 5,800 francs ($1,119.40); i)rovincial and city subsidy, each, 500 
fr^ancs (896.50). Since the founding of the school in 1887 the Flemish 
course of the gratuitous section has been followed by 54 pupils, and 
the French course by 57. In the professional section 162 pupils have 
been enrolled ; and at the opening of the superior section in 1890, 13 
pui)ils entered the new department, most of whom were master brewers 
or the sons of established brewers. 

As a proof of the excellence of this Ghent school, the new scientiiie 
brewing institute at Berlin has adopted the same plan of study in the 
botanical course; and the new school of brewing at Lille (established 
in October 1890) has selected a course identical with that at Ghent 

TEADB SCHOOLS. 

No manual training schools of the type of those in Saint Louis, To- 
ledo, New Orleans, Chicago, and Baltimore exist in Belgium. The 
nearest approach to their educational idea is embodied in two institu- 
tions, one at Ghent, newly established, the other at Tournay, one of the 
oldest foundations in the kingdom. The Tournay school, though called 
an industrial school and ranked as such in all catalogues, departs so 
widely from the lines pursued by the other industrial schools that it is 
more convenient and also more exact to describe it amoug the trade 
schools, of which it is by far the most important. 
S. Ex. 6d 13 



194 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, TOURNA-S^. 

The origmal aim of this establishment was to do away with the dis- 
advantages of api3renticeship, which is usually passed under conditions 
unfavorable both to the technical proficiency and the character of the 
young workman. 

In 1841 a school of arts and trades was ojjened at Tonrnay to per- 
fect workmen in local industries, to turn out good foremen and arti- 
sans — in a word, to teach manual labor i)roperly. At first a boarding 
department was attached to the school, and workshops for hosiery, car- 
pentry, casting iron and copper, locksmithing, and modelling. The 
whole was nnder the control of the clergy. Pupils were admitted at 
8 years of age, and could remain till they were 21. The price 
of board was 100 francs ($19.30) a year, besides which the school 
appropriated three-fourths of the earnings of the pupil in the shops, 
the other fourth being reserved for the boy till his departure from the 
establishment. 

In 1860 the institution reorganized more on the model of other in- 
dustrial schools, retaining, however, the special workshops where the 
students were regularly emjjloyed all day; but, after 18G5, it was on 
longer administered by priests, and the boarding department was kept 
entirely distinct. 

As the school is at present operated, a theoretical industrial course, 
as well as shop work, is obligatory upon all pupils. This comprehends 
arithmetic, geometry, mechanics, physics, chemistry, industral econ- 
omy, and drawing, the first year being preparatory, the regular studies 
covering three years besides. They are pursued only in the early 
morning in summer and in the evening in winter. Drawing occux)ies 
six hours a week. The day is devoted to shop work. 

The government contracts with a large manufacturer to assume the 
responsibility of carrying on the school shops, where he is at liberty to 
engage, too, his own workmen 5 but he agrees to furnish always definite 
emx)loyment to the pupils at fixed rates. The classes in iron or wood 
work labor in squads under a teacher or foreman, i)erforming all the 
processes requisite in the manufacture of the product. Such constant 
change of emiDloyment is, however, insisted on by the director of the 
school to prevent the lad from being a mere automaton or a routine 
worker, and to enable him to become x)roficient in all branches of his 
chosen trade. 

Each student workman's earnings are partly reserved for him until his 
majority, partly turned into the school treasury. The pupils are 
mostly over 14 j^ears old, and each candidate serves six months 
probation before being finally received. If one shows no aptitude for 
a trade he is sent back to his parents. On entering the boy selects as 
'his specialty either wood work or iron work, not both. The shops 
actually in operation admit of considerable liberty of choice among 
such pursuits as cariDcntry, joinery, iron casting, fitting, turning, 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATIvOX IN BELGIUM. 195 

core making, and copper work. Of late a special class lias been sent 
to a sliop in tlie town wiiere most beautiful and artistic ornamental 
iron work is produced. 

The average yearly attendance is 125, and x)upils come from Holland, 
England, Spain, Eussia, and even America. The state contributes to 
the sux:)port of the school the sum of 21,000 francs ($1,053), while 
province and commune each give 7,000 francs ($1,351) a year. The 
book work accomplished is less than that which American high school 
boys undertake. In winter the theoretical course is followed by lads 
of the town who do not enter for shop work, which swells the enrol- 
ment to 250, and entitles Tournay to class itself with other Belgian 
industrial schools, 

TRADE SCHOOL, GHENT. 

As Tournay represents the earlier ideas regarding apprenticeship^ 
the trade school for boys at Grhent stands for modern achievements in 
technical instruction j but the object is not, as in American manual 
training schools, to educate and to develop) faculty, it is to form the 
best possible artisan by means of scientific preparation. 

In 1882 M. Lippens, mayor of Ghent, announced that the creation of 
a school of apprenticeship, where children co]ning from the primary 
schools could be instructed in wood and iron work, would be an essen- 
tial measure of policy. 

In 1883 M. Lipx)ens and M. Dauge, the alderman of public instruction, 
visited the apprenticeship schools of Paris, Eouen, and Havre. The 
Havre school particularly attracted their attention, both on account of 
its excellent organization, and because of the results obtained. Vari- 
ous circumstances conspired to delay the execution of M. Lipi)ens's 
project. But in 1887 the aldermanic college sent a special delegate, M. 
Devylder the present director of the school, to Havre to study the 
apprenticeship school of that city in all its details, as much from an 
educational point of view as from the trade and administrative stand- 
point. The favorable report of M. D evylder induced the board of public 
instruction to found a professional school for boys, and a course was 
Oldened in October 1887. 

In 1890 the school was commodiously installed in a building erected 
especiallj^ for its accommodation. The com-se of study includes Flem- 
ish, French, arithmetic, i)ractical geometry, accounts, the elements of 
physics and mechanics, a practical acquaintance with metals and com- 
mon woods, and drawing. Lessons and shop work in the well equipped 
school work rooms alternate during the day. Ko classes are held at 
night. 

The pupils select either wood or iron as their specialty, and the shop 
instruction differs, accordingly, from the very first, although almost the 
same theoretical course is covered in both departments. Manual and 
mental exercises are so combined that, after three years' application. 



196 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

the students are qualified to enter ui)on their particuhir trade. The 
iron Tvork is specialized into forging, fitting, turning, and locksmithing. 
Boys aged from 13 to 16 may enter, and they must have attended 
for one year at least the highest class in a primary school. 

This institution is equipped with one 12-horse power engine, fifty- five 
vises, six lathes (iron), one Whitworth plane, six forges, two ventilating 
fans, one ribbon saw, three i)ower lathes for wood work, and forty-five 
complete sets of carpenters' tools. It is the intention to add immedi- 
ately other important machinery and tools, and to make the school the 
equal of any of its kind on the continent. 

Twenty- five pupils attended when the classes were first opened j in 
1890, 85 followed the course j in 1892 every place was filled, and appli. 
cants were turned away. A committee of twelve influential men has a 
general oversight of the school shops and assists in securing for grad- 
uates i)Ositions in some one of the many large industrial establishments 
of Ghent. Indeed, employers find the trade school boys very valuable 
workmen. The average pay they receive at first, in wood working 
shops, is 1 franc 60 centimes (31 cents) a day, and in iron works they 
get about 1 franc 80 centimes (35 cents) a day — considerably more 
than youths of the same age earn who have not had the advantages of 
the trade school. 

The teaching staff consists of a director, a subdirector, instructors, 
and foremen. The annual budget amounts to 27,060 francs ($5,222.58), 
the state granting a subsidy of 6,000 francs ($1,158), and the province 
2,000 francs ($386). 

NATIONAL SCHOOL OF WATCHMAKING, ELECTRICITY, AND AP- 
PLIED MECHANICS, BRUSSELS. 

The National School of Watchmaking, Electricity, and Applied Me- 
chanics at Brussels was founded in 1886 by private enterprise aided 
by the state, the province, and the city, with the design of furnishing 
young men the means of acquiring necessary theoretical and practical 
knowledge of all the branches of watchmaking, of the apphcations 
of mechanical principles to the construction of instruments of preci- 
sion, and of electricity. 

The school is exclusively technical without the least reference to the 
commercial value of its products; but, nevertheless, a commission is 
authorized to sell the objects made by the pupils. The studies cover 
four years, beginning August 1 and ending July 1, each year. Both 
the theoretical and the practical courses are strictly obligatory. 

The practical instruction includes preparatory education and pre- 
liminary work common to all branches of mechanical precision ,• the 
complete construction of a watch; the making of the movements; the 
setting up of all the parts of watches, old and new; electric clor-ks ; 
vChronometry; telegraphy; telephony; electric signals; the making of 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 197 

instruments of precision j the construction of apparatus for luirposes 
of demonstration in tlie scliool museum, etc. 

The theoretical course includes mathematics, i)hysics, chemistry, cos- 
mography, mechanics, elements of bookkeeping and accounts, French, 
and industrial economy. 

Certificates are conferred after examination on i^upils who have com- 
pleted their four years' apprenticeship. A travelling scholarship is 
granted to the pupil who finishes his studies with the highest credit, 
on the condition that he will report, within the year, on the visits he 
may make to trade schools abroad. 

For admission pupils must be at least 14 years of age, and possess, 
as a minimum, the education covered by the primary school course. 
The tuition is fixed at 250 francs ($48.25) a year, but the administra- 
tion gives scholarships or half scholarships free. Pupils serve a three 
months' probation. The annual budget of the watchmakers' school 
amounts to ui)wards of 15,000 francs ($2,895). The number of pupils 
varies from 20 to 25. 

COURSE FOR STEAM ENGINEERS, NAMUR. 

A course of instruction in locomotive driving and management of 
steam boilers (cours de manoeuvre et cCentretien des macliines a vapeur) 
was established by the state at IS'amur in 1876. The teaching is con- 
ducted on Sundays, is public and fi?ee, and the state railroads allow a 
reduction in fare to those attending. Certificates are delivered at the 
end of a year to pupils who possess sufficient knowledge of the branches 
taught. 

SCHOOL FOR FISHERMEN, OSTEND. 

At Ostend a practical training school for fishermen was established 
in 1885 at the suggestion of M. Charles Janssens, who charged 
M. Defever, director of a free primary school, to draw up a special plan 
of studies for pupils destined for the occupation of fishermen. In 
1887 the fishing school was divided into two (higher and lower) dei)art- 
ments. 

With the third year of primary studies in this school begins the 
technical instruction, which includes naval construction, na^aga;tion, 
the compass, exercises in finding one's latitude and longitude, the 
jS'orth Sea, principal food fishes of the l^^orth Sea, places and seasons 
for fishing, imx)lements for catching fish, preparation and curing of fish, 
etc. 

In the fourth year the same studies are more extensively specialized. 
The variations of the compass are accounted for, and the corrections 
necessary for determining the true course are explained. Then the 
ocean currents are studied, the ebb and flow of the tides, high and low 
tides, the winds, their action on the sails, the water, sea charts, lati- 



198 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

tncTe and longitude, ealcnlation of distances, determination of routes, 
etc. The coast lines are modelled and made familiar, viz., tlie Belgian 
coast, and tliose of Holland, Germany, Denmark, ^Norway, and Eng- 
land. The formation of the shore of the Il^orth 8ea, fishing stations, 
situation, distance and depth of the waters are also taught. Instruc- 
tion is given in the laws and international conventions concerning fish- 
eries, in all the arts of marine fishing, and in the repairing of appara- 
tus. In the fourth year a course in English is followed, with special 
reference to the use of the chief nautical terms. 

During the year 1890-'91, 188 pupils attended this school, as follows: 
Eirst year pupils, 60; second year, 50 j third year, 42 j fourth year, 36. 

The budget for 1890-'91 amounted to 2,400 francs ($463.20). The 
state, the province, and the commune pay, each, 800 francs ($154.40). 

Since the founding of this department 100 pupils, having completed 
the studies of the school, have secured places on fishing vessels. 

The free school of Ostend, another esta;blisliment for the training 
of the sons of fishermen, was opened in 1890. The course requires two 
years for its completion, and 68 pupils were enrolled during the first 
year. The total cost of the school aggregates 4,000 francs ($772). 
The state subsidy is 1,500 francs ($289.50) j the provincial, 500 francs 
($96.50). The deficit is covered by special subscriptions. 

SCHOOL FOR FISHBRMBN. BLANKBNBERGHE. 

In 1890 a free fishing school of lower rank was opened at Blank en- 
berghe, near Ostend. The instruction is given in winter, when the fish- 
ermen are at home, and on Sundays. The course is well arranged, and 
is sufficient for acquainting fishermen with all the ordinary duties per- 
taining to theh^ craft. 

The law of May 27, 1890, making it obligatory upon any one sailing 
in the capacity of master of a fishing vessel to possess a certificate of 
qualification, has had a salutary influence on the attendance at the 
fishing schools of Belgium. 

Bertiaux says, too, that Holland, having enjoyed this special form 
of instruction for twelve years, has derived great advantage from it, 
not only in the matter of her fishery interests, but in the development 
of her merchant marine. In Holland it has been long understood that 
maritime fishing is the best possible apprenticeship for the formation 
of good sailors. 

IKDTJSTBIAL SCHOOLS. 

The aim of the Belgian industrial schools, says a government report, 
May 7, 1886, on the Condition of Industrial and Trade Instruction in 
Belgium {Rapport sitr Ja Sittcation de V Enseignement Indiistriel et Pro- 
fessionnel en Belgique), is to give a workman scientific instruction bear- 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 199 

ing Oil liis trade whicli lie can not acquire in tlie sliopj to develop his 
intelligence by acquainting liim with the general laws of matter; and 
to free him from the tyranny of routine, enabling him to increase his 
economic value and thus better his material condition. 

These institutions are essentially communal; perfect autonomy of 
management is left to the province or commune. The commune or 
municipality appoints teachers, prepares the expense budgets, ar- 
ranges programmes and rules, in fact, administers the schools. The 
government reserves only the right to approve and inspect with a view 
to control the general management of these institutions by virtae of 
its subsidy bestowed, and to aid in their development and improvement. 

At the close of 1889 there were fifty-four industrial schools in Bel- 
gium, some founded by private initiative, some by the state, with a 
total of 14,947 pupils, of whom 1,304 were girls. 

In 1892 thirty-five of the most imi)ortant of these establishments 
are described by Bertiaux in his book on technical education. These 
schools are located as follows: Anderlecht, Antwerp, Arlon, Ath, 
Bruges, Brussels, Charleroi, Chatelet, Oourtrai, Fontaine PEveque, 
Furnes, Ghent, Gosselies, Hasselt, Houdeng-Aimeries, Huy, Jamioulx, 
Jemmapes, Jumet, La Louviere, Liege, Louvain, Marchiennes au Pc*jit, 
Morlanwelz, I^^amur, Mvelles, Ostend, Patura{«-3s, Saint-Ghislain, Se- 
raing, Soignies, Tournay, Yerviers, Yilvoordeu, Tpres. Certain special 
courses, as photography at Brussels and steam engineering at Kamur, 
are included. 

In 1888 subsidies for the support of the industrial schools proper 
were granted to the anjount of $50,809 from the state, $18,371 from the 
lorovinces, and $44,155 from the communes; aggregating, with receipts 
from other sources, $138,336. The special schools and courses also re- 
ceive liberal subsidies. 

The valne of these institutions to the laboring classes can hardly be 
overestimated. They meet the needs of various kinds of wage earners. 
Workingmen's children, who become bread winners as soon as the 
factory laws allow, and even before, find in night study at the indus- 
trial schools the instruction which otherwise they would never have 
leisure to secure. Older men, moreover, discovering at the shop what 
they lack in efficiency, what hiuderances bar their advancement, what 
influences must be counteracted, start in, even late in life, to supply the 
want by systematic training, which may be had absolutely without 
cost. Laborers 50 years old are not ashamed to seize such tardy op- 
portunities; and numbers of workingmen assert that they were fathers 
of large families before the chance occurred to enter on this coveted 
instruction. 

More and more value attaches each year to certificates from the in- 
dustrial schools, and many foremen and superintendents make it a 
point, in engaging or promoting workers, to require this test of capacity. 



200 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Employers in general are strongly in favor of sncli practical industrial 
training, and some of tliem aid the schools financially. A few em- 
ployers, however, object that the tendency is to over educate the 
laborer, so that all worldngmen expect to be captains of industry and 
none are willing to perform the duties of a private. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, ANTWERP. 

Many Belgian schools, to which reference will be made, have been 
inspected by a British royal commission. The following statement 
concerning the Antwerp Industrial School is quoted from the report 
of this commission: 

The Antwerp Industrial School is an evening school for workmen, 
who go through a definite course of instruction, having lessons in geom- 
etry, elementary science, and in drawing in its special application to 
various trades. The teaching is free, and is given in the Flemish lan- 
guage. In addition to the general course of instruction, which all the 
students of this school, as of other similar schools in Belgium, are ex- 
X)ected to follow, the commissioners found classes in which workmen are 
taught various special trades, such as wood graining and painting in 
imitation of marble; these being industries carried on in the city of Ant- 
werp. Twenty-seven pui)ils were at work in this class. The school con- 
tains 150 pupils in five classes. They enter at the age of 14 and up- 
wards, and remain four or five years. By a special ministerial decree 
children from the primary schools, who can satisfy the conditions of en- 
trance, are admitted at the early age of 12 years. Most of the pux)ils, 
however, have already siDent more or less time in the workshop, and 
have, therefore, gained some familiarity with the practical details of 
their trade. The lessons take x)lace between the hours of 6 and 9 every 
evening. Here, as in almost ail other schools in Belgium which the 
commissioners visited, special attention is paid to drawing. 

It is worthy of notice in connection with this school, as well as with 
other schools in Belgium, that the pupils are expected to go through a 
complete course of instruction as laid down in the i)rogramme for each 
year, and do not select such subjects as they themselves may consider 
to be more especially applicable to their own work. There is a prepar- 
atory course for young men who are not sufiiciently advanced to enter 
the school. The annual cost of the establishment is $4,379.85, part of 
which is contributed by the town and part by the i^rovince and by the 
state. 

The criticism of the commission with regard to the rigidity of the 
programme of study is hardly applicable at the present time. Students 
take up one or more branches of the course as time and capacity allow; 
or they pursue some branches one year, others the next, until the whole 
I)lan of instruction is compassed. 

The Industrial School at Antwerp was founded in 1860, and reorganized 
in 1866. The instruction, given in the Flemish language, comprises 
drawing lessons and the following scientific branches: Arithmetic, 
algebra, geometry, bookkeeping, hygiene, industrial legislation and 
economy, physics, chemistry, mechanics, and steam engines, with special 
courses for stationary engineers and in the materials of construction. 



CHAP. HI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 201 

Drawing includes linear, ornamental, geometrical j drawing from 
lines and from solid models, bas-relief, perspective, architecture, imita- 
tion (graining) of woods, marbles, and shells, plans for gardening, and 
sketcliing machinery. 

The course covers four years, besides a preparatory term which 
pupils enter at 12 years of age. Classes are held almost entirely in the 
evening and on Sunday. In 1890, 355 pupils were registered. The 
state appropriated 9,500 francs ($1,833.50), the province 4,500 francs 
(I8G8.50), and the city 11,000 francs ($2,123). 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL. BRUSSELS. 

This institution affords a high order of technical instruction and 
resembles in some respects an engineering school, though intended 
chiefly for foremen and workmen. It was established in 1869 by the 
communal government, with the assistance of the province and the 
state. The curriculum requires three years for completion and includes 
the higher branches, such as geometry in its application to persiDective, 
to stone cutting, and to timber j a full course in the construction of build- 
ings; special courses in electricity, chemistry, and designing machines; 
and unique and valued lessons in the art of photography. On Sunday 
mornings the building course is very largely attended by workmen in 
the building trades, particularly those in the employ of the city. 

Pupils must be at least 14 years old, must be able to read and 
write well, and must know the four fundamental rules of arithmetic. 
Regular students study for certificates ; the free pui)ils — those not bound 
to attend regularly — may listen to the lectures merely on presenting 
a card of admission. 

Certificates of two kinds are awarded, general and special, the latter 
being for mechanical designing, electrical and civil engineering, and 
chemistry. 

This institution boasts of a fine technological library of about 12,000 
volumes, a chemical laboratory, a physical cabinet, mineralogical col- 
lections, etc. In 1889-'90 there were 553 pupils enrolled; of this num- 
ber 212 were studying civil engineering, 68 mechanical design, 42 elec- 
trical science, 4 chemistry, and 16 photography. The school budget 
called for 124,372 francs ($24,003.80). 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, CHARLEROL 

On account of the importance of Charleroi as an iron and coal centre, 
great interest attaches to the success the city has attained in affording 
a very high grade of scientific training to its thousands of miners and 
skilled iron workers who get their practical experience in the mines, 
founderies, furnaces, and rolling mills of the vicinity. It is a proof of the 
intelligence of the working classes that these purely scientific advantages 



202 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

are so fully appreciated. Lads, adult laborers, foremen^ miners, skilled 
artisans, after deriving as mucli good as possible from the excellent in- 
dustrial schools of tlieir own immediate commune, such as Monceau- 
sur Sambre and Marchiennes au Pont , flock to distant Charier oi at 
night and on Sundays, not daunted by fatigue or inclement weather. 
Pupils even come from the far away communes of Brabant andNamur. 

The school aims to supply in a practical way the special theoretical 
needs of all kinds of wage earners, and new studies are constantly be- 
ing offered as the demand arises. The latest course is one in the open- 
ing and management of mines {exploitation des mines) 5 and it has as- 
sumed such value and imx^ortance that hundreds of miners frequent it 
on Sundays, spurred on by the fact that promotions at the mines are 
now granted chiefly to those who hold diplomas of capacity in this 
study. 

The Industrial School of Charleroi, now under the able direction of 
M. Demeuse and twenty-one professors, was founded in 1845 by 
the provincial council of Hainaut. The school, however, had shown 
only poor results up to its reorganization in 1865, when it was trans- 
formed into an industrial school proper, under the control of the com- 
mune, the province, and the state. Both on account of the large number 
of its x)upils and the diversity of subjects taught, it is one of the most 
noteworthy schools of the kingdom. The courses in arithmetic, geome- 
try, astronomy, topography, and steam engineering require two years' 
study; the other courses, one year. Instruction in i3hysics, French, 
commerce, and drawing and modelling is given three evenings in the 
week; the remaining studies are pursued on Sunday. In either class 
the annual tuition fee is but 6 francs ($1.16). 

Artisans comi)ose the majority of the pupils. School excursions are 
often made, under the escort of professors, to the i^rincipal industrial 
establishments of the neighborhood; and large manufacturers and em- 
X3loyers interested in the institution award special prizes to students 
who obtain the highest distinction. The number of i^upils enrolled in 
1889 was 931. The state and provincial subsidies amounted each to 
10,000 francs ($1,930); that of the commune was 4,000 fr-ancs ($772). 

Graduates of this school have organized a society known as the 
Association of the Alumni of the Industrial School of Charleroi (Anciens 
Meves Biplometi), with the puri^ose of establishing friendly relations 
among its members and of maintaining, developing, and perfecting the 
knowledge acquired at the school, by conversations, conferences, and 
excursions, and by all other means calculated to promote this object. 
This society has over two hundred members, though founded so re- 
cently as 1889. 

The following brief table shows the present occupation of 198 former 
students of this school : 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 



203 



0CCUPATI0:N^S of EX-STTJDE^^TS of the INDUSTIIIAL SCHOOL, CHAllLEROI. 



Occupation. 



Accountants 

Agents, commercial 

Architect 

Blaclvsmiths 

Bof^s miners {porion) . . . 

Builders 

Cashier and bookkeeper 

Chemists 

Clerks 

Directors, mining 

Draugbtsmoi 

Druggist 

Electrician 

Engineer 

Engineer, agricultural.. 

Fish dealer 

Fitters 

Foreman 

Geometricians 

Glass cutters 

Hardware dealer 

Head of cstahlisliment. . 

Inspector, state 

Iron founders 

Joiners 

Leveller 



Num 
her. 



Occupation. 



Managers 

Manufacturer 

Markers 

Merchants 

Miners 

Modellers 

Moulders 

Pliysician 

Polisher 

Printer 

Puddler 

Salesman, travelling 

Shoemakers 

Superintendents 

Superintendent, bureau 

Superintendent, outside labor 
Superintendent, rolling mill . . 
Superintendents, workshops . . 

Teacher 

Tracers 

Turners 

Typographer 

"Warden 

Warehouse keepers 

Total ,... 



N um- 
ber , 



2 
1 
2 
8 
7 
2 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
9 
1 
1 
1 
4 
1 
5 
2 
1 
1 
4 

198 



INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, GHENT. 

Tlie Industrial Scliool at Ghent, a sui3erior teclinical scliool of great 
importance, was founded in 1828. The course was not well managed, 
however, and attendance declined. In 1834 the school was reorgan- 
ized, and more than 400 i^upiis followed the instruction with enthusi- 
asm. 

The superintendents and the foremen of all the trades in Ghent at 
the time of the organization of this school came from England or from 
Germany. In 1834, according to Bertiaux, Ghent had not a single de- 
signer capable of making an intelligible drawing of a machine or of a 
mechanical or scientific appliance, even with a copy before him. 

This last deficiency, so unfortunate for the further development of 
mechanical industry, was supplied by the intelligent foresight of Prof. 
Simonis, who had charge of the course of geometry; he made linear 
drawing an extension of that course, and, in connection with machine 
drawing, taught it to a class of 24 pupils in 1835. 

The difficulty of addressing auditors, of whom a very large number 
could not understand French, led, in 1836, to the division of the course 
into two parts, viz., the French course, attended mostly by the sons of 
manufacturers; and the Flemish course, generally x^nrsued by foremen 
and workmen of various occupations. 

The different classes of the population pursuing the studies neces- 
sarily occasioned a notable difference in the methods of instruction; 
and so it came to pass that the French course assumed a scientific char- 
acter, while the Flemish course was especially directed to practical ends. 
Scientific principles were fully demonstrated, but every demonstration 
was immediately followed by the chief applications of which the prin- 
ciple demonstrated was susceptible. 



204 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIOKER OF LABOR. 

In 1S56 tlie accidental exi^losion of a steam boiler led to the founding 
of a new course of mechanics^ wMcli was attended by more than 300 ]}er- 
sons, the greater number of whom were charged with the care of steam 
boilers. The creation of a sx)ecial diploma (brevet de cwpaciU) gave a 
strong stimulus to the pui)ils of the new course^ who by means of these 
diplomas secured advantageous positions in industry. 

In 1852 a special school of industrial drawing and weaving was es- 
tablished, with a course parallel to that of the industrial school j but 
on reorganization in October 1860 the two departments were united 
under the name of an industrial school. 

The curriculum of this school now includes the elements of algebra 
and geometry, descriptive geometry, linear drawing and its applications 
to mechanics and machinery, ornamental drawing, the elements of phys- 
ics, elements of industrial mechanics, theory of steam motors, theoret- 
ical mechanics, with practical hand weaving and all the accessory oper- 
ations for making plain and figured goods, the preparation of cotton, 
linen, and silk fabrics, etc. ; chemistry, with special reference to its ap- 
plications to local industries, such as sugar refining, distilling, soap 
manufacture, etc. ; the chemistry of fibres and textile materials j bleach- 
ing, dyeing, etc. ; industrial economy, elements of commercial accounts, 
theory and i^ractice of iDhotography, and the English and German lan- 
guages. 

The weaving course includes preliminary operations, such as wind- 
ing, warping, beaming j harness for hand and power looms; the prep- 
aration of woofs, bobbins, dressing machines; mounting and fixing 
looms, from the old hand loom to the most complicated modern Jacquard; 
glossing fabrics; weaving damasks, dimities, brocades, silks, velvets. 
The drawing of all kinds of textiles is obligatory, showing pattern, 
picks, stripes, etc. Samples of stuffs to analyze and reproduce are as- 
signed to the pupils, who soon grow proficient in the use of a variety 
of looms. Most of the graduates become superintendents or foremen 
in mills, or manufacturers on their own account. 

The course of industrial drawing at the Ghent school is highly de- 
veloi)ed, effective, and largely attended. 

From 1863 to 1868 young women were taught the use of the sewing 
machine, at a time when that invention was little known in Ghent. The 
lessons were of signal benefit, but were discontinued when machines 
became common possessions. 

A fine collection of casts, a library, a laboratory, a well arranged 
weaving room, and a photograph gallery complete the equipment of the 
institution. The models and machines are of great service in exempli- 
fying the principles of instruction. 

During the school year 1890-'91 the total number of pupils was 
1,645. The courses are entirely free, no tuition being charged in any 
department. Instruction is in both the French and Flemish lan- 
guages. 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 205 

The budget of 1890 amounted to nearly 60,000 francs ($11,580), sub- 
sidies from state, province, and eifcy covering tlie expense. The highest 
salary paid to any member of the teaching staff, 3,500 francs ($675.50), 
is earned by the professor of painting and ornamental drawing. Kext 
to this official the professor of chemistry receives the most, 2,888 
francs ($557.38), and the professor of practical weaving comes next, 
with 2,800 francs ($540.40). 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, JEMMAPES. 

The Industrial School at Jemmapes, a flourishing manufacturing centre 
near Mons, was instituted in 1880 by the commune and state, with the 
object of giving artisans of different occupations greater technical 
knowledge. The school has a three years' course. Drawing, mathemat- 
ics, and mechanics are the principal branches taught. In 1889 there 
were 267 pupils. The state subsidy was 2,300 francs ($443.90), com- 
mune and province each paying 2,000 francs ($386). 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, LA LOUVIERE. 

This institution, founded in 1888, under M. Berger and thirteen 
professors, has already made a name for itself. It possesses besides 
the usual departments a commercial section especially for accountants 
and commercial agents. In addition china painting is taught. The 
making of porcelain is an important pursuit in the town, and manufac- 
turers in that and other industries give prizes for j)roticiency to the best 
pupils of the school. Established especially for workmen, its purpose is 
to impart the scientific knowledge requisite for the formation of good 
artisans, and to prepare them for worthily performing the functions of 
master workmen, overseers, and superintendents of trades and manu- 
factures. 

Fourteen years is the age of admission. Classes are held on Sundays 
and in the evenings, and are attended by many miners, as well as by men 
of other vocations. Drawing is obligatory in the second and third 
years. The x)rogramme includes arithmetic, French, geometry, commer- 
cial science, i)hysics and mechanics, the care and management of steam 
engines, chemistry and metallurgy, civil and mining engineering, the 
chemistry and manufacture of glass, painting on glass and porcelain, 
industrial economy, hygiene, surveying, and modelling. Tuition is free 
to pupils living at La Louviere. Others pay 4 francs (77 cents) at the 
time of enrolment, unless they come from a commune that grants a sub- 
sidy to the school, in which case they are admitted on the same terms 
as the inhabitants of La Louviere. In 1889 there were 223 pupils en- 
rolled. The state contributed 4,570 francs ($882.01), the province 2,000 
francs ($386), the commune 4,225 francs ($815.43). 



206 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

occupatio:n's of gp.aduates op tke zn^dusteial school, la louvi^ee. 



Occupation. 


Num- 
ber. 


Occupation. 


>f um- 
ber. 




Class of 1SS9. 




Modeller 


1 




Smith 


1 


Clerk 


Class of 1S91. ^ 
Blacksmitli 






13 




Minor .. . . 






1 




Class of 1S90. 








5 




1 






1 




5 
2 
2 
1 
1 


filter 


1 






1 




Miners 


3 


Clerks 


Modeller 


1 


Drau""fitsmcn 


Moulder 


1 


Jitters 




2 










15 







INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, LIEGE. 

The industrial supremacy of Liege attracts to tlie city artisans of 
every trade; and as early as 1825 a lawyer, M. Dormal, founded the 
industrial scliool, wMcIl from that time has advanced steadily in scope 
and influence. From the first it was liberally supported by the citi- 
zeiiSj by the Society of Emulation, and by the Society for the Encour- 
agement of Elementary Instruction. As early as 1828 a report was 
made showing its remarkable i)rogress. After various changes in the 
faculty and curriculum the school was reorganized in 1830, the condi- 
tions of admission being made very severe. The present regulations 
date from 1860. 

The first year's study embraces mathematics, geometry, and free- 
hand drawing. The second year calls for mechanics, physics, descrip- 
tive geometry, and the drawing of machines. In the third j^ear the 
subjects are chemistry and metallurgy, engineering, hygiene, industrial 
economy, applied mechanics, steam engines and their care, and draw- 
ing as applied to machines, iron work, stone cutting, and cari^entry. 
This work is specialized as follows: Industrial chemistry and metal- 
lurgy; applied mechanics, steam; electricity; building and engineer- 
ing; mining; firearms, comprising studies in the resistance of mate- 
rials, wood, castings, iron, steel, boring and drilling, and all the pro- 
cesses in the manufacture of ordnance. From October 1 to July 1 
courses are held in the evening; six hours each week being devoted to 
drawing, in three lessons of two hours each. 

Liege is the centre not only of mines and enormous zinc and iron 
works, but also of an immense firearms industry. The weapons are 
made in sections in the homes of the workers, both men and women 
being employed. The pieces are then carried to the dealer, who assem- 
bles them, rejecting a piece for the slightest flaw. 

At the industrial school 60 x)er cent, of the pupils are actual working- 
men. On leaving with diplomas students easily get lucrative posi- 



CHAP. Til. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 



207 



tions, "being, in fact, mncli songlit after ^ and a number Lave become 
prominent in various brandies of manufacture. In 1889-90 fifty-four 
diplomas and certificates were distributed to those completing- the three 
years' course. Every year six travelling scholarships, worth 300 francs 
($57.90) each, are awarded to the six best pupils by the communal gov- 
ernment of Liege. These scholarships are conferred on condition that 
the holders make reports on the industrial establishments to which 
they arc accredited as visitors. In January 1892 the number of en- 
rolled pupils was about 700. The budget for 1889-'90 amounted to 
32,524 francs ($6,277.13). 

The following table shows the occupations of 148 of the graduates of 
this school : 

OCCUPATIONS OF GEADUATES OE THE INDUSTKIAL SCHOOL, LIEGE. 



Occupation. 


Num- 
l)er- 


Occupation. 


Num- 
ber. 


Accottutants -- -. ..- •-- 


3 

2 
1 
1 
2 
1 

23 
1 
1 
7 
2 
1 
1 
2 
2 

28 
2 
1 
2 
1 

11 
6 


Inspector coal mining ...... .... 


I 






3 


Builder ... . .. ....... 


Machinists 


10 






2 


Cl'euiists 


Manufacturers 


4 






2 


Clerics 


Miniu"" eno'ineers . 


'5 






2 


Connuission niercliant .. . . 


Moulder .... 


1 






1 


Core Tiicilvcrs* . - - -. 


Plumbers . 


o 








Director of T)ul)Iic "worktj 


Heceiver (of tlie coniuiune) 


X 






1 


Doctors of medicine ... . . . .. .... 


Sand moulder 


1 






1 


Drufr cists - 




1 






2 


En^'ineers .. - ... .. 


Turners 


2 






1 










118 







INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, LOUVAIN. 

This institution was founded in 187G, and was installed in the same 
building with the Academy of Fine Arts, both being under the same 
management. The Central Belgian railroad contributes liberally to 
the sui)port of the school, and the workmen in the extensive railroad 
shoiDS of the city nearl^^ all attend the classes. 

The studies are of three years' duration, two years being spent in 
the i^reparatory dexDartment prior to entrance upon the regular course. 
In both six hours a week are devoted to drawing. In addition to the 
usual studies technology and technical draAving are taught, with 
mechanics, strength of materials, etc. The instruction is given in 
French and in Flemish. A polyglot course of commercial correspond- 
ence has been added, including French, German, English, Italian, and 
Spanish; and this teaching is of special value to all who look forward 
to a mercantile career. In this department alone thei^ were 83 jiupils 
in the school year 1891-'92j and in all departments 378 on the rolls. 



208 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

The state aud commiiue eacli paid a subsidy of 6,000 francs ($1,158) ; 
tlie province contributed 3,000 francs ($579). 

In connection Tritb tliis institution a milling school of immense tech- 
nical significance and interest has been established. The course oi 
instruction is most thorough and of genuine practical utility. It 
includes the following subjects: 

The study of grains j the botany of grain bearing plants, their culti- 
vation, the diseases peculiar to them, etc.; the structure of grains and 
their microscopic examination; the chemistry of grains; noxious in- 
sects; the chemistry of flour, meal, starch, etc.; the study of adulter- 
ations; bread making, the quality and analysis of bread; the apT)lica- 
tion of physics to milling — water, steam, electric, and wind mills; trans- 
mission of iDOwer; different systems of milling, grinding, pulverizing, 
granulating, etc.; and drawing, with particular reference to apparatus 
useful in milling. 

The object of this admirable school is to train capable workmen. 
master workmen, and overseers in the milling industry. In 189i-'92 
fifteen x)ux)iis were taking this course. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, MARCHIENNES AU PONT. 

The commune of Marchienues au Pont, near Charleroi, is relatively 
very i)opulous, and it is the centre of many important industries; 
hence this industrial school has had a large attendance of pupils from 
its inception in 1873. The instruction embraces both general and 
special classes. The general course, lasting three years, comprises the 
French language, arithmetic, commerce, bookkeeT)iug, algebra, geome- 
try, and linear and industrial drawing. The special studies, covering 
two years, embrace hygiene, industrial economy, mechanics, industrial 
physics, metallurgy, and working of mines. 

The course of industrial drawing is well organized and produces 
excellent results. The teaching staff consists of seven professors, 
most of whom are at the head of important industrial establish- 
ments. Many pupils from this school have obtained lucrative posi- 
tions. Certificates of capacity are granted, after examination, to 
sioecial as vfcll as to general course students. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, MORLANWELZ. 

In 1871 a drawing and industrial school was opened at Morlanwelz 
at the suggestion of the mayor, M. Warocque, owner of the imiDortant 
mines of Mariemont and Bascoup, and for years the financial mainstay 
of the new institution. The instruction comprises mathematics, com- 
mercial bookkeeping, elementary and applied physics, strength of ma- 
terials, machine construction, technology, the management of steam 
engines, mining engineering, surveying and drawing. 

The evening course requires five years for its completion, the Sun- 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 209 

day section takes three years. The evening programme has also two 
subdivisions, viz., a preparatory course of three years and a two years^ 
course of mechanical drawing. Three subdivisions exist also in the 
Sunday section, namely, mining, three years 5 mechanical engineering, 
three years 5 and drawing, duration unlimited. Nowhere in Belgium is 
free-hand sketching of machinery in place, and drawing machines from 
models, better done. 

Tuition is free and pupils must be at least 14 years old to be eligible 
for matriculation. Certificates of capacity are awarded to such stu- 
dents as pass an examination in all subjects that enter into the pro- 
gramme of study. These. certificates are of five grades. For obtaining 
the lowest degree the applicant must answer correctly more than 51 
l)er cent, of the maximum number of questions j for the next higher 
more than 61 per cent, must be attained j for the third grade more than 
71 i^er cent, is required ; for the fourth, more than 81 per cent. ] and for 
the highest grade more than 91 i^er cent, of the examination questions 
must be correctly answered. 

The faculty includes 17 professors. In 1890 there were 170 pupils in 
the evening classes and 424 in the Sunday classes, a total of 594 stu- 
dents, some of whom were girls. 

An association of i)upils holding certificates from the Industrial 
School of Morlanwelz was founded July 19, 1885, and is prosperous, 
having 114 members in 1890. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, OSTBND. 

Founded March 12, 1866, and reorganized in 1888, this excellent 
school consists of two divisions, the industrial section and the section 
of fine arts. The studies in the former last three years, in the latter 
four years, both sections pursuing a common course during the first 
two years. 

The special or applied classes comprise ornamental drawing, archi- 
tecture, mechanics, and naval construction. Ostend being a ship- 
building centre and the seat of large government works for that pur- 
pose, much attention is x)aid to the subject of naval construction, with 
rigid preparation in drawing, geometry, and mechanics. In the govern- 
ment shops, where the director of the school holds a prominent position, 
workers are encouraged to attend the industrial classes; and most of 
the engineers and machinists in the mail and commercial service hold 
certificates from this institution. In the classroom both French and 
Flemish are used. The number of pupils is over 200. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, SERAING. 

The Industrial School at Seraing was founded in 1858 by the 
commune, with the aid of the province and the government, to educate 
young men to be designers and master workmen in metallurgy, 
g. Ex. 65 14 



210 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

macliine construction, and civil engineering. The Gockerill iron works 
and other large industrial establishments contribute liberally to the 
funds of this institution. The instruction comprises a general or i)re- 
paratory course, and a more extensive special course of practiciil appli- 
cation to the products and manufactures of the neighborhood. 

In the general course of three years are taught industrial drawing, 
arithmetic, algebra, geometry, i^hj^sics, mechanics, chemistry, hygiene, 
and industrial and commercial economy, etc. In the special course 
instruction is given in chemistry and metallurgy, applied mechanics, 
ciYil engineering, practical electricity, industrial hygiene, and other 
subjects as the demand arises. 

To serve as a preparation for the industrial school free evening 
classes have been opened, where the common, branches, reading, writ- 
ing, arithmetic, orthography, and drawing, may be followed. Pupils 
appljang for admission to the industrial school must be 14 years of age 
or more, and must pass a rigid examination in these preparatory stud- 
ies. The institution, so imi)ortant from its local position in the heart 
of a dense manufacturing centre, lives up to its opportuuities and keeps 
abreast with modern methods, lately improving and enlarging its cur- 
riculum to give greater x)rominence to drawing, electricity, and metal- 
lurgy. 

The Oockerill iron works supiDorts on its own premises a venture, 
unique of its kind in Belgium^ — a school for miners — composed of boys 
of 12, 13, and 14, who work all day in coal mines and are thus in 
danger of forgetting what they may have learned at school. To 
prevent this lapse into illiteracy and also to develop their intelligence 
and character, they are allowed to quit work earl 3^ j and at 4 o'clock 
they repair to a school room where a teacher employed by the firm 
instructs them for two or three hours. The lessons are attended with 
great benefit 5 and it is to be hoiked that this jDlan will be adopted by 
other employers of youthful labor. 

INDUSTRIAL AND DRAWING SCHOOL, SOIGNIES. 

The industrial and drawing schools at Soignies were united in 1859 
and reorganized in 1878; and together they are now installed in a new 
building adapted to their purposes. In this joint school all the teach- 
ing is designed to bear ui)on local industries, especially on stone cut- 
ting and the survey, quarrying, and transportation of freestone, which 
is the chief source of revenue in this region. The studies cover five 
years and include arithmetic, commerce, geometry, x)rojections and per- 
spective, general physics and mechanics, architecture and civil engi- 
neering, economy, linear, relief, and industrial drawing, drawing from 
the antique, and architectural drawing. 

The school is divided into three sections : A iDreparatory section of 
drawing, with related subjects, common to all puiDils, two years; a 
section for drawing api)hed in the arts and industries; and an Indus- 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 211 

trial section, comprising several branches, each requiring three years' 
study. 

In 1889 the number of pupils was 217, the state subsidy 3,000 francs 
($579), the provincial 1,250 francs (8241.25), and the communal 1,500 
francs ($289.50). Moreover, the large proprietors of quarries of the 
famous Belgian bluestone aid materially in supporting an institution 
patronized by nearly all their workmen. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, VBRVIERS: 

The industrial school at Yerviers was founded in 1862, resulting from 
the combination in one institution of the School of Workmen and Ar- 
tisans and the special classes in weaving, established in 1857 by the 
chamber of commerce. Instruction includes arithmetic and element- 
ary geometry, especially from the point of view of their application to 
industry; linear drawing as applied to machines and mechanics; ele- 
ments of i)hysics; elements of industrial mechanics; elements of chem- 
istry, considered in their applications to local industries, especially 
dyeing; the various i)rocesses of weaving; classification, composition, 
and analysis of fabrics; the theory of colors; ornamental drawing and 
drawing from nature, the composition of ornament with a view to de- 
signs for iDrints, damasks, velvets, carpets, shawls, and all steps neces- 
sary for adapting these designs to the loom, making samples, etc. 

The first year all pupils follow the same course — arithmetic, French, 
and fiee-hand drawing. At the beginning of the second year the 
studies subdivide into three specialities — weaving, dyeing, mechanics 
and engineering. All the classes are held in the evening except that 
in practical dj^eing and hygiene, which meets on Sunday. On that day, 
also, practical instruction in darning fabrics, woollens especially, is 
given to young women, over a hundred of whom assemble in the Sun- 
day morning classes. These girls are weavers, burlers, inspectors, 
and darners in the woollen mills, and tailoresses and dressmakers. 
The lessons are admirably thorough and practical, the mended places _ 
in fabrics being indistinguishable from new cloth, while pieces cut out 
completely are so skilfully restored as to deceive closest observers. 

The weaving room is equix)ped with all api)liances for thorough 
knowledge of the trade, and in both the theoretical and practical 
course analysis of stuffs is a specialty. Pupils comi)leting the pre- 
scribed instruction are capable of reproducing any sample of woollen 
goods and telling all about it — how many threads there are in warp 
and Vt^oof, what numbers of yarn are used, what prox)ortion of cotton 
and woollen there is, what mix and grade of materials, and how great 
is the strength of the requisite dyes. Most of the graduates have re- 
munerative employment in the woollen mills of the town and province 
or with local and foreign cloth merchants. 

In 1889 the number of enrolled pupils was 570; the state subsidy 
was 13,000 francs ($2,509); the provincial, 3,000 francs ($579); the com- 
munal, 8,000 francs ($1,544). 



212 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

DEAWING SCHOOLS. 

The number of scliools and academies of design in Belgium is re- 
markable. In 1889 tiiere were 79 institutions of tliis character, with 
13,134 pupils. In this list the Eoyal Academy of Fine Arts at Ant- 
werp is not included. The academy, with its 1,294 students, is by no 
means exclusively for artists, for, as the classification of the pupils 
according to their jirofessions shows, the largest number of any oiie 
trade were decorative painters (141), while professional artists num- 
bered only 114, and cariDcnters, architects, engravers, tailors, machin- 
ists, moulders, jewellers, and artisans of other trades abounded. 

The Belgians have always been keenly alive to the fact that it is far 
from sufficient to train mere designers for special fields of industry, 
but that appreciative knowledge of art principles must be diffused 
among the people in order to create a demand for good work and to 
stimulate artists and artisans to the highest standards. The mere 
wage earning value of art — notwithstanding that great stress is laid 
on it — is held to be secondary to the deeper significance of art in the 
life of a people 5 and in Belgium, true art is an ever-iiresent, dominat- 
ing idea, however much its universal application to industry may 
spring from commercial acumen. 

It is, therefore, not surprising that the principal cities boast fine draw- 
ing schools conserving all the old and high traditions which are the pride 
of the people. To deal properly with art education in Belgium would 
require a separate treatise j and this rejjort concerns itself only with 
the classes in industrial drawing existing in almost every school for 
drawing (ecole de dessin), smd open both day and evening. 

Women as well as men share all these advantages in art. At the 
Academy of Fine Arts in Brussels, as elsewhere, the young women do 
excellent work and carry off many prizes. 

l!fight classes are most numerously patronized, and the attendance is 
enormous. At the Brussels academy colored objects as well as casts 
are much used as models, and alongside each model is a history or 
explanation of it printed in large letters, which the student is required 
to learn. The aim of all instruction is to develop the pupiPs individuality, 
the master giving free rein to the student's interpretation instead of 
seeking to impose his own stamp. After the first year the courses are 
si)ecialized according to the end to be gained. Attached to the academy 
is a superb museum of art curios, ancient and modern, freely drawn on 
for comparison between former and present artistic achievements, and 
used to stimulate the application of art to industry, thus inciting the 
emulation of the learner. 

Besides its noble academy Brussels possesses three other great 
drawing schools under large staffs of able teachers, with instruction 
suited to every branch of high and applied art — in Molenbeek- Saint- Jean, 
Saint- Josse-Ten-Noode, and Ixelles, the three most progressive com- 
munes. 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BliTLGIUM. 213 

For tlie first year tlie instructiou is of a general kind and followed by- 
all ayIio enter. Emerging from these preparatory classes the student is 
guided to some extent in his next step by his life work or trade. If he is or 
wants to be a mechanic, he turns to mechanical drawing; if a machinist, 
he draws models of machines; if a cabinetmaker, he adapts and origi- 
nates furniture; if an architect, buildings of all kinds and art history 
occupy him; if a decorator, he remains longer in the elementary classes 
and i3ushes his studies further in the higher courses. 

Tlie secret of the success of these institutions is found in the circum- 
stance that great artists and skilled artisans are secured to teach in the 
industrial and art schools. 

The smallest group of students pursuing any technical study — as, 
for instance, four or five young men learning cabinetmaking, or as 
many would-be ornamental ironworkers — get the instruction of a special- 
ist, an eminent specialist at that, and are not compelled to fall back for 
teaching on the master of general drawing. The professor of mechanical 
drawing is more probably than not a successful engineer and bridge- 
builder. Over the modelling rooms one of the famous sculp>tors of the 
day will preside, whose mere presence is an inspiration. 

l^early every professor wears a government decoration for special 
attainments in some one line which is his main xDursuit. The directors 
of these schools are, as a rule, of high repute in the world of art 
achievement. 

At the Molenbeek-Saint-Jean school of design, in the poorest quarter 
of Brussels, attended by 600 pupils who are, almost without exception, 
AYorkingmen and lads in blouse and wooden shoes, the small class in 
architectural drawing has been conducted for fifteen years by the ar- 
chitect who finished the famous law courts (]^alais de justice) when 
the man who designed and commenced the building died. This pro- 
fessor is now assisting the king's own architect in the restoration of 
the royal palace at Laeken, and will probably in time succeed that 
functionary, as he stands practically at the head of his profession. 

The drawing school at Soignies employs professors from the Brussels 
academy; and in the Bok faience works at La Louviere the little draw- 
ing school for iDottery decorators is taught by the same proficient masters. 
In the trade school for girls, rue du Marais, Brussels, the porcelain 
painting classes are conducted by one of the foremost artists in the 
city. ISTor does the employment of these specialists interfere with 
the remarkably economical administration of the schools ; for, so small 
are salaries as a rule in Belgium, and so overcrowded is every avenue 
to a remunerative livelihood, that capable men are not unwilling to 
give several hours a week for what Americans consider paltry i)ay. 
Besides, these teachers believe in thorough work ; they are interested 
in education, and willing to advance the standards and achievements 
in art by personal participation in the drudgery of preparation essen- 



214 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

tial to success. With men like Portaels and Baes at tlie head of the 
Brussels academy and painters of great worth and repute in charge of 
the drawing schools in almost every city, the supremacj^ of art in Bel- 
gium will not decline. 

COMMEEOIAL II^STITTJTES. 

The Commercial Institute (L^InsUtiit Superieur de Commerce) at Ant- 
werp is the only one of its kind in Belgium. As its name implies, it is 
designed to lit pupils for commercial pursuits. The institute was 
opened in December 1853. The teaching staff consists of the director, 
professors, and the chief of the bureau of commerce with his assistants. 

The course of iustruction, which is both theoretical and practical, 
lasts two years. ]>To subject of commercial imjiortance is omitted 
from the plan of study. Attention is bestowed upon the ininutest par- 
ticulars, and the whole character of the teaching is practical as well as 
thorough. 

During the first year five hours a week are devoted to banking, com- 
mercial accounts, bills of exchange, contracts, commercial insurance, 
correspondence in French, Dutch, English, and German, with sj^ecial 
reference to buying and selling of merchandise, consignments, etc. 

In the same year two hours a week are allotted t;0 the study of the 
history of commercial products. This course is pursued with great 
advantage, as the collections in the museum connected with the insti- 
tute are freely used to illustrajte every branch of the subject. 

The products of the mineral kingdom, for example, are first consid- 
ered. In this connection arsenical preparations are studied j then 
phosphorus ; carbon and its compounds, coke, anthracite and soft coal, 
animal charcoal, petroleum and its derivatives ; iodine, bromine, min- 
eral acids, etc. 

Then metallic substances — potash, soda, magnesia, etc., with irou, 
zinc, lead, antimony, bismuth, mercury, silver, and their compounds, 
ai'd gold, platinum, etc., are studied. 

Yegetable products come next, and all commercial roots, barks, 
woods, bulbs, seeds, flowers, and fruits, together with textile fibres, 
such as cotton, hemp, flax, etc., are carefully and practically considered. 

Political economy and statistics occux)y two hours a week of the stu- 
dent's time throughout the first year. Under this head he is made ac- 
quainted with the object of political economy, concerning produc- 
tion, examination of the causes of the greater or less productivity in 
difl'erent places, concerning value, of money, of credit, of the equaliza- 
tion of production with consumption, of international commerce, of the 
forms of production, of the distribution of wealth, of the modes in which 
governments ijrocure the necessary resources for the expenses of the 
public service, of statistics, their object, their use, their character, their 
divisions, etc. 



CHAP. III. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 2 1 5 

Commercial and iudustrial geography receives attention for tliree 
hours a week during the first year ot the course^ inchiding the topo- 
graphical situation of the country, the nature of its soil, its mineral, 
vegetable, and animal resources; its political and social institutions, 
and their influence upon the prosperity of the place; the principal 
products of each locality; tables of exports; the principal products 
demanded in return by each place; imports; character of the economic 
legislation and customs duties of each place; obstacles and facilities 
to commerce; tastes and habits of the people in their relations to com- 
merce; description in detail of the iDrincipal places of commerce, their 
importance, etc. 

One hour a week, in the first j^ear's course, is devoted to the principles 
of commercial law. Three hours a week are likewise consumed in the 
study of the German language; especially is the terminology of the 
X)rincipal articles of commerce thoroughly familiarized. Commercial 
correspondence and conversation in^Germ an are encouraged; while, at 
the same time, the commerce of Germany, the customs duties, the laws, 
the boards of trade, the banks, and the chambers of commerce are fully 
investigated. Three hours a week are also devoted to English studies 
of a similar kind. The Dutch language receives the same attention. 
This course is obligatory for all Belgian pux^ils. Ox)tional Spanish and 
Italian lessons are also provided. 

In the second year the same studies are pursued further, and with 
the like painstaking thoroughness. Such training raises commercial 
I)ursuits to the rank and dignity of the learned professions. 

At the end of the second year of study the pupils are examined by a 
committee comi3osed of seven members named by the government, and 
receive the dii>loma of licentiate in commercial science. 

The institute has a well selected library of about 5,000 volumes, com- 
prising works on law, political economy, statistics, accounts, chemistry, 
history, geography, literature, etc., of various countries. There is also 
a chemical laboratory where pupils are taught analysis, and especially 
commercial analysis (as to strength, i)urity, adulterations, etc.). 

The museum of the institute is pravided with an abundance of si^eci- 
mens and collections of great value for puri)oses of instruction ; and 
the government aids essentially in the formation of such collections by 
instructing its diplomatic agents and consuls to keep this object in 
view. 

The annual expenses of the institute amount to 85,000 francs 
($10,405). The receipts consist of a state subsidy, 45,000 francs 
(18,685) ; a city subsidy, 15,000 francs ($2,895) ; tuition fees, 25,000 francs 
($4,825). According to Bertiaux the attendance from 1853 to 1889 
was 3,879. Of this number 2,255 were Belgians and 1,624 foreigners. 

During the existence of the school 398 Belgian ex-students have be- 
come heads (les chefs), or assistants in banks or commercial houses. 



216 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



Of tliese 184 are bearers of the diploma of licentiate of commercial 
science. These pupils are distributed among the following occupations : 

0CCUPATI0:N^S of EX-STUDENTS OE the COMMEECIAL IIs^STITUTE, antwekp. 



Occupation. 


ber. 


Occupation. 


ISTum- 


Bank directors, a<^ents etc 


155 i 
213 
8 


Consuls creneral ......... 


4 






13 


Consuls 


Vice-consuls 


7 









SCHOOLS OF INDUSTEY AI^D MIKES. 

, Connected with the university of Liege is a school of mines of high 
repute j but as a type of this branch of higher technical education, the 
institution at Mons may be briefly described. The degree of engineer 
from this establishment is greatly valued. 

As long ago as the year 1836 it was i)roposed by M. Thorn, governor 
of the province of Hainaut, to establish a technical school for 
teaching subjects appropriate to the difierent industrial professions. 
The school was opened at Mons, ISTovember 1, 1837. At first the 
course of instruction was of two years' duration, but in the school 
year 1876-'77 the curriculum was enlarged, and the course was length- 
ened to four years. 

Still the actual organization of the School of Mines and Industry was 
not perfected until October 1887, when the institution known as 
L'Ecole W Industrie et des Mines was established at Mons, the cai3ital of 
the province. 

Fourteen i^rofessors and five instructors are on the teaching stafi'. 
The course includes the specialties of mining, metallurgy, industrial 
chemistry, mechanics, locomotive, civil, and electrical engineering. 
At the beginning of the fourth year each pupil is allowed to choose 
what specialty he will adopt j until that period the studies and prac- 
tical work are the same for all students. 

The annual tuition fee is 120 francs (123.16). At entrance pupils 
must be at least 16 years of age, and pass an examination in French, 
geography, history, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. 

The school at Mons j)ossesses a library, laboratories, and collections, 
and is well equipped for its work, especially in the department of elec- 
trical engineering. 

The expenses for the year 1890 amounted to 62,450 francs ($12,052.85). 
The state subsidy for the year was 20,043 francs ($3,868.30), the pro- 
vincial subsidy was 27,087 francs ($5,227.79), the city of Mons subsidy 
was 9,320 francs ($1,798.76). The average attendance at the Mons 
school is 80 pupils a year. 



CHAPTER IV. 



PRESENT STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN 

FRANCE. 



217 



CHAPTER IV. 

PEESENT STATUS OF INBUSTRTAL EBUCATIOH IN FRANCE. 

THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM. 

Public scliool education in Prance began practically in 1833. In tliat 
year the distil] gnisked statesman, Guizot, organized primary instrnc- 
tioD, dividing it into two grades, called respectively elementary and ad- 
vanced. The lower division, tlie elementary, included moral and civic 
instruction, reading, writing, the elements of French grammar and of 
arithmetic, and the legal system of weights and measures. In the ad- 
vanced grades, in addition to these subjects, pupils were to be taught 
the elements of geometry and its usual applications, mechanical draw- 
ing, surveying, some x>ractical notions of the physical and natural 
sciences, singing, the elements of history and geography in general, 
and particularly the history and geography- of France. 

The advanced i)rimary schools did not have the success which was 
hoped for them, for reasons which it would serve no x>articular -pnv- 
pose to outline here, so that in 1850 they were legislated out of exist- 
ence. In 1881 they were revived, and, since 1886 i)articularly, they 
have undergone a marked development. Curiously enough their 
suppression served to show the great gulf which existed 'between 
primary and higher education. It also marked ^aq i^eriod of attemx)ts 
to span it, in a measure, by so-called technical trade schools. 

The system of public education in France has been entirely remod- 
elled in the last decade. The law of June 16, 18S1, made primary educa- 
tion absolutely free. The law of March 28, 1882, rendered attendance 
at school compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 13 years, 
and gave to instruction a purely secular character. The law of October 
30, 1886, definitely organized primary education in its various grades 
and confided it exclusively to the laity. In accordance with the terms 
of this enactment primary instruction covers the following classes of 
schools : 

Infant schools (known poi^ularly as kindergartens). 

Elementary prim.ary schools. 

Advanced primary schools {a) and supplementary courses in 
connection with elementary primary schools (h). 

Schools of manual ai3i)renticeshii3, as defined by the law of 
December 11, 1880. 

a The advanced primary scliool (ecole prhnaire supcricure) in France corresponds 
very nearly to the American Mgli school. Scholars enter at 13 years of age, after 
having graduated from the elementary primary school, and remain iiritil 16 or 17. 

J) In certain towns or villages where a small number of pupils wish to proceed 
witn the higher primary instruction after having graduated from the elementary 
courses, instead of building up a new advanced primary school the instruction is 
given in courses annexed to the elementary primary schools and called cours 
complementaircs. 

219 



220 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



INFAIS^T SCHOOLS. 

The so-called infaut school (ecole maternelle) or, to translate literally, 
mother school, is really not a school in the strict meaning of that word. 
It is designed to create a r)leasant and imperceptible passage from the 
home to the school, imitating the affection and indulgence of the family 
while at the same time initiating the pupil into school woTk and regu- 
larity. Less attention is paid to teaching the child a mass of facts 
than to the development of its different faculties without fatigue, con- 
straint, or excess of application. He is taught to love the school and 
early to acquire a taste for work. 

Below will be found in detail the programme of studies of these in- 
faut schools. The manual exercises are of the simplest sort, but they 
are, in a measure, an introduction to the more advanced training in the 
elementary primary schools. 

There are two grades in the infant schools, an infantile division for 
children between the ages of 2 and 5 years, and an advanced division for 
those from 5 to 6. Both sexes are received, but in the elementary and ad- 
vanced primary gTades boys and girls are taught in separate buildings. 

The following is the official programme of courses of study in the 
infant schools: 

COUESE or STUDY IN THE INEANT SCHOOLS. 



Cliildren from 2 to 5 years. 



CMldren frora 5 to 6 years. 



Eirst prin- 
ciples of 
moral edu- 
cation . 



Exercises in 
language. 



Ol)jcct les- 
sons. In- 
formation 
aboufcom- 
mon ob- 
jects. 
Eirst no- 
tions of 
natural 
history. 
Illustra- 
tions on 
charts. 



Care taken of the children in order to 
teach them good habits, to gain their 
affection, and to cause them to maintain 

food relations the one with the other. — 
'irst notions of good and evil. 



Pronunciation. — Exercises havingfor aim 
the augmentation of the vocabulary of 
the child. — Little memory exercises 
(songs, fables, tales) ; questioning. 



Names of the principal parts of the hu- 
man body; of the principal animals of 
the region; of nutritious plants and 
those most constantly seen, as trees and 
familiar flowers.— Name and usage of 
objects serving for clothing or used in 
the house, for eating and at labor. — 
Study of colors and combinations at 
play. — Notions in regard to day and 
night. — Observations upon periods of 
time (a day, week). — The names of day, 
evening before, and the morrow. — Age 
of the child. — The attention of the 
child is called to the differences be- 
tween heat and cold, between rainy 
and fine weather. — Observations upon 
the seasons, their influences and prod- 
ucts. — Eirst lessons in the education 
of the senses.— The child is taught to 
select and compare colors, shades, 
forms, lengths, weights, temperatures, 
sounds, odors, and flavors. 



Simple conversations interjected during 
class exercises and recreation. — Little 
poems explained and learned by heart. — 
Kelation of moral tales, followed by ques- 
tions to make sure that the pupil has un- 
derstood the point. — Songs. — Particular 
attention given to those children in whom 
the teacher has noticed some fault or vice 
springing up. 

Combined exercises of speech, reading, and 
writing, preparatory to orthography. — 1. 
Oral exercises ; familiar questions having 
for object to teach children to express 
themselves clearly ; correction of faults of 
pronunciation andlocal accent. — 2. Memory 
exercises; recitation of short poems. — 3. 
Written exercises; dictation, first of a 
single word, then of two or three, then of 
short phrases. — i. Peadings by the teacher, 
which are listened to and rep'eated by the 
pupils. 

Elementary notions in regard to the human 
body; talks on hygiene. — Comparative 
study of animals, plants, stones, and metals 
the child knows. — Distinction between 
plants used for nourishment and those em- 
ployed industrially. — Stones and metals of 
ordinary usage. — The air, water (vapor, 
steam, cloud, rain, snow, ice).— Little 
object lessons, with the objects them- 
seives either before the eyes or in the 
hands of the children. — EamiUar conversa- 
tions with the object of teaching certain 
elementary facts (the right and the left; 
names of days andmonths ; the seasons ; the 
distinction between the animal, vegetable, 
and mineral kingdoms), especially to cause 
them to observe, compare, question, and 
remember. 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 221 

COURSE OF STUDY IX THE INFANT SCHOOLS-Concludecl. 



Drawing, 
vrritiiig, 
and read- 
ing. 



Arithmetic. 



Geography. 



History and 
tales. 



Children from 2 to 5 years. 



Singing 



Manual ex- 
ercises. 



Making cubes, balls, etc., as play mo- 
saics.— Explanation of simple pictures 
(animals and common objects). — Mak- 
ing combinations of lines with small 
sttcks.— Eepre.seutation upon the slate 
of these combinations; description of 
common objects. No exercises in read- 
ing, proioerly called. 

Familiarize the child with the terms one, 
two, three, four, five, one-half; count- 
ing up to 10. Mental calculation with 
the first ten numbers. 



Domicile and address of parents ; name of 
the commune; simple exercises in rela- 
tion to distance. — Relative situation of 
diflerent parts of the school.— Land 
and water. — The sun (its rising and 
setting). 



Simple, singing in unison. — Simple exer- 
cises.— Playing and marching. — Evolu- 
tions and clrilling. — Attention to sani- 
tary matters and cleanliness. 

Play. — Simple exercises in folding, weav- 
ing, and plaiting. 



Children from 5 to 6 j-ears. 



Combinations of lines.- PLcpresentation of 
these combinations on the slate or paper in 
ordinary crayon or in colors.— Small origi- 
nal designs upon checkered paper. — Repro- 
duction of easy draM-ings made by the 
teacher.— Representation of the most sim- 
ple and usual objects.— Fir^t exercises in 
reading.— First elements of writing let- 
ters, syllables, and words. 

First elements of oral and WTitten enumera- 
tion. — Simple exercises in mental arith- 
metic—Addition, and subtraction, up to 
100. — Study of the first ten numbers, and 
of the expressions half, third, quarter.— 
The four operations with numbers of 
two figures. — The metre, the franc, the 
litre. 

Familiar conversations and simple prepara- 
tory exercises, serving particularly to 
evoke a habit of observation in the children 
by causing them simply to remark tlie most 
casual phenomena and the various configu- 
rations of the territory. 

Anecdotes, tales, biographies, drawn from 
the nation's history, accounts of voyages, 
etc., illustrated by pictures. 

Singing in unison in two parts, learned ex- 
clusively by ear. — Play, marching, drills 
etc. 

Folding, weaving, plaiting, making combi- 
nations on paper or canvas with different 
colored woollen yarns.— Simple knitting. 



An inspection of tiie manual work done by cliildren in an infant 
school at Armentieres, in the north of France, shows that sound ideas 
of elementary manual training there prevail. One hour a day is the 
time usuallj^ allotted to this kind of work. The children seem to take 
the greatest interest in what they do. 

The programme of courses of study as outlined in the i^receding 
pages is very closely followed in all the infant schools of France. 

Charitable, quite as much as pedagogical, considerations influenced 
the original creation of infant schools. Kow they are recognized as a 
most useful preiDaration to primary education, and the attention paid 
to the moral discipline and mental and manual instruction of the child 
predominates over the charitable idea. 

The latest statistics available for the infant schools in connection 
with the public educational system of France are for the academic year 
1886-'87. At that time there were 3,597 establishments giving instruc- 
tion to 543,839 pupils. 

ELEMENTAEY PRIMAEY SCHOOLS. 

The elementary primary school represents the intermediate stage in 
the public educational system. The child enters usually at 6 and re- 
mains until 13 years of age. There are four •grades in these schools, 
viz., for children between the ages of 5 and 7, 7 and 9, 9 and 11, and 11 
and 13. 

The official programme of courses of study includes instruction in 



222 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



tlie following subjects: Hygiene and cleanliness; etMcal training; 
gymnastic and military exercises; reading; penmanship; French lan- 
guage; history; geography; civic instruction; arithmetic; geometry; 
eleineiits of physical and natural science; agriculture and horticuUure; 
and singing. The official programme is followed almost uniformly 
and with only slight variation throughout the country. 

We give in detail so much of the official programme as relates in any 
way to manual training. 

COUESE OF STUDY IX THE ELEM:E1JJ"TAET PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 



Uanual 
training 

for boys. 



Manual 
training 
for "iris. 



OrT!ameT;t- 
al draw- 
ing. 



Children from 5 to 7 
years. 



Simple esercises in 
braiding, folding, 
and Aveaving. — 
Cutting and ap- 
plying pieces of 
colored paper to 
geometrical de- 
signs.— Small bas- 
ket •svorli. — Com- 
binations of col- 
ored wool on can- 
vas or j)aper. 



Small exercises of 
the Eroebel sys- 
tem: weaving, 
folding, braiding.— 
Simple works in 
knitting. 



Combinations of 
lines : represen- 
tation of these 
combinations on 
the slate, with a 
pencil on paper, or 
with toiiclies of 
colors ; small de- 
signs of in vention 
on checkeicd pa- 
per; reproducing 
very simple de- 
signs made by the 
teaclier.— Repre- 
senting very sim- 
ple common ob- 
jects. 



Children from 7 to ! 
years. 



Exercises for devel- 
oping the skiKoi 
use of ciie hands. — 
Cutting paste- 
board cards in 
shapes of geomet- 
rical solids. — 
Basket weaving : 
combining twigs 
of different col- 
ors. —Modelling : 
reproduction of 
geometrical solids 
and very simple 
objects. 



Knitting and stitch- 
ing: knitting to 
the right and re- 
verse, sides, in- 
creasing and de- 
creasing. — Cross- 
stitcliing on can- 
vas. — Elements of 
sewing: hems and 
whip-stitches. — 
Manual exercises 
for developing the 
skilful use of the 
hands; cuttingand 
arranging pieces 
of colored paper. — 
Little tasks cf 
modelling. 



Sketching straieht 
lines and dividing 
them into equal 
parta; estimating 
the relations be- 
tween the lines; 
drawing and esti- 
mating angles. — 
Eirst principles of 
ornamental de- 
signs.— Circumfer- 
ences, regular poly- 
gons, rosettes, anil 
stars. 



Children from 9 to 11 
years. 



Construction of cov- 
ered pasteboard 
objects, with de- 
signs of colored 
paper. — Simple 
iron wire work: 
treliiswork. — Com- 
bining iron wire 
and wood work : 
cages.— Modelling: 
simple architect- 
ural ornaments. — 
Conception of the 
use of ordinary 
tools. 



Knitting and darn- 
ing.— Cross-stitch- 
ing on canvas. — 
Elements of sew- 
ing: the running 
stitch, backstitch, 
side-stitch, whip- 
stitch, plain sew- 
ing, hems, seams, 
whip-stitching 
edges, plaiting. — 
Perfecting simple, 
easy needlework 
(towels, napkins, 
handkerchiefs, 
aprons, covers), 
piecing, mending. 



Eree-hand drawing.— 
Ordinary geomet- 
rical curves: ellip- 
ses, spirals, etc. — 
Curves applied 
to the vegetable 
kingdom : stems, 
leaves, and flow- 
ers.— Copy 6f casts 
representing orna- 
ments in slight re- 
lief. — Geometrical 
representations of 
lines and persiaec- 
tive, with plain 
lines then with 
shado ws— geomet- 



Children from 11 to 
13 years. 



Combined exercises 
of designing and 
modelling: sketch- 
ing objects to be ex- 
ecuted, and con- 
structing objects 
after the sketches, 
or vice vena. — 
Study of the prin- 
cipal tools used in 
wood work. — Prac- 
tical exercises.-^ 
Planing, sawing, 
and simple join- 
ing. — Nailed boxes 
and joining Avith- 
out nails. — Wood 
turning — very sim- 
ple objects.— Study 
of the principal 
tools used in iron 
work. — Exercises 
in filing, smooth- 
ing, or iinishiug of 
rough objects from 
the "forge or foun- 
dery. 

Knitting shirts, 

vests, gloves. — 
Stitching on 

cloth. — Quilts, 
plaits, buttonholes, 
mending garments, 
darning. — Knowl- 
edge of cutting and 
finishing simple 
garments.— Knowl- 
edge of simide do- 
mestic economy 
and kitchen work, 
washing and repair- 
ing linens, the 
needs of the house- 
hold, the garden, 
and poultry yard. — 
Practical exercises 
at the school and at 
home. 

First notions of geo- 
metrical drawing 
and elements of 
perspective. — free- 
hand drawing. — 
Drawing of purely 
geometrical orna- 
ments from print 
or from relief: 
mouldings, egg- 
shaped ornaments, 
ogees, beads, den- 
tils, etc. — Drawing 
from print or from 
relief ornaments 
whose elements are 
taken from the 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 



223 



COimSE OE STUDY IN THE ELEMENTARY PEIMAEY SCHOOLS— Concluded. 



Children fj-oru 5 to 7 
years. 



Children from 7 to 9 
years. 



Children from 9 to 11 
j^ears. 



rical solids and 
oruiiiary sim])le 
obj cft s .' — G CO met- 
rical drawing. — 
Employment on 
the l)oard ofinstni- 
ments for drawing 
straight lines and 
eirciimferences: 
rulers, compass- 
es, Bqv^ares, and 
protractors.— This 
will be limited 
only to a knowl- 
euge of the use of 
those instruments 
which he will re- 
qnire in the higher 
course. 



Children from 11 to 
i;i years. 



vegetable kingdom: 
leaves, flowers, 
fruit, palms, foli- 
age, etc. — Elemen- 
tary notions of the 
orders of architect- 
ure illustrated on 
the blackboard by 
tiie teacher (3 les- 
sons). — Drawing 
of tiie luim an head: 
its parts and pro- 
portions. — Geomet- 
rical dra,wing. — • 
Execution on paper 
by means of instru- 
ments, the gcomet- 
ric;:! ligures which 
in the previous 
course had been 
made on the black- 
board. — Principles 
of coloring with 
even tints. — Kepro- 
ducing designs of 
jdane surface and 
light relief decora- 
tions: panels, 
church windoYx's, 
tiling, inlaid lioor- 
ing, ceilings; fin- 
ishing some of 
these with India 
ink and coloring. — 
Ilepresentalion' by 
means of geomet- 
rical lines of geo- 
metrical solids and 
of simple ol)Jects 
such as framework, 
and jneces of car- 
pentering, exterior 
stone dressing, iron 
work, most ordi- 
nary furniture, etc . ; 
emi)loyment of col- 
ors for indicating 
the nature of the 
jiiaterinls. — Color- 
ing plans and 
charts. 



Manual training coDimeiices where the pupil left off with it in the 
infant school, and is continued throughout the whole four grades of the 
elementary primary establishment. The instruction outlined for the 
highest division — for puj)ils from 11 to 13 years of age — would nat- 
urally call for workshoi)s. Unfortunately these are not always forth- 
coming, as only a comparatively few communities have beea public- 
spirited enough to provide them (a) . It is unfortunate, especially in view 
of the fact that many children having completed their period of com- 
pulsory education, are drafted off by their parents into situations 
without having a chance to pass through the advanced primary school. 
A two years' course of workshop manual training, such as is prescribed 
by the official programme, would be of immense service to those who 
take up industrial occupations. No doubt students of this age are too 



a la France the communes must supply the land and erect the school buildings, 
which always remain local prox)crty. The state pays the salaries of the teachers. 



224 REPORT OF TPIE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

young to receive conspicuous profit iu conuectioii witli any particular 
trade, but the knowledge of liow to use tools, the dexterity of the eye, 
and suppleness of the hand, the ability to fashion even the simplest 
object after a drawing, would serve them well no matter what they did 
in after life. 

Manual training in this grade of schools is being considered more 
and more a necessary complement to a sound general education rather 
than as a practical end. As this view becomes more widely understood, 
municipalities hitherto deterred by ignorance or indifference will make 
adeq^uate provision for following out the official jDrogramme in its en- 
tirety. It is perhaps unfortunate that the courses of study are already 
so heavy that the only time left for the workshop is from half-past five 
to seven in the evening. 

Generally speaking, the manual training courses for boys comprise 
two groups. The one consists in exercises destined in a general way 
to unloose the fingers and to teach them dexterity, agility, rapidity, 
and accuracy of movement; the other, graduated lessons in modelling, 
serving to complement corresponding studies in mechanical drawing, 
and particularly designing in connection with industry. For the girls, 
besides cutting and sewing, a certain number of lessons and amount 
of advice are given not only ui^on domestic economj^, but on morale, 
with a view ef inspiring a love of order and a taste for housekeeping 
and to hinder the acquisiton of frivolous and dangerous ideas. 

From the infant schools to the adva^nced primary schools the follow- 
ing materials are utilized in the manual training courses : Straw, willow 
shoots, paper, thin cardboard, twine, wire, sheet iron, wood, iron, zinc, 
copper, modelling clay, pottery clay, plaster, chalk, and sandstone. 

Manual training means from the beginning to the end a technical daily 
lesson, the theory of the immediate work to be performed being par- 
ticularly emphasized. It means, also, free-hand and mechanical draw- 
ing, the sketching of common articles of manufacture and of their sepa- 
rate parts in plans, cross-sections, and elevations according to scale. 



MANUAL TRAINING IN ELEMENTARY PRIMARY SCHOOLS FOR 

BOYS, PARIS. 

In 1873 M. Salicis, until his death general inspector of manual 
training for France, conceived the idea of introducing manual training 
in the elementary primary schools. Workshops were then constructed 
in connection with the boys' school in the rue Tournefort, forming a 
sort of annex. The city has ever since given 16,000 francs ($3,088) 
annually to pay for the necessary materials as well as the force of work- 
men teachers engaged to give the instruction. 

Contrary to the general practice which admits only pupils from 11 
to 13 years of age to the workshops, the children enter here at 8. All 
do mechanical drawing and model work. 



CHAP. lY. INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 225 

In order to have more time for the shop the students of the higher 
division (from 11 to 13 years) spend an hour longer each day at school. 
This division passes three hours daily in the workshops, and is divided 
into five sections, each of which spends one week alternately at carpen- 
try and wood turning, metal turning, forging and fitting, modelling 
and moulding, and wood and stone carving. 

The children in the class immediately below (9 to 11 years) spend one 
hour daily in the shop, working alternately on wood and iron. Model- 
ling is done in a special class. 

The youngest boys (8 years of age) devote two hours per week to the 
shop, working'also alternately upon wood and iron, and the same length 
of time in modelling. The implements used by them are simply the 
rasp, the file, and the saw. 

A primary school teacher who has himself been instructed in manual 
training during his course at the normal school is in charge of the work- 
shops. Under him are placed five skilled workmen, a carpenter and 
joiner, a wood turner, a metal turner, a blacksmith, and a fitter, who 
direct the practical efforts of the pupils. 

This institution is unique amongst schools of a similar grade in Paris. 
It was not accepted as a model for the rest, when in 1880 manual train- 
ing was introduced more generally. The commission having charge of 
the matter decided not to make, as it were, elementary trade schools, 
but to provide manual exercises in the workshop for the most advanced 
division only and to give to the instruction the character of a sort of 
gymnastics for the eye and the hand. 

These views are embodied in the programme of studies already given 
and now in force. It seems probable, however, that another change will 
soon be made, for the whole subject has been recently carefully and 
thoroughly studied by a commission of experts at the head of which is 
M. Duplan, the subdirector of primary instruction for Paris. The 
principles adopted can not fail to have great weight coming from such 
high authorities. They are as follows: 

1. Manual training in schools should be considered as a means of gen- 
eral education. It is besides an indirect ijreparation for the exer- 
cise of different occupations because it teaches the method of handling 
tools. 

2. Manual training should be above everything else methodical j it 
should comprise gradations and synthetic exercises. In order to 
encourage personal effort, competitions should be organized every two 
months between the more capable scholars. The greatest liberty 
should be allowed in the execution of the task imposed by the in- 
structor. 

3. Drawing being the base of manual training no object should be 
made without a full sized drawing of it having first been made by the 
student. The pupils should be familiarized with the use of scales^ 
cross- sections, and perspectives. 

4. Manual training should be obligatory to all pupils. 

5. Instruction should be given in the class room and in the work- 
shop. 

S. Ex. 65 15 



226 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

6. Modelling and the study and sketching of tools in general use 
slionkl be exacted of all students, as well as for the younger ones other 
exercises, such as paper box making, folding, cutting, basket work, etc. 

7. Only scholars in fche advanced division (11 to 13 years of age) and 
of the intermediate class (9 to 11 years) should go to the workshop. 
However, if circumstances permit, one might also admit those of a 
younger grade on trial. 

8. Instruction in manual training should . be given during regular 
class hours. 

9. The following amount of time should be given up weekly to man- 
ual training in the different classes of public schools. Infant schools, 
six hours. Elementary primary schools, nine hours, of which five 
should be accorded to manual training proper, and four to drawing and 
modelliug. Advanced primary schools, three hours in the first year and 
two hours each in the second, third, and fourth year classes to manual 
training proper, and one hour in each of the four classes to modelling. 

10. Instruction in manual training should be given by a regular 
teacher assisted by skilled workmen chosen by competitive examination. 
The latter should be taken for one year on trial. 

11. One general programme should be prepared and be divided into 
three parts, viz., for the infant schools, elementary primary schools, and 
advanced primary schools, respectively, so as to insure harmony, uni- 
formity, and gradual development. 

12. The manual exercises should always be preceded by theoretical 
and technical lessons on the subject in hand. The length of these 
latter should never exceed a quarter of the regular period. 

13. In order to reduce as much as possible the expense of the materi- 
als necessary for the prosecution of the work the exercises should be 
so graduated as to aUow the greatest economy in the use of wood and 
iron. 

14. The workmen instructors being chosen by competitive examina- 
tion, should be projjerly remunerated and allowed to improve their situ- 
ation. 

15. In order to make primary teachers competent to direct instruction 
in manual training they should be assigned for certain periods of time 
to the school in the rue Tournefort for observation and practice. 

In Paris at the present time workshops for the prosecution of manual 
training exist in one hundred and one boys' elementary primary schools, 
or fuily one-fourth of the whole number for France attached to this 
grade of schools. 

Below is given a table showing the number of lessons and hours each 
week given to the different subjects taught in the elementary primary 
schools of Paris : 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 

COITESE OF STUDY LN" ELEiNLEXTAEY PPcTHAEY SCHOOLS, PAEIS. 



227 









9 to 11 


years. 




11 to 13 years. 


Subject. 




Boys. 


Girls. 


Boys. 


Girls. 


Lessons Hours 

per j per 

week. Ivreek. 


Lessons 

per 
week. 


Hours 
per 

week. 


Lessons 

per 

week. 


Hours 

per 
week. 


Lessons Hours 

per per 

week. week. 


Lessons 

per 
week. 


Hours 

per 
week. 


Moral and civic instrnctlon. 

Heading and recitation 

"Wririn" 


3 

U 

10 

2 


1 
5 


5 
3 
5 


f 
2h 


5 
4 
5 


2i 


5 i 2i 

3 ! if 

■2 1 li 


4 
2 
2 


2 

it 


Dra win "■ 










1 


2 1 4 


2 

1 


4 


Drawing, meclianical 


5 i 5*1 




2 


Ih 


2 


n 


1 


Arithmetic and metric sys- 
tem. 
Grammar 


3 

5 
5 




1 ' 

1 


5 


5 


5 


5 j .5 


5 


5 


DictatioQ 






1 




1 




5 

1 1 

3 


5 
1* 


5 

1 

2 


5 

1^ 
U 


5 

2 
2 
1 


5 

li 

li 

1 


5 

2 
2 

1 


5 


History 


(a) 1 (a) 
©5 a2i 


li 


Oeo"Tap]iy 


^t 


Pli vsical and natural science . 


01)iect lessons 


2 j 1 






Hygiene, domestic econ- 
omy. 







! 1 


1 


1 


6 2 1 6 li 
c2 1 cli 


2 

i 


11 








Se'vrino" 


r 


1| 


1 

1 
2 
5 


p 




■■ 1 




Sin "'in"' 


2 ; 1 1 1 i 1' 
5 i 2^ ! 5 1 2h 


1 

5 


2| 


3 li 
2 ^ 4^ 
8 2 


G-ymnastics 

jitilitary exercises . 


2i 


T?prvfnl"iftTi "npn'ml^ 


10 2i 


10 1 2| 


10 


2* 


10 


2i 




Total 


1 " 


32i i 5&- 


321 


49 


32i 


45 . 37i 


46 


35 



rt History and geograpbj' taught in combination. 
6 For boys only. 
cFor girls only. 



MANUAL TRAINHTG IN ELEMENTARY PRIMARY SCHOOLS FOR 

BOYS; LILLE. 

After Paris. Lille lias perliaps done the most of all Frencli cities for 
the development of manual training in purely primary schools. There 
are nine workshops, in seven of which wood and metal work is carried 
on, modelling in piaster in another, while the ninth is devoted to book- 
binding and paper box makiug. Four hundred and seventy-one pupils, 
between the ages of 10 and 13, receive instruction in the shops during 
four hours weekly. 

The original cost of the equipment of all the workshops was about 
30,000 francs ($5,790). Each shop is provided with ten carpenters' 
tables, ten benches for metal work, and four forge furnaces and anvils, so 
that sections of twenty-eight boys may work p.,t one time. The annual 
cost of maintenance, which includes the salaries of the special teachers 
as well as the cost of materials used, is 15,200 francs (82,933.60). 

The instructing force consists of an overseer (surveillant) who is one 
of the regular teachers of the school and who has himself passed through 
a course of manual training in the normal school, a first-class carpen- 
ter and joiner who can also do wood turning, and a skilfid mechanic 
who understands fitting, metal turning, and forging. The overseer 
occupies himself with the elucidation of drawings, theoretical esplana- 



228 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

tions, and tlie supervision of the conduct of tlie boys. The workmen 
teachers are charged simply with the direction of all practical work. 

They are paid 500 francs ($96.50) each per year for eight hours of 
presence weekly (except during the holidays) in the workshops. 

The system of instruction followed is quite interesting. It is the 
creation of Prof. 0. Godron, who is the technical director of the work- 
shops attached to the Industrial Institute of LiUe, as well as the super- 
visor of the manual training department of the i)ublic schools. 

Prof. Godron carefully designates the work to be done in the differ- 
ent years and even the order in which it is to be executed. He then 
makes on a sheet of paper a series of drawings, showing the plan, eleva- 
tion, and a cross-section of the object to be executed. Dimensions are 
also given. In a note below he sets forth first the usage to which the 
object is put and then detailed practical directions in regard to its 
execution. These sheets are posted conspicuously on the walls of the 
workshops. On brackets immediately beside them are the actual 
objects themselves, which have been previously made by pupils and 
now serve as models. 

The students in the drawing class draw in their workshop notebooks 
the objects they are exi)ected to make. In the shop itself, with the 
Bketch, the sheets, and a model before them, they are in the best pos- 
sible position to learn how to translate a drawing into a material 
object of utility. This of course is the prime consideration in a skilful 
mechanic. It is safe to say that whoever can do this well will never 
want for work. Boys can be taught to do it in school, and in so learn- 
ing they enhance wonderfully their material prospects in life. The 
period of apprenticeshiiD is materially shortened for a carpenter, ma- 
chinist, or fitter to about six months. At the end of that time the boy 
of 13J years of age becomes what is known in France as a half- work- 
man and earns 1 franc (19 cents) at least per day. 

The instruction in manual training is given after school hours, from 
half-past 5 to half-past 7, four days in the week. The classes are divided 
into two sections, one of which works in the wood and the other in the 
metal workshop. In the month of March the sections change places, 
the metal workers going to the wood workshop and vice versa. Stu- 
dents, therefore, are neither fitters nor carpenters when they graduate, 
but they know something of both occupations. More than this, they 
have learned the use of intelligence in its application to hand labor. 

A kind of museum is established in each school in which the best 
made objects are kept on exhibition, with the name of the student 
workman perpetually attached. 

MANUAL TRAINING- IN ELEMENTARY PRIMARY SCHOOLS FOR 

GIRLS, PARIS. 

The municipal authorities of Paris have for more than twenty years 
paid particular attention to the development of manual training in 
connection with the education of ghls. Since 1867 instruction in sew- 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 229 

iiig lias formed a part of tlie regular programme of elemeatary primary 
scliools. The progression of exercises is as follows : 

In all the classes the articles necessary for an exercise in sewing — 
cloth, canvas, needles, and thread — must be prepared before the time 
set apart for the lesson. 

Instruction in sewing must never be individual. It must be given 
orally and simultaneously to the whole class, and the theorems must 
always be elucidated by figures on the blackboard. 

Each i^upil, being provided with the necessary articles, must do the 
work in accordance with the method outlined. 

At the end of each month the pupil must do some original work. 
This is properly examined and classified. 

The work required of girls in the different classes is specified below 
in detail. 

INSTRUCTION IN SEWING-. 

1. Course for girls hetween 7 and 9 years of age. 

Marking: Simple stitch, cross-stitch on canvas; exercise in I^oman 
letters. 

Sewing: Eunning stitch, whip-stitch, side-stitch. 

Application: Simple sewing, whipi)ing, hemming. 

The employment of canvas in this course is of great utility, not only 
for the study of cross- stitching, but for plain sewing as well. It per- 
mits putting in the hands of the children the blunted points, which 
preclude all idea of danger, and it accustoms them little by little to a 
suppleness of the fingers very necessary in sewing. 

Cotton thread dyed is used, as this makes work more attractive in 
the eyes of the children and renders defective workmanship more 
readily visible. 

As soon as the study of the first stitches is finished the child sews 
on a piece of cotton cloth without having had it made ready for her. 

The attention of the child is evoked by the attractiveness of this 
new field of labor. 

One lesson of IJ hours is given each week. 

2. Course for girls hetweeii 9 and 11 years of age. 

Marking: Eoman letters, italics, initials upon coarse cloth. 

Sewing: Eunning stitch, side- stitch, whip -stitch, backstich, making 
buttonholes. 

Application: Whipping, simple sewing, turning in seams, hemstitch- 
ing, making buttonholes. 

Mending: Putting a patch in the corner with a whip -stitch. 

Both white and colored threads are used, as also cotton cloth or linen 
in small pieces, without being prepared. 

The buttonhole stitch is first taught before cutting the cloth. 



230 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

All scliolars must do the same work. The teacher must watch that 
everything is done in the same fashion after a t^Tpical piece which 
seryes as a pattern and has been prepared before the class. 

During the first quarter each scholar makes a workbasket for her- 
self, marks it with her name, and keeps in it her needle^ thread, thimble, 
and scissors. 

One lesson of If hours is given ea<?h week. 

3, Course for girls detween 11 mid 13 years of age. 

Marking : Eoman letters, italics, initials on fine linen or cotton cloth. 

Sewing : Becapitulation of the different stitches studied in the two 
preceding courses ; exercise in herring-bone stitching. 

Api3lication : Buttonhole making, joining, eyelets, seam-stitching on 
the bias, seam-stitching in quilting, seam-stitching zigzag, gathering. 

Mending: A square piece, whip-stitched and backstitched; a trian- 
gular piece in the same manner 5 darning and repiecing stockings. 

Both white and colored thread are used as well as long and short 
needles. The pieces of cloth on which the work is done are put away 
in the scholar's workbasket, which she is obliged to prepare during the 
first quarter. 

Mending, a most important thing in housekeeping, holds a conspic- 
uous place in the programme. 

One lesson of IJ hours is given each week. 

INSTETTCTIOI^ IN CUTTINa, BASTING, AND MAKING UP. 

Instruction in cutting, basting, and making up was first organized in 
1877 in the seventh and ninth arrondissements {a) as an annexed course 
to the girls elementary x)rimary schools. During 1878 a general course 
of instruction and aiDplicatiou was created in each municipal subdi- 
vision of Paris^ which was given for three hours eTery Thursday. In 
the following year, 1879, it was decided that henceforth this imx^ortant 
branch of education should form an integral part of the regular courses 
of study in all of the elementary primary and advanced primary schools 
of the city. 

In order to make the teachers ef&cient to direct the work two 
courses of normal instruction were opened on Thursdays (the weekly 
holiday in the French schools), which teachers were invited to follow. 
As a special inducement a supplemental salary was awarded to all 
those who received the certificate of aptitude after having success- 
fully completed the course. Practically all now possess the certificate. 

The following programme, uniformly followed, gives in detail an out- 
line of the work required in connection with cutting, basting, and mak- 
ing up: 

a A municipal division equal in area to perliaps three or four wards in American 
cities. 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 231 

Course for girls hetiveen 11 and 13 years of age. 

All tlie pupils must learn to take measures. Tlie teaclier picks out 
two scliolars at a time; the first takes the measure of the second and vice 
versa. The measurements are written on the blackboard and scrupu- 
lously verified by the teacher. The attention of the students is called 
to the precautions necessary when the measure is taken on clothes 
which already fit badly. 

A manikin may be employed for a theoretical demonstration, but 
never in the practical, since the figures which represent the" measure- 
ments of the manikin are soon learned oy heart, and hence teach 
nothing. 

The measurements duly verified and corrected are left inscribed on a 
part of the blackboard. The teacher assigns one of the class in reg- 
ular order to design on the other part of the blackboard th.Q) pattern 
in accordance with the given measurements. The whole class copies 
this — the more advanced portion on paper, the other on slates — using 
always Jife-size proportions. The teacher walks around during t\LQ 
exercise indicating mistakes, and after the exercise examines carefully 
and marks the work done. In this manner the first hour and a half of 
the i)eriod is occupied. 

Then the scholars under the direction of the teacher place their loat- 
terns on the cloth and learn how to cut out and baste the parts together. 
This done, the sewing and complete making up follow. Dresses, jackets, 
aprons, baby linen, etc., are the objects made. 

These subjects form part of the examination required for graduation 
fi^om the ^ementary primary schools. Within a certain limit of time, 
at this examiuation, each pupil must trace a pattern of a basque in its 
proper dimensions, then cut it out in cloth, and baste the parts prop- 
erly together. 

Two and a half hours per week are given to instruction in this course. 

The educational administration of Paris has thus defined the aim of 
these courses of study and application : 

The instruction should aim at only useful ends and every exercise 
which is not of practical utility should be avoided. Our courses in the 
elementary x)rimary schools ought not to endeavor to form workers 
specially trained in any particular branch of work. To do this is the 
mission of the trade school. The sole purpose of the instruction given 
should be to prepare scholars to become in later life good housekeepers 
and mothers of families. Therefore, as the programme shows, the work 
done is that which is of constant utility in the home circle, such as 
mending clothes, darning stockings, making linen, adapting cast olf 
clothing of large children for younger ones, etc. 

mSTRUCTION IN HYaiENE AND D03IESTIC ECONOMY. 

This course of study, while purely theoretical and given orally, is an 
important adjunct to manual training. In certain of the advanced 
primary schools of Paris kitchens and laundries are attached for pur- 



232 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

poses of practical and manual demonstration, but there are none of 
tliese annexes to any of the establishments in the particular grade we 
are now considering. 

While the oral instruction is going on the pupils have their needle- 
work in their hands and partially occupy themselves with sewing. 
This accustoms them to listen, and work with their fingers -at the same 
time — a situation in which the practical housewife is very often placed. 
This course occupies three-quarters of an hour per week. 

Course for girl» hetiveen 11 and 13 years of age, 

riJRST TERM. 

Hygiene : Definition of hygiene. Hygiene of the dwelling. Choice 
of a house, sanitary requirements, ventilation. Care of the house and 
furniture from the sanitary point of view. 

Domestic economy: Definition of domestic economy. Duties of the 
mistress of the house. Qualities requisite in a good housekeeper — 
order, economy, cleanliness, vigilance. Budget of receipts, expenses, 
with daily account keeping. Inventory of the furniture. Eent and 
taxes. Conditions of renting a house; the lease and notice to leave. 

SECOND TERM. 

Hygiene: Heating and lighting from the hygienic standpoint. Yen- 
tilation of rooms provided with heating appliances. Dangers of having 
stoves in sleeping rooms ; necessary precautions. Properties of differ- 
ent kinds of fuel and their influence upon the respiratory organs. Dif- 
ferent modes of Kghting. Precautions necessary with oil lamps, gas, 
etc. Influence of light on the vision. Hygiene of the sight. 

Domestic economy: Choice and care of furniture. Distribution of 
housekeepers' work. Cleaning to be done daily, weekly, and in certain 
seasons. Advice upon the best way to make beds, sweep, and dust. 
Cooking utensils. Different forms of stoves and ovens. Lighting fires. 
Cleaning and lighting of lamps. Care of cooking utensils and dishes. 
Fuel, economic indications upon the different sorts, their proper em- 
ployment. The cellar, care to be taken of wine, provisions, and general 
keeping in order. 

TniRD TERM. 

Hygiene: Hygiene in relation to clothing. Properties of different 
kinds of cloth, silk, woollen, cotton, linen, etc. Influence of color in 
relation to clothing. Style of clothing from the hygienic standpoint. 
Cleanliness of clothing and underclothing; its influence upon the 
health. 

Domestic economy: Choice and care of clothing and underclothing. 
Materials necessary for all kinds of sewing. The employment of sew- 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 233 

ing machines. Making of clothing and underclothing. Patching 
and darning. Laundry work, materials used in this branch. Lye and 
soap washing. Instructions on the washing, folding, and ironing of 
linen. Different kinds of soil spots and the best way to remove them. 

MANUAL TRAINING IN ELEMBNTARY PRIMARY SCHOOLS FOR 

GIRLS, LILLE. 

Instruction in manual training in this grade of girls' schools at Lille 
does not differ materially from the system in vogue at Paris. In all of 
the twenty-one of these schools three and three-quarters hours are 
devoted weekly to instruction in sewing to picked members of the two 
highest classes, i. e., pupils from 9 to 13 years of age. There are in 
addition six courses of cutting and dressmaking, which are held from 
10 to 12 o'clock every Thursday morning. Ten to fifteen chosen pupils 
from each school attend. The municipality makes an appropriation of 
1,200 francs ($231.60) annually to defray the cost of these special 
courses. Students after completing them find themselves in a position 
to earn 1 or 2 francs (19 or 39 cents) per week immediately on leaving 
school. In three months' time they are paid 50 centimes (10 cents) a 
day and at 16 years of age they gain easily 2 francs (39 cents ) per day. 
At 25 years of age they are often comfortably established in businesses 
of their own. 

Every Thursday evening, from 7.30 to 9.30, two courses in cutting 
and dressmaking are given to those students who have left school 
before having comx)]eted their studies in order to enter situations found 
for them by their parents. Forty-seven are now availing themselves 
of the privilege. The municipality bears the expenses, which amount 
to 900 francs ($173.70) a year. 

ADYAKOED PEIMAEY SCHOOLS. 

The official programme of courses of study in this grade of schools 
is given in detail in the following pages. 

The distribution of classes and the amount of time accorded to each 
study has not been officially regulated. An inspection of the distribu- 
tion of classes in such advanced primary schools as Lille, Eoubaix, 
and Tourcoing will fairly indicate the ]3revailing conditions. At Rou- 
baix, for example, an exceedingly well equipped advanced primary 
' school exists. The city is, moreover, a great industrial centre. In this 
school the time per week alloted to manual training is as foUows: 
Fourth year class, five and one-half hours j third year class, four hours j 
second year class, two and one-half hours j first year class, three and 
one-half hours. This is, however, above the average. 

Workshops had, up to the year 1889, been provided for 207 of the 
503 schools and supplementary courses of this grade. 



234 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. 

The official programme of courses of study in tlie advanced primary 
scliools of France includes instruction in tlie following subjects: 

Penmanship; French language and elements of literature; history; 
geography; civic instruction and political economy; arithmetic; alge- 
bra; geometry; surveying; bookkeeping; elements of physics; chem- 
istry; natural sciences; hygiene; agriculture and horticulture ; modern 
languages; electrical instruction; singing; gymnastic and military ex- 
ercises. 

We give in detail so much of the official programme as relates in any 
way to manual training. 

COURSE OF STUDY IN THE ADVANCED PRIMAKY SCHOOLS. 

Drawing for hoys and girls. 

Continuation of the exercises of the elementary schools, and application of the 
following programmes : 

Free-hand drawing: Drawing of purely geometrical ohjects, from copy and relief; 
mouldings, ovals, heart-shaped ornaments, heads, d-entils, etc. 

Drawing from copy and relief: Ornaments whose elements are taken from the 
vegetahle kingdom; leaves, flowers, fruits, palms, foliage, etc. 

Exercises in designing from memory. 

Elementary notions of the orders of architecture given on the hlackhoard hy the 
teacher (three lessons). 

Drawing of the human head : Its parts and proportions. 

Geometrical drawing : Execution on paper, with the aid of instruments, the geo- 
metrical figures which in the previous schools had been made on the blackboard. 

Principles of coloring with even tints. 

Reproducing designs of plane surfaces and of light reliefs ; Panels, church windows, 
tiling, inlaid flooring, ceihngs. Some of those to be finished with India ink and 
coloring. 

Rex)resentations of geometrical solids and other simple objects, such as framework, 
pieces of carpentry, exterior stone dressing, iron work, most common pieces of furni- 
ture, etc., by means of geometrical lines. Employing of colors for indicating the 
nature of the materials. Coloring plans and charts. 

Geometrical drawing for hoys. 

Plane geometrical figures. Exectiting, to a certain scale, from a side sketch, a 
plane sm^face decoration (tiling, inlaid flooring, borders, church windows). Color- 
ing with even tints, the different parts, either to conform to the sketch, or to com- 
bine the colors in such a way as to obtain a satisfactory decorative effect. 

Projection. Executing, to a scale to be determined, from a side sketch, a drawing 
of a horizoatal projection (plan), and of a vertical projection (elevation) of a geo- 
metrical solid. Displacing this solid parallel to the i:)lans of projection, and giving 
new projections after the displacement. 

Penetration. Executing, to a determined scale, after a side sketch given to the 
pupil, a drawing, by projection (plan, elevation), of two solids which mutually 
penetrate each other. The surfaces of the solids must be developed if they can be. 
The following are cases of the above: A sphere and a regular prism (square or 
hexagonal), of which the axis passes through the centre of the sphere; the sphere 
and cylinder to the cone of revolution. Cylinders of the same diameter, etc. 

Plans of perspective. Making, by the exact processes of linear perspection, the 
representation of simple solids (the cube, prism, cylinder), alone, side by side, or 
above one another, but without penetrating. The pupil will receive a sketch on 
■which will be indicated the dimensions of the soUds, the position which they are to 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE, 235 

occupy on the picture, the point of view, and the height above the ground ; also 
the dimensions to be given on the perspective picture. 

Parts of machinery and plans of buildings. Execution on a given scale, after a 
sketch, the drawing of the parts of a machine, or the plan of a building. 

Ornamental designing for hoys and girls. 

The proofs of ornamental drawings are always taken from models in relief. 

The material conditions of acceptance, and the rules for the correction of drawings, 
are determined by the ministerial circular of May 1, 188-3, relative to the examina- 
tion of drawiuo'S by the sui)erior commissiou. 

Manual training for doys. 

A. WOOD worvK. 

Principal woods employed in the constructions and inmachinery : qualities and uses. 

Principal tools employed in wood work. 

Various kinds of exercises in sawing, boring, planing, turning, and joining. 

B. IRON WOKK. 

Properties, varieties, qualities, and uses of iron; principal tools usually employed 
in ironwork. 

Work with the file, the hammer, and forging, soldering, chiselling, boring, turning, 
putting together, and adjusting. 

Sketching objects in iron or wood to be executed, and their construction after the 
sketch. 

Manual training for girls. 

HOUSE WOIIK. 

The dwelling: furniture, care of the furniture. 

Food : arrangement of the kitchen ; utensils, cleaning. 

Supplies: water, bread, milk, lard, butter, oil, cheese, sugar, coffee, etc.: choice 
and qualities of meats; various modes of cutting meats; boiled beef, soups, fryings, 
roasts. 

Elementary principles of cooking. 

Poultry, game, fish, eggs. 

Vegetables : nutritive qualities ; cutting, conserving. 

Fruits: nutritive qualities and conservation; preparation of jams. 

Drinks : wine, cider, beer, vinegar, alcohol, liquors, fruits preserved in brandy. 

Heating: wood, coal, coke, charcoal; prices and heating power of various fuels. 

Heating api3aratus : fire places, stoves, hot air furnaces. 

Lighting : vegetable and mineral oils, candles, gas, various kinds of lamps. 

Washing : lye washing of linens by the old and the new methods ; potash, soda, 
soap, chlorides. 

Scouring: effects of grease, of acids, of alkalies, of mud, of ink, of paint, etc. 

Ironing. 

Clothing: qualities of the various tissues; their imitations; prcservicg woollens 
goods and furs during the summer ; hygiene of clothing. 

NEEDLEWORii:. 

Fii'st year. — Review of the elements included in the work of the primary school 
in order to equalize and perfect the work already done. 

Various kinds of stitches ; hemming, whip-stitch, flattened seams, gathering, cro- 
cheting, knitting. 

Simple darning; knitted darning. 



236 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



Hemming haudkercliiefS; serviettes^ linen clotlis. 

Flattened seams in men's shirts, and womens' and childrens' chemises. 

Lessons in dressmaking : childrens' stays, corset covers, caps, bibs, bedding, babies' 
robes or swaddling clothes ; young girls' chemiseSc 

Lessons in cutting and fitting : corsets, childrens' stays, corset covers, bibs, bed- 
ding, babies' robes or swaddling clothes; young girls' chemises. 

Second year. — Review of the various stitches used in sewing: running stitch, back- 
stitch, q^uilting, hemstitch, whip-stitch. 

Buttonholes and connecting threads. 

Needle embroidery ; feather-stitch. 

Marking embroidery without models : initials, gothic and fancy lettering. 

First lessons on the sewing machine : simple work. 

Lessons in dressmaking: mens' shirts, womens' and childrens' chemises; womens' 
and girls' drawers; flannel undervests; womens' skirts. 

Lessons in cutting and fitting : waists, flannel undervests, womens' skirts, dresses ; 
three or four models of simple robes taken from existing fashions. 

Instructions in the manner of taking measures, taking orders, and fitting the 
clothes. 

Tldrdyear. — Mending different garments ; darning, various kinds of stuffs; darning 
holes. 

Trimming womens' hats. 

Working the sewing machine. 

Cleaning and repairing. 

Lessons in dressmaking: linens for women and girls, with trimmings; laces and 
embroijclery; chemises, chemisettes, undervests, dressing jackets, drawers, gowns, 
corset covers, bonnets, collars, cuffs, etc. 

Dresses with and without trimmings. 

Summer clothes for women. 

Exercises in cutting : clothing for little boys and girls; aprons, blouses, jackets, 
boys' trousers, drawers, robes, cloaks. 

The table wliicli is given below sliows the occupations followed by 
students leaving (eitlier as graduates or without having completed the 
full course of study) the advanced primary schools for boys in France 
during the years 1884, 1887, and 1890. The number of schools repre- 
sented in the table is 537. 

occTJPATioi^s OF ex-stude:nts of advanced peimaut schools eoPw boys, 

EPtAXCE. 



Occupation. 



Students, indnstrialorteclinical schools 
of liigher grade. 

Apprentices, laborers, and purely tecli- 
nical employes in different industrial 
establishments. 

Employes of railTray companies 

Commercial pursuits 

Agricultural pursuits r. 

Government service 

Army and navy 

Banks, financial institutions, the com- 
mercial marine, etc. 

Teachers in other schools 

Students in other schools 

Sent abroad to learn foreign languages. . 

Eetiimed home without taking up any 
occupation so far as known. 

Deceased 



Total 



18S4. 



Xumher. Per cent, l^umber. Per cent. 



350 
1,205 

121 

1,869 

549 

513 



827 
1,248 



3,442 



3.46 
11.90 



1.20 

18.46 

5.42 

5,07 



8.17 
12.32 



34.00 



1887 



568 
2,468 



176 
2,280 
1, 344 
399 
259 
G83 

1G3 
1,206 



1,103 
79 



100. 00 10, 728 



5.29 
23.00 



1.64 
21. 25 
12. 53 
3.72 
2.42 
6.37 

1.52 
11.24 



10.28 
.74 



1890. 



Xumber. Per cent. 



573 
3,776 



158 
344 
403 
374 
172 
693 



57 
2,181 



74 



100. 00 12, 830 



4.46 
29.39 



1.23 
18. 27 
10.93 
2.92 
1.34 
5.38 

.41 

17.04 

.84 

7.21 



100. oe 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 237 

The inference to be drawn from the foregoing official statistics is the 
very satisfactory one that pnpils who have either wholly or in part 
completed the courses of study in the advanced primary schools (about 
the same grade as the American high school) are more and more tak- 
ing up purely industrial occupations for a livelihood. The effect of 
manual training which has been steadily developing during the last 
ten years has been to augment the proportion from 11.90 per cent, in 
1884 and 23 per cent, in 1887 to 29.39 per cent, in 1890. 

The fig^wres just quoted refer to the whole 537 boys' advanced primary 
schools of France in oi)eration on December 31, 1890. Of this number 
34 have placed themselves under the operation of the law of December 
11, 1880, i. 6., make a si3ecialty of trade or technical training in response 
to the particular industrial needs of the region where they are sit- 
uated. It was officially ascertained that 46.46 per cent, of the students 
graduating or quitting these schools during the year 1890, either passed 
on to technical schools of a higher grade or entered purely industrial 
occupations in a technical capacity, ^o statistics have as yet been 
compiled for girls' schools of this grade. 

It would be both interesting and instructive to give a detailed ac- 
count of many of the excellent advanced primary schools where man- 
ual training is carried on, such as at Paris, Lille, Eoubaix, Tourcoing, 
Eouen, and other places. But space forbids indulgence in this regard, and 
information relating to one or two typical ones only can be presented. 

MANUAL TRAINING IN ADVANCED PRIMARY SCHOOLS FOR 

BOYS, PARIS. 

Every school of this grade in Paris has a workshop attached for 
manual work in wood and iron. 

The tasks assigned are practically those prescribed in the official 
programme of courses of study already given in detail in the preceding 
pages. Two hours weekly are assigned to workshop instruction in 
manual training in each of the three years of the course of study and 
two hours per week each to geometrical and to free-hand drawing. 

In the first year's class there is a special section composed of candi- 
dates for admission to the national schools of arts and trades at Aix, 
Angers, and Chalons. This section devotes ten hours instead of two 
hours weekly to workshop training. During the twelve years, 1878 to 
1889, exactly 200 students from the advanced primary schools of Paris 
secured admission to the national schools of arts and trades, while 
89 were admitted to the still higher Central School of Arts and Manu- 
factures. 

In the third year a separation takes place into commercial and in- 
dustrial sections. 

We give below the number of hours per week assigned to each of the 
prescribed subjects of study in the advanced primary schools for boys 
at Paris. 



238 



REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



COUESE or STUDY ZN" ADVANCED PEZMAEY SCHOOLS FOE EOTS, PAEIS. 



Subject. 



Hours per Treek. 



Eirst year. 



Candi- 
dates for 
Ee£;u]ar Batioual 



arts and 
trades. 



Second 
year. 



All 
students. 



Third year. 



Indus- 
trial 
course. 



Commer- 
cial 
course. 



Manual traininoj 

Drawing, free-hand 

Dra^vin2;. mt-chanical 

Mathematics 

Physics and chemistry 

l^atural history 

Applied mechanics • 

Industrial economics 

Erench languan;e and literature 

Eoreign languages 

History 

Geography 

Legislation 

Bookkeeping 

Pen 7iian ship 

Moral and civic instruction , . 

Smging 

G-ymnastics and military exercises. 

Total 



3C| 



32 



34^ 



1 
34J 



3GJ 



Tlie table given below sliows tlie occupations followed by ex-stndents 
of the advanced primary scbools for boys at Paris. The figures of the 
table cover th^ years 1878 to 1889. 

OCCTJPATIOXS OE EX-STUDEXTS OE ADVAXCED PEIMAEY SCHOOLS EOE BOYS, PAEIS. 



Occupation. 



Per cent. 



Students, technical schools of higher grade 

Technical employes in industrial cstabiishment 

Technical employes in government service 

Comiriercial pursuits - 

X'or.-technical employes in government service . 

Army and miscellaneous occupations 

Students, other schools, non-technical 

Deceased 

Unknown 

Total 




100. 00 



It is interesting to note the large number of these boys who have 
entered technical vocations of some kind. Of the whole number shown 
above, 9,277 boys, 2^584 or 27.86 per cent, appear in this class. This 
includes students in higher technical schools as well as those employed 
in technical jwsitions either in industrial establishments or in govern- 
ment service. 



MANUAL TRAINING IN THE ADVANCED PRIMARY SCHOOL FOR 
BOYS (INSTITUTE TURG-OT), RCUBAIX. 

This school was founded in 1880, smd the manual training feature 
was added in 1885 by the city of Eoubaix. The school prepares boys 
for the national schools of arts and trades or for commercial or indus- 
trial pursuits. The course of instruction covers four years. 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 



239 



The Instruction in tlieoretical branches is that prescribed by tlie state 
for advanced primary schools, more attention, however, being given to 
mathematics, drawing, and mechanics. The manual work is in wood 
and iron, one-half the time being devoted to each during the first and 
second j^ears. During the third and fourth years pupils work entirely 
at wood or at iron. The work done consists of useful articles such as 
patterns for machines (made of wood) mouldings, vises, tools, drilling 
machines, etc., and carpentry. The workshop for metal work has three 
drilling machines, seven lathes, one double forge, three grindstones, 
twenty vises, and twenty work benches: each pui3il has one hammer, 
six files, one rule, one squaring rale, one rim square, one chisel, and one 
punch. The workshop for wood work has twenty work benches and 
each pupil has one large plane, one jack-plane, and one ordinary plane, 
two saws, one chisel, and one hammer. In the daily work the foremen 
may teach the pupils by taking the tools in hand and showing tliem 
how to do certain parts, but in work done for examinations only the 
pupils themselves are permitted to touch the tools. 

The following table shows the course of study with the time given to 
each branch, and hence outlines the relative importance of manual train- 
ing in comparison with other branches. The school hours are from 8 
a. m. to 12 m., and from 2 to 7 p. m. with an intermission from 5 to 5.30 p. m. 
From 5.30 to 7 p. m. most of the time is given over to study, but there are 
classes in singing and German besides the studies of the table below, 
and manual training work. On Thursday afternoon there is no school 
session. 



COURSE or STUDY lis" THE Hs^STITUTE tuhgot, eoubaix. 



Subject. 



Hours per week. 



Eirst 
year. 



Second 
year. 



Third 
year. 



Ecurth 
year. 



Accounting 

Agriculture 

Algebra 

Aritliinctic 

Chemistry 

Composition 

Dictation 

Drawing, linear 

Drawing, ornamental . 

English 

Ethics 

Erench 

Geography 

Geometry 

Grammar 

Gymnastics 

History 

Literature 

Manual training 

Natural history 

Ornament 

Physics 

Reading , 

Recitation 

Study 

Style 

Writing 

Total 



4 
1 
1 
1 
3 
1 
1 
2 
1 

2i 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
11 
1 
1 



4G^ 





1 


2 




3 


3 




1 


1 




1 


1 




1 


3 




2 






4 


5i 




1 


1 




1 






1 


1 




1 


1 




1 


1 




, 1 


2 




1 



40i 



240 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

The atteudauce at tliis school in 1891 was: First year's cla'ss, 77 j 
second year's class, 67 j third year's class, 52 3 fourth year's class, 32 j 
total, 228 pupils. 

The pupils who leave the school enter upon commercial and indus- 
trial pursuits — mostly the former. They belong generally to the bet- 
ter element of the middle class (bourgeois). The pay which ex-pupils 
get, either as apprenticed workingmen or as clerks, etc., averages 
about 25 francs ($4.83) per month for such as have attended the 
school one year, 40 francs ($7.72) for those having attended two years, 
50 to 60 francs ($9.65 to $11.58) for those having attended three years. 
Those who finish the course earn about 75 francs ($14.48) per month 
upon leaving the school. About 15 per cent, of the graduates continue 
their instruction at the National School of Industrial Arts at Eoubaix. 

The instruction is gratuitous. Forty boarders are received, who pay 
500 francs ($96.50) annually for board. Admission is by competitive 
examination. Candidates must be at least 12 years old and must have 
a certificate of primary education. 

Following is the annual budget of this school : 

Expenses paid by the city of Roubaix : 

Indemnity for residence of tlie director and five professors (a) $926. 40 

Pay of two teacliers of manual training 463. 20 

Five indemnities for lodgings (a) 463. 20 

Janitor 212. 30 

Furnishings for laboratory and shops 501. 80 

Prizes 154.40 

Furnishings for class instruction 38. 60 

Five overseers (during study hours) 386. 00 

One teacher of mechanical drawing 154. 40 

One teacher of German language 154. 40 

One teacher of English language 308. 80 

One teacher of singing 115.80 

Various indemnities and sundrie-s 96. 50 

Expenses paid by the state : 

Salary of director 579. 00 

Salaries of five professors at 2^000 francs each 1, 930. 00 

Total annual expenses 6, 484. 80 

The brief table which is given below shows the occupations of 604 
ex-students of the Institute Turgot, covering the period fi?om 1880 to 
1890: 

OCCUPATIONS OF EX-STUDENTS OE THE INSTITUTE TUEGOT. 



Year. 


Industrial 
pursuits. 


Commercial 
pursuits. 


Higher tech- 
nical schools. 


Other schools. 


Government 
service. 


Total. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per 

cent. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per 

cent. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per 

cent. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per 

cent. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per 

cent. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per 

cent. 


1880 


1 

2 

6 

8 

17 

25 

22 

27 

30 

36 

46 


9.1 
16.6 
37.5 
27.6 
31.4 
31.6 
29.7 
38.0 
38.5 
45.0 
46.0 


10 

9 

5 

7 

21 

36 

33 

32 

31 

29 

34 


90.9 
75.0 
31.2 
24.1 
38.9 
45.6 
44.6 
45.1 
39.7 
36.2 
34.0 














11 
12 
16 
29 
54 
79 
74 
71 
78 
80 
100 


100 


1881 


1 
3 
5 
7 
4 
5 
7 
8 
9 
13 


8.4 

18.8 

17.3 

13.0 

5.1 

6.8 

9.9 

10.3 

11.3 

13.0 


1 






100 


1882 . . 


2 
7 
7 
11 
13 
5 
7 
6 
7 


12.5 

24.1 

13.0 

13.9 

17.6 

7.0 

9.0 

7.5 

7.0 






100 


1883.... 
1881.... 
1885.... 
1886.... 
1887 


2 
2 
3 

1 


6.9 
3.7 
3.8 
1.3 


100 
100 
100 
100 
100 


1888.... 
1889 


2 


2.5 


100 
100 


1890. . 






100 











a In lieu of rent. 



CHAP. IVc INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 



24t 



It will be noticed that during tlie eleven years for ^yLicli the sta- 
tistics are available there has been a marked advance in the propor- 
tion of those who have either i^assed on to some technical school of 
higher grade or have entered directly into some industrial calling, viz.^ 
from none and 9.1 per cent, respectively in 1880, to 13 per cent, and 
46 per cent, in 1890. Only one-third instead of the great bulk of the 
students now connect themselves with commerce. If these figures 
show any thin gj they prove that manual traiiiiug is becoming increas- 
ingly influential in giving a technical bent to the mind. 

MANUAL TRAINING IN ADVANCED PRIMARY SCHOOLS FOR 
BOYS, TOURCOING, ROUBN, AND LILLB. 

The conditions of admission, x>rogramme of courses, and character 
of workshop training at Tourcoing, Eouen, and Lille do not differ mate- 
rially from those at Paris and Eoubaix. A statistical statement of what? 
has become of ex-students from the advanced primary schools in tha 
two first named cities may not be without interest. 

occtjpatloln^s oe ex-studexts oe the advanced pkimaky school eor boys; 
{i:n^stitute colbekt), touecoing. 



Occupation. 



1887-88. 



1888-89. 



1889-'90. 



1890-'91. 



Apprentices and -n-orkmeii 

Industrial pursuits 

Agricultural pursuits 

Commercial pursuits 

Office employes, industrial establishments.. 
Office employes, commercial establishments. 

Employes, government service 

Students, higher schools 

Student, military school 

Architect 



Total. 



OCCUPATIONS OE EX-STUDENTS OE THE ADVANCED PlilMAKT SCHOOL EOK BOYS, 

EOUEN. 



Occupation. 


Number. 


Occupation. 


Number. 


Students, national schools of arts and 


48 

2 

3 
3 

26 
57 




171 


trades. 


Various branches of industry 


17& 


Students, national school of agriculture 




15 


at Grignon. 


Students, normal schools 


g 


Students, veterinary school at Alfort... 




59 


Students, school for engineers of the 
Government service .. . 


Obtained certificates of education 

Total 


18 


587 











MANUAL TRAINING IN ADVANCED PRIMARY SCHOOLS FOR 

GIRLS, PARIS. 



The programme of studies as officially outlined in the preceding pages 
is practically followed^ except that in some schools more attention is 
paid to manual training than in others. The domestic economy feat- 
ureSj tooj stand in the same category. 
S. Ex. 65 IG 



242 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



Esx)ecially is tlie instruction in x)ractical cooking but little followed 
out. The physical limitations are sucli that a pupil is able to under- 
take practical exercises only two or three times a term, and of course 
much can not be expected in the way of results. 

The time allotted to instruction in manual training is two hours 
weekly throughout the first three years and six hours weekly through- 
out the fourth year of the course. 

Manual training in these schools does not in anywise partake of the 
nature of an apprenticeship) to any jDarticuIar occupation. It is 
meant to teach students how to cut and sew their own dresses with- 
out x)reteAding to make of them dressmakers. It teaches them 
how to make their own hats without making milliners of them. Such 
exercises are a part, and an essential x)art, of the general education of 
young girls, since it prepares them for the role of good housekeepers 
and mothers of families. Beyond this result nothing is sought. 

MANUAL TRAINING IN ADVANCED PRIMARY" SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, 

LILLE. 

The industrial features of instruction were introduced in 1872, when 
classes in sewing were opened. Painting on porcelain and cloth was 
inaugurated in 1881. The school had i)reviously occuiDied itself only 
with advanced i)rimary studies. 

The object of the school is to make girls ijroficient in such work as 
is appropriate to their sex, in addition to giving an advanced primary 
education. 

The course of instruction is for foiu' years. The first three years 
have two classes each, and the fourth has three classes. The intel- 
lectual work is the same as prescribed by law for advanced primary 
schools. Sewing is obligatory for all pupils j painting is oi)tional. 
Embroidery and industrial design for cloths was introduced in 1892. 

The following table shows the number of hours per week devoted to 
each study : 

COURSE OF STUDY IN THE ADVAXCED PSIMAEY SCHOOL EOE GIELS, LILLE. 



Subject. 



Hours per ^reek. 



Eirst 
year. 



Second 
year. 



TLird 
year. 



Eoui'tli 
year. 



Ethic 3 

Erencli literature, language, and reading... 

History 

Geography 

Pedagogics 

Mathematics 

Physical, industrial, and clicmical sciences. 

Domestic economy (theoretical) 

Bookkeeping 

English and German languages 

Geometrical dra^ving ". 

Painting 

Cutting and sewing garments 

Music 

Gymnastics 

Penmanship 

Ornamental drawing 



CHAP. ly. INDUSTE.1AL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 243 

Special classes are given Mondays and Saturdays for girls wlio have 
left the school but wish to receive additional iiistrnction in perfecting 
garments. These classes are occui:)ied six hours per week. 

Yery few graduates seek positions in the industries — about 30 per 
year — and these leave school mostly at the end of the second year. Of 
the graduates about 40 per jeav become school teachers, there being no 
normal school here. 

The instruction is gratuitous and the conditions for admission are 
the same as for other advanced x)rimary schools. The attendance was 
330 pupils in 1891. 

MANUAL APPEENTICESHIP SCHOOLS. 

There is a class of institutions in France known as manual appren- 
ticeshix) schools. They are a kind of public elementary trade school. In 
point of general instruction they are of the same grade as the advanced 
IH'imary schools^ but less attention is paid to purety intellectual 
than to workshop training. The latter is usually made to conform in 
character to the industrial needs of the region. 

Previous to 1880 public technical training lacked comi)letely in 
organization. Certain municipalities, like Paris, Havre, and Eeims, 
alive to the imi^ortance of this branch of education, had founded appren- 
ticeship schools or annexed technical courses to their advanced i3ri- 
mary institutions. In other cases private or industrial associations had 
done the same thing. 

The law of December 11, 1880, assimilated all these institutions 
and brought them under the joint control of the nainister of public in- 
struction and the minister of commerce and industry. It afforded also 
an opportunity for departments or municipalities wishing to provide 
the proi^er workshoiDS and pay the necessary instructors to change the 
character of their advanced primary schools to ai^prenticeship schools °, 
in other words, to pass from a system of purely intellectual instruction, 
or mental with a modicum of manual training, to an elementary trade 
education, preparing the student for the exercise of some manual occu- 
pation. 

Ul^ to the present time about fifty schools have taken advantage of 
this law, which is now to be further modified by eliminating entirely the 
control of the minister of pu43lic instruction and leaving them solely 
nnder the jurisdiction of the minister of commerce and industry. Thus 
they are likely to become more purely trade schools than they are at 
X)resent. 

M. Pelix Martel, in an intercvsting monograph, has set forth lucidly, 
in parallel columns, the chief points of difference between advanced 
primary and manual apprenticeship schools. It must always be borne 
in mind that tlie advanced primary schools aiid municii)al manual ap- 



244 



EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



prenticeship schools arc of practically the same grade as the American 
high school. The following is a condensed translation: 



ADVANCED PEIMARY SCHOOLS. 

1. Creation of school. 
By the decision of the council for the 
department («) upon the apx)roval of the 
minister of public instruction. 



S. Instructors. 
The directors and the professors are 
chosen hy the minister of public instruc- 
tion alone; the assistant and special 
teachers by the prefect of the depart- 
ment. 



3. Admission of students. 
Must have previously graduated from 
an elementary primary school. 



5. Instruction. 
At least eighteen hours per week must 
be given up to literary and scientific in- 
struction. 



6. Insjyection. 
Inspection under the direction of the 
minister of iDublic instruction. 



7. Board of supervisors. 

A board of supervisors whose duty it 

is to look after the management of the 

school, to find places for graduates, to 

see that the j)rogramme of studies best 



MANUAL APPRENTICESHIP SCHOOLS. 

1. Creation of school. 
By the decision of the council for the 
department approved by the minister of 
public instruction, who must previously 
have secured the assent of the minister 
of commerce and industry. 

5. Instructors. 

The director is chosen by the minister 
of public instruction, with the approval 
of the minister of commerce and industry, 
from a list of three names submitted by 
the municipal council if the school is 
founded by a municij)ality, or by the de- 
partmental council if founded by a de- 
partment. The professors and assistant 
teachers are appointed jointly by the 
minister of public instruction and the 
minister of commerce and industry. 

The workshop instructors are chosen 
by the mayor if the school is municipal, 
by the prefect if deiiartmental. 
3. Admission of students. 

Must be at least 12 years old. If candi- 
dates have not graduated from an elemen- 
tary xDrimary school, they must be 13 years 
of age and pass an examination equiv- 
alent to that required for graduation 

from an elementary primary school. 

* * # 

5. Instruction. 
Ten hours weekly at most may be ac- 
corded to intellectual instruction. The 
bulk of the time is devoted to work- 
shop training and to' instruction in tech- 
nology and science, in its ai3i)lication to 
industry. 

6. In selection. 

Same as in advanced primary schools, 
and in addition the inspectors of technical 
education from the ministry of com- 
merce and industry for the manual and 
technological branches. 

7. Board of sujyervisors. 

To appoint the physician for the school, 

prepare the budget, a]3iJortion the work 

of class instruction amongst the different 

teachers, i^resent to the mayor or prefect 



a The department in France may be roughly compared Avith the county in the 
United States. 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 



245 



responds to local needs, scliolarsliixis, 1 a list of three candidates from v\-hich to 
etc., is appointed by the minister of j choose a workshop instructor, to pre- 
public instrnction npon the advice of pare for ministerial sanction a i)rogramme 



the regional inspector. 



S. Sulsidies, 
Solely, as far as the government is con- 
cerned, accorded by the minister of pub- 
lic iustraction. 



9. Scliolarshljjs. 
Conferred with the sanction of the 
minister of public instruction by the 
prefect upon the advice of the local in- 
spector and deiDartmental council. 



of special studies, and in general to 
watch over the m.aterial interests of the 
school. 

This board is composed of one repre- 
sentative each of the ministers of public 
instruction and of commerce and in- 
dustry, and if the school is dei)artmental 
the x^refect as president, two members of 
the council of the department, and three 
men chosen from amongst the prominent 
manufacturers or merchants of the region. 
If the school is municipal, same as above, 
except that the mayor replaces the pre- 
fect as president. 

S. Sulsidies. 

Subsidies accorded by both the min- 
ister of public instruction and the min- 
ister of commerce and industry ; only none 
of the apiu-opriation from the minister of 
public instruction can be api)lied to pay 
the expenses of boarding pux^ils, or the 
salaries of workshop instructors or of any- 
thing which has to do with ai)prentice- 
ship training. These are at the charge 
of the minister of commerce and industry. 
Furthermore, the subsidy from this latter 
source may be applied in any manner 
agreed upon in any covenant made with 
the municipalities concerned. 
9. ScJiolarshijos. 

Joint nomination of the two ministers, 
with the advice of the local inspector and 
departmental council. 

The minister of commerce and industry 
may also give sijecial scholarships (usu- 
ally for residence abroad) out of his 
budget. 



Tlie table given "below presents tlie official programme of the course 
of study in tlie manual apprentice sliip schools of France. These schools 
arc all regulated by the law of December 11, 1880. 



COUESE OF STUDY IX IIAIS^UAL APPEEXTICESHIP SCHOOLS. 





Hours per day. 


Subject. 


First 
year. 


Secand 
year. 


Third 
year. 


"M"pyij-qi instruction fis "'iveu in tlis cKlvtincecl nrinifirv scliools .... 


2 

i 

3 

1 


2 
1 
4 
1 


2 




1 


Manual training 

Scientific and technoiogical instruction, especially in its application to in- 
dustry. 


5 

1 


Total •- 


7 


8 


9 







246 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

MANUAL APPRBNTICESHIP SCHOOLS, PARIS. 

This class of institutions, as lias been already remarked, represents 
strictly neither manual training nor trade scliools, tliougli leaning 
somewhat toward the latter. 

In Paris there are four principal ones for boys and six. for girls, sup- 
ported by the municipality, and administered largely by a supervising 
board appointed by the municipal council and the ministers of public 
instruction and of commerce and industry. 

These schools pursue distinctly the aim of shortening the period of 
apprenticeship by allowing the pupil to choose, either upon entering or 
at the end of the first year, the specific occui)ation he exx^ects to pursue 
in after life. In the boys' schools the period allowed for general instruc- 
tion is four hours in the first two, and three hours in the third jeav 
daily 5 in the girls' schools three hours daily. The boys spend tour 
hours and a half daily in the workshops during the first two years and 
six hours and a half during the third j the girls five hours daily in all 
the years. - 

The general instruction covers the most necessary subjects prescribed. 
in the advanced primary schools. For the boys it comprises the French 
language and literature, mathematics, apx)lied mechanics, technology, 
physics, chemistry, history, geography, ornamental • and mechanical 
drawing, and bookkeeiiingj for the girls, ethical and civic training, 
French language and literature, arithmetic, science in its application 
to commerce and industry, history and geogTaphy, ornamental and 
free-hand drawing, and bookkeeping. 

In the workshops the following trades are learned: Boys — ^forging, 
metal turning, fitting, tool making, manufacture of instruments of i)re- 
cision, ornamental locksmithing, modelling, carpentry and joinery, 
wood tnrningj girls — embroidering for dresses or furniture, dressmak- 
ing, millinery, making underclothes and other articles of linen, indus- 
trial drawing. 

Generally speaking, such schools are of the same grade as the advanced 
primary schools. The pupils are from 12 to 13 years of age upon en- 
tering, and must have already finished the course in some elementary 
l)rimary school. 

The admirable and practical system, understood to be the creation of 
M. Alfred Deutsch, adopted in two of the girls' schools, can be readily 
understood from the following illustration: A young girl, selected 
from a section of eight or ten, was shown a fashion plate of costumes 
and told to sketch one on a blackboard from memory, at the same time 
adax)ting it to a very stout girl who was chosen as the person for whom 
the costume was to be made. This she did, referring only twice to the 
fashion i)late for an instant. Then the measure was taken, and the 
cutting and basting done by the jest of the section. In twenty minutes 
time a costume was comi^leted, which was an exact reproduction of 
that sketched ux>on the blackboard. 



CHAP, ly. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 247 

Mmiicipal trade instruction in Paris is being constantly extended to 
new industries. Tliere already exist four manual apprenticCvSliip scliools 
for boys: Diderot School for work in metal and woodj School of 
Industrial Physics and Chemistry;- Trade School for Purniture 
Making; Trade School for the Book Industries. Two more schools, 
the Crozatier School for Bronze Industries and tliQ School for tlie 
Building Trade, will soon be opened. 

For female education six industrial and housekeeping schools exist 
where girls can learn a trade. Two other schools of the same nature 
will soon be opened. 

The studies and apprenticeship training are gratuitous. The pupils 
who follow the complete course (three or four years) receive a certificate 
of apprenticeship. The pui)ils standing best receive inizes of from 50 
to 300 francs ($9.65 to $57.90). 

DIDEROT SCHOOL FOR APPRENTICES, PARIS. 

The Diderot School was opened in January 1873 as a municipal in- 
stitution. The aim of the school is to form workmen who are intelli- 
gent and proficient in all the details of their trade. 

Workmen are instructed in the following occupations, comprising 
metal and wood work: Forging, metal turning, fitting, locksmith- 
ing, machines of precision, patternmaking, carpentry, and wood turmng. 

The duration of an apprenticeship is three years. During the first 
year pupils i)ass successively the workshops for wood and those for 
iron, with a view of finding out their special aptitude. During the 
last two years they remain in the trade which they have chosen with 
the consent of their parents and according to the vacancies that exist. 
Following is the i^rogramme of studies: 

MANUAL WOBJZ. 

First yea7-.—PuiAls pass successively tlirongli all the different T^orljshops for wood 
and iron. 

FORGE WORK. 

Second year. — Preliminary exercises, tools, welding. 
Third year. — Forging parts of machines. 

METAL TURNING. 

Second year. — Making tools, fittings, turning simple pieces, drilling, and boring. 
Third year. — Adjusting joints and sockets, screw cutting, screw cutting by hand. 

SMALL MECHANICS. 

Second year. — Tools. Fitting and turning small pieces. 
Third year. — Small machines, models for demonstration. 

ARTISTIC LOCKSMITHING. 

Second year. — Tools, keys, locks, architectural iron work. 

Third year. — Joining iDieces, ornaments, leaves, artistic iron work. 

PRECISION. 

Second year. — Preliminary exercises, tools, screw cutting by hand. 
Third year. — Physical and telegraphic apparatus. 



248 EEPOI^T OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

PATTERNMAKING. 

Second year. — Patterns for simple i>arts of macliines. 

Third year. — Macliine tools, gearing, loam boards for fonnderies, cere boxes. 

CAIirENTRY. 

Second year. — Fitting tools, joining, varions frames. 
Third year. — Doors, saslies, furniture mountings. 

WOOD TURNING. 

Second year. — Mounting and fitting tools, handles and simx)le pieces, screw cutting 
by band. 

Third year. — Turning patterns for founderies, twisted pieces and mountings. 

The class instriictiou. comprises gTammar, ortliograxjliy and composi- 
tiou in the French language, arithmetic^ geometry, industrial chemistry, 
metallurgy, physics, technology, mechanics, history of France, geogra- 
phy, free-hand drawing, drawing from models in clay, iron, and wood, 
mechanical drawing, and, during the last year, bookkeeping. 

The day's work comiDrises four hours and a half in the workshops for 
the first two years, six hours and a half for the third; four hours of 
class instruction for the first two years, three hours for tlie third. 

The school is in session from 7.30 a. m., for i3ux)ils of the first and 
second years, and from 6.45 a. m. for loupils of the third year, until 6 
p. m., with an intermission for luncheon. 

Instruction is free; the pupils are furnished gratuitously with all the 
objects necessary for their studies and manual work. ]N"one are admit- 
ted under 13 or over 16 years of age. Sometimes pupils having a cer- 
tificate of graduation from elementary j)rimary schools are admitted at 
the age of 12 years. Candidates are received after having passed an 
examination at the school consisting of a dictation; a x^roblem of arith- 
metic, whole numbers; a problem in fractions; a problem on measurements 
of surfaces or volumes applying the metric system; a free-hand sketch. 

The children of persons living outside of Paris, in the suburbs^ may 
be admitted by competitive examination, on condition that the com- 
munity in which they live agrees to pay 200 francs ($38.60) per year 
for fees. 

The school is under the administration of the school board of the 
city of Paris. The annual expenses of the school amount to about 
160,000 francs ($30,880.) 

The whole number of graduates of this school is 880. Out of 756 of 
these whose occupations are known 660, or 87.3 ]3er cent., are following 
some technical vocation. 

SCHOOL OP INDUSTRIAL PHYSICS AND CHBMISTRT, PARIS. 

The School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry was founded in 1882. 
The object of this school is to give scientific and practical instruction 
at the same time, and to fit the pupils for actual work, either as engi- 
neers or superintendents of shops, in industries ^here chemical or 
X)hysical knowledge is required. 

The instruction embraces algebra, study of functions, difi'erential cal- 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 249 

cuius, iutegral calculus, trigonometry, descriptive geouictry, pure and 
applied nieclianics, general and applied pLysics, hydrostatics and heat, 
electricity and magnetism, optics and acoustics, general chemistry, 
analytical chemistry, technological chemistry and metallurgy, organic 
chemistry ai>i3lied to industry. 

The instruction also includes experiments in chemistry, organic and 
inorganic, general physics and its ai^plications, practical \rork in chem- 
istry, physics, i3hotography, anddraAyiiig. 

At the end of the second year the best pupils receive a travelling 
scholarship in order to ^isit, during their vacation, the most important 
industrial centres; they are obliged to make a detailed report of their 
observations. 

During the i3.rst eighteen months loupils of the same classes remain 
together both in the class instruction and in the exercises in the shops; 
after that time they are divided into t^'o classes, that for physicists with 
ten aiul that for chemists with twenty pupils. 

The pupils remain at the school from half past 8 a. m. until 6 j). m. 
A lunch is furnished them and they are not permitted to take their 
meals outside. 

Outside the class hours pui^ils are constantly occupied in the 
various laboratories under the direction of professors or assistants. 
The practical work takes wp about one-half the time each day. Three 
hours per week are devoted to drawing. Once or twice per week three 
hours are devoted to wood and iron work, glass-blowing, etc., in the 
workshops. The course of study extends over three years. 

The attendance is limited to 30 i^upils for each year, making a total 
maximum of 90 pupils at one time. 

The instruction is entirely gratuitous. Pupils may receive a com- 
p'^nsation of 50 francs ($9.65) i)er month during the three years. 

Pupils are admitted by competitive examination, the best 30 being 
chosen each year. The examination comprises a composition in French, 
arithmetic, algebra, plane geometry and geometry of space, physics and 
chemistry, including problems; also oral examination in mathematics, 
i:)hysics, and chemistry. Candidates must be of French nationality, 
between the agesofl5andl9 years, and their iiarents must be citizens 
of Paris or of the same department outside of Paris. In the latter case 
the community in which they live must reimburse the city of Paris 200 
francs ($38.60) for the three years studies, and the xmpils are not eligible 
to the monthly comi3ensations. 

This institution is undei* the administration of the school board of 
the city of Paris. 

MANUAL APPRENTICESKIP SCHOOL FOR THE BOOK PUBLISHING 

INDUSTRY, PARIS. 

The manual apprenticeship school for the book publishing industry 
was founded in 1889 by the city of Paris. 

The '^ object of this school is to produce," for thebook iniblishingindus- 



250 



EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. 



try, " skilful and intelligent worliers capable of maintaining tlie tradi- 
tions of taste and superiority of Frencli industry." 

The trades taught are bookbinding, stereotyping, lithographing, en- 
graviug, and photography. The course of instruction lasts four j^ears, 
and embraces, besides practical instruction in the shops of the school, 
the following subjects: French language, history, geography, arithme- 
tic, algebra, geometry, history of art, dra^ving, calligraphy, and mod- 
eling. The instruction in these subjects is most thorough, and is far 
from being of an elementary character. The table following shows the 
character and amount of the instruction, both theoretical and technical: 

COUESE OF STUnr 1^' THE MAXUAE APPllEXTICESHIP SCEOOE FOP. THE BOOK 
PUBLISKIXG IXDUSIPvY, PAPvIS. 



Suujcct. 



Hours per ^eek. 



First veai'. iSecocd vear. 



Theoretical instruction (5 o. m. to 12 m.). 



Hrs. 



Anatomy, artistic 

Chemistry (laboratory work) 

Composition, artistic 

Descriptive and persijective . 
Drawing 



Drawing, linear ] 1 

Geography and history 1 

Grammar"! 1 

Grammar, typographic j 

Gymnastics^ i 

History of art 1 

History of book publishing I 1 

Manual training 

Mathematics 

Mechanics 

Modelling 

IS^'atural history 

Physics 

"Writing 

Eecreation 



Total ! 24 



Technicalinstriiction (1 toGp. m.). 



Autograph and script lithographing a 4 

Bookbinding & 2 

Composition I & 4 

~ • • &2 

ai 

a4. 



Electrotype impressions - 
Engraving, copper.. 
Engraving in relief . 
Engraving on stone. 

Engraving, wood ; a 4 

(7ilt edge work ! (^2 

Impression, copper ' ai 

Imi>ression, lithographic ' « 4 

Iron work I & 4 

Justification and type founding & 4 

Leather gilding & 2 

Eitliographing c 4 

Photo-engraving and phototyping 6 2 

Photography & 2 

Preparing and ruling paper ! l>2 

Script engraving on copper : a 4= 

Stereotype impressions [ b2 

Wood work ; 6 4 

Kpcreation i 1 



Total 

Total (theoretical and technical) . 



21 in. \ Srs. 
""2b' 1 



CO 

50 

25 

25 

00 

55 I 

55 

25 

00 



00 



00 



00 



24 



Min. 
30 
25 
30 
00 
10 
00 
25 
00 
GO 
00 
25 
00 
30 
50 
25 
10 
55 
55 
00 
50 



00 



a For seven weeks only. 
6 Every other week. 

c Pupils of the second year and later, who are assigned to their trades, work the entire time, from 1 
to G p. m., in their respective shops. From 3.20 to 3.30 they have a recess. 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FEANCE. 251 

This scliool was establislied in ISSOj two years after it had 300 stu- 
dents. 

The school is free to the sons of residents of Paris who are of French 
nationality. The sons of French i)arents residing outside of Paris are 
admitted upon i)ayment of 200 francs ($38.00) each year of the course. 
Two meals per day (breakfast and luncheon) are given to the pupils. 

Candidates for admission are subjected to a competitive examination 
on the following subjects: Copy from dictation, two x>roblems in arith- 
metic to test the applicant's knowledge of simple and compound num- 
bers, fractious and decimals and the metric system, and drawiug an 
ornamental figure from an object in relief. The candidates must be 12 
years of age and not over 16, and must be i)rovided with certificates 
of birth, vaccination, and inimary education. 

The school is maintained by the city of Paris^ and is under the ad- 
ministration of the Paris school board. A committee of supervision, 
consisting of 9 members of the municii:>al council, 2 si)ecialists, 2 mem- 
bers of the school board and one literary man, have immediate control 
of the school, 

MANUAL APPRBNTICBSHIP SCHOOL OF FURNITURE MAKING, 

PARIS. 

The Manual Ai)in^enticeship School of Furniture Making, called 
Ecole Boulle, was founded as a municipal institution in 1886. Tts object 
is to form workmen for all branches of fiirnitare manufacture, such as 
wood carvers, modellers, cabinetmakers, joiners, and upholsterers. 

The manual work comprises cabinetmaking, upholstering, wood 
carving, chair making, and turning in wood, iron, etc. The first year 
l)upils work in all the shops, in order to get a general idea of the dif- 
ferent trades relating to furniture making and to find out for which 
trade they are best adapted. The remaining three years are passed in 
the same shops, each pux)il continuing at his trade. 

The theoretical instruction comi^rises industrial drawing, model and 
object dra\ving, modelling, history of art, technology, geometry, arith- 
metic, French language, history, and geograx)hy. 

The school is in session from 8 a. m. until 6 p. m. The mornings are 
reserved exclusively for class instruction, drawing, and modelling j the 
afternoons from 1.30 to 6 p. m. are employed as follows : 

Duriug the first year, exclusively at shopworkj during the second 
and third j'ears, two and one-half hours at drawing and modelling, and 
two hours in the special workshops j during the fourth year, in the 
workshops and in visiting museums and industrial establishments. 

The number of pupils admitted each year is 60, making a total at- 
tendance of aboat 240. These pupils are divided into the following 
groups after the firsfc year: 12 cabinetmakers, 12 upholsterers, 12 
wood carvers, 12 chair makers, 12 turners (wood, iron, etc.). 



252 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Up to the summer of 1891 only one class of 35 i)iipils liad gTadiiated, 
25 out of tlie 60 having left during the four years. 

Pupils must be from 13 to 16 years of age when they enter, and 
must bo provided with a certificate of primary education. Pupils of 
12 years are sometimes admitted if i^rovided Avith such certificates. 
They are admitted by competitive examination on the following sub- 
jects : French com.position — attention being given to the style, orthog- 
raphy, and penmanship, and object drawing — an ornamental design 
from an object in relief. Certificates of birth, vaccination, and good 
constitution are also required. The same residential qualifications are 
required as in the two preceding cases. 

The school is maintained by the city of Paris, and is under the ad- 
ministration of the Paris school board. The annual expenses of the 
school amount to about 160,000 francs ($30,880). 

INDUSTRIAL AND HOUBBKBBPING- SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS, PARIS. 

There are six of these industrial schools maintained by the city of 
Paris. Four of them were founded recently by the city. The other 
two had been T)rivate institutions, but became city property, one in 
1884, the other in 1886. 

The object of these schools is to teach young women certain trades 
which i)ertain to their sex, and at the same time to instruct them in 
the duties of housewives. 

The programmes and distribution of classes are, in general, the 
same in all the schools, so that the information for one will nearly ap- 
I)ly to all. 

The course of instruction is divided into two divisions — the general 
course, in which all must take part regardless of their trades, and the 
si3ecial courses comprising the following trades : Plain sewing and fin- 
ishing, linen needlework, washing and ironing, embroidery — white and 
colored, artificial flowers and millinery, corset making, underwear 
making, fashionable dressmaking. 

The general course comprises: Primary instruction (advanced) j ele- 
ments of bookkeeping 5 linear drawing j cutting and finishing; gym- 
nastics j one foreign language (English); domestic economy and prac- 
tical instruction in kitchen and housework. 

Pujiils must remain at the school from 8.30 a. m. until 5.30 p. m. 
They are not permitted to leave for the noonday meal, but a luncheon 
prepared by themselves is furnished free of charge. Following is the 
distribution of classes: 



CHAP. ly. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 



253 



COUPvSE OF STUDY IN THE INDUSTEIAL AND HOUSEKEEPING SCHOOLS FOR 

GIRLS, PARIS. 



Kubject. 



Hours per Aveet. 



First yc.ir. SecoutI year. Third year 



Aritlmietic... 
15ooklceepiDg 

Chron.gen 

Composition. . 
Cuttiu.s: 



Dictcation exercises 

Diction 

Drawing 

English 

Frencli 

Geography 

Geometry* 

Geometry and physics 

Gymnastics 

History 

Literature 

Problems 

Science 

Singing 

Kitchen and housework, marketing, washing and ironing 
Trade instruction : 

Sewing; embroidery; millinery and artificial flowers; 
painting ; industrial drawing or commercial book- 
keeping 

C att ing 

Drawing 




2 

1 I 

2 I 



(5) 



21i 
4i 



(&) 



{h) 



214- 



4i 



211 

"'41 



Total. 



U\ 



43i 



a Every other week. 

h Eight pupils detailed in turn to serve one week. 

The total number of pupils in live of the schools was 1,896 in 1891. 

Pupils visit the schools not only to learn certain trades, but many at- 
tend simply to make themselves more useful at home. Upon leaving 
the school those desiring to take positions have, as a rule, very little 
difficulty in finding them. 

The schools are free to daughters of residents of Paris of French 
nationality. Daughters of French parents living in the suburbs may 
be admitted by i)aying 200 francs ($38.60) per annum. Pupils are 
admitted from the age of 12 to 15 years, upon x)resenting their certifi- 
cates of primary education. Pupils must furnish their certificates of 
birth and of vaccination. The materials and the luncheon are provided 
gratis. 

The schools are maintained by the city of Paris, and are under the 
administration of the school board. 

MUNICIPAL SCHOOL FOR THB APPRENTICESHIP OP BOYS, HAVRE. 

This school was founded by the city of Havre in 1868. Its object is 
to form proficient workmen in the following trades: Locksmi thing, fit- 
ting, forging, metal turning, coppersmithing, moulding and foundery 
work, carpentry, cabinetmaking, wood turning, wood carving, and pat- 
ternmakiDg. 

The api)renticeship is for three years. Pupils, ui)on entering the 
school, are at once placed in their respective shops accordiDgto their 
own choice. If found unfit for the trade chosen they may be trans- 
ferred to another shop. 



254 



EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. 



In eacli of tlie professions the i)iipils begin mth. a careful study of 
tlie names, uses, and manner of handling the various tools x)ertaining 
to the occupation. The worli consists of a systematic development of 
the practical knowledge and skill of the pupil, by placing before him 
such pieces as will gradually give him experience in all the principal 
I)hases of the work of his lorofession. This includes both practice x^ieces 
according to a lixed irrogramme and useful finished articles. The lock- 
smiths and fitters take turns at the forge three months every year. 
The fitters take turns at the steam engines two by two. In the shop- 
work the pupils are separated into groups of six each, and the work 
I)erformed remains always in the same group. 

The instruction in drawing is considered very important and com- 
l^rises geometrical drawing, i)rojections, linear drawing, and industrial 
drawing, the latter varying with the trade of the pupil. 

Follo^ving are the branches taught and the number of hours per week 
devoted to each: 

COrPvSE OF STUDY IIS" THE MUXICIPAL SCHOOL FOIi THE APPEE:^^TICESHIP OF 

BOYS, HAVEE. 



Hoars per ^veek. 



Subject. 





First year. 


Second year. 


Third year. 




2 

1 
1 
1 


2 

1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
1 
2 
5 
1 

28"" 


2 






a ftofranh V ... .... 








iMeclicinics • ... 




Greom el rv . -. 


2 
1 
2 
6 

J 








Aritbmctic . ... - .. 


2 




G 


X)^a,T^'in"' Ipiear and ormTOentnl 


2 


Gryniiitistics . . ........ .. 


3l" 




Sliop 'worK - ■ 






Total 


46 


46 


50 







The following table shows the attendance during the year 1890-'91 : 



ATTEXDAXCE AT THE MUXICIPAL SCHOOL FOR THE APPKEXTICESHEP OF BOYS, 

HATPvE. 



Pupils— 


. First year. 


Second year. 


Third year. 


Total. 


Admitted October 1890 


1 


67 
19 


51 
4 


959 


Left school durin<'' the year 1890 '91 










89 


48 


47 l«4. 









At the end of the previous year the attendance was 170 pupils. 

The following are the occupations of pupils who finished their course 
of study in 1891: Fitters, 10; metal turners, 3j locksmiths, 5; carjien- 
ters,13; blacksmiths, 2 j coppersmiths, 2; machine mounters, 6 j total, 47. 

Of 131 graduates who have formed an alumni association, only 3 
are not engaged in some i:>urely technical calling. Fui^ther statistics 
are unfortunately not available for this, one of the best institutions of 
the kind in France. 



CHzVP. IV. — ^INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 255 

Iiistruction is entirely gTatuitoiis. Considerable of the work done 
at tlie scliool is such as is ordered by customers, or is sold in 
other ways. The income derived from this source is distributed, as 
X)rizes, among the pupils of the third year. These prizes generally 
vary from 100 to 300 francs ($19.30 to $57.90). Pupils with good 
records are x>resented with their tools upon leaving the school at 
the end of their apprenticeship. 

Candidates for admission must be from 12 to 15 years of age. They 
are admitted by competitive examination, and must present certificates 
of education and of good conduct. Puinls are on trial about two 
months before they are definitely placed, in their respective shops. 

This school is maintained by the city of Havre. Small subsidies 
are received from the ministiy of commerce and industry, and from 
the department. The budget for 1892 was as follows : 

Salaries of director and class instructors $2, 489. 70 

Salaries of subdirector and tecliuical lustriictors 4, 911. 85 

Fuel, for macliincry, heating, etc 772. 00 

Ligliting, for shops, school rooms, etc 2S9. 50 

Tools and furniture 772. 00 

School supplies of various kinds 308. 80 

Total 9,543,85 

Materials bought with state subsidies 386. 00 

Materials bought with dejoartment subsidies 38. 60 

Prizes to pupils and materials bought with the money obtained from sale 

of products of the school 1, 930. 00 

This school is under the same direction as the other municipal schools. 
Conformably to the national law of December 11, 1880, a special com- 
mittee of patronage and surveillance is apjyointed for the school. 

MANUAL APPRENTICESHIP SCHOOL FOR BOYS, SAINT-BTIBNNE. 

This school was founded by the city of Saint-Etienne in 1882. Its 
object is to i)repare for the industries of the vicinity workmen who 
are well instructed and who are capable of advancing to the positions 
of foremen and superintendents. 

There are eight trades taught, viz., fitting, gunsmithiug, forging, 
mouldiDg, carpentry and patternmaking, weaving, dj^eiiig, modelliDg 
and sculpture. 

The instruction is theoretical and i)ractical, and covers a period of 
four years. During the first year the pupils pass through the difierent 
workshops in order to get a general idea of manual work. After the 
first year of trial they are assigned to work at their trades according 
to their tastes and fitness. 

The fitters pass some time at the forge in order to learn how to forge 
their tools. At the beginning of the third year they are subdivided — 
those who wish to become fitters and others who seek to fit themselves 
for giinsmiths. 

The patternmakers pass some time m the shops for moulding and 



256 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. 



casting in order to understand the uses that are made of the patterns. 
All the work is executed from sketches or plans made by the pupils 
themselves. 

Pupils of the section for weaving study the composition of textures, 
Xjrepare the looms, execute work on the different kinds of looms, learn 
to read and prepare cards, perfect the work, and analyze samples. They 
also study the development and construction of machinery used in 
weaving. The work done in all the shops is practical, such as an ap- 
prentice in an establishment would perform, only that it is done more 
systematically. 

Particular attention is given to drawing. The first year i)upils do 
only free-hand drawing from copy and geometrical solids. At the be- 
ginning of the second year the drawing is special for each section or 
grou]}. 

The manual work occupies three hours per day the second year, four 
hours the third year, and five hours the fourth year. During the last 
six months it continues seven hours in order to accustom the pupils to 
the hard work required in an establishment. 

The theoretical instruction is identical to all pupils of the same divis- 
ion. It is intended to give a good general education so as to develop 
their intellectual faculties. The subjects taught and the number of 
hours per week devoted to each are as follows : 

COUllSE or STUDY IN THE MANUAL APPEENTICESHIP SCHOOL EOE EOYS, SAINT- 

ETIENNE. 



Subject. 


Hours per -weelf , 


Eirst year. Second year. 


Third year. 


Fourth year. 


French language (orthograpliy, grammar, 
reading, recitation, style). 

Instruction, moral and civil, political econ- 
omy and legislation. 


4 

1 


3 

1 


2 

1 

1 
1 
4 

2 
1 
6 




1 




2 
5 


2 
5 




Mathematics (arithmetic, algehra, geome- 
try, descriptiTC geometry). 


3 
2 




2 

4 

1 


3 
6 

1 




Drawin <^ .. ... . .. 


6 












Total 


19 21 


18 


12 











The attendance is, on an average, about 300 pux)ils. About 250 have 
graduated since the foundation of the school. 

The pupils upon leaving the school usually find employment in the 
arms manufactories, either as mechanics, turners, or draughtsmen j in 
other iron and sfceel works; in weaving establishments as office em- 
ployes for technical work, such as examiners, finishers, overseers, etc. ,* 
in dyeing establishments,- and in carpenter shops. The time during 
which the school has been in operation is too short to have produced 
many higher officials, and most of the early graduates are now doing 
military duty. 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 



257 



About 35 per cent, of the students remain to graduate 5 55 per cent, 
stay 3 j^ears. Experience has shown that almost every one in these 
chisses enters some technical vocation. 

Instruction is gratuitous. Candidates must be at least 13 years of 
age, and must present a certificate of primary education or pass an 
examination. 

This school is under the administration of the city government, in 
the same manner as the other public schools. 

Many other excellent manual apprenticeship schools exist in France. 
In general characteristics they do not differ materially from those 
whose organization has been outlined in the preceding pages. 

It is always a question of interest to know what becomes of students 
who have followed courses in this kind of an institution. The follow- 
ing statements give, partially at least, the desired information for 
se\^eral other schools from which statistics were available. 

MANUAL APPRENTICESHIP SCHOOL FOR BOYS, REIMS. 

This school was founded in 1875 conjointly by the city and the Indus- 
trial Society of Keims. The first of the folio Aving tables gives the 
occupations of graduates of the school, and indicates the number, with- 
out showing the occupations, of those leaving the school without grad- 
uating. The second table gives the occupations of those who did not 
remain to graduate. 



occupatio:n^s oe ex-sttjdents 


OE 


THE MANUAL APPEENTICESHIP SCHOOL, 
REIMS. 


Occupation. 


1877 


1878 


1879 


1880 


1881 


1882 


1 
1883 1884 

1 


1885 


1886 


1887 


1888 


1889 


1890 


1893 


TotaL 






1 


.... 


5 

4 
4 


1 
2 
2 








2 
2 
3 


"5' 

2 


3 

"q 


4 

2 

7 


1 
3 
6 


2 
4 
8 


2 

"q 

1 


21 


Drau'''litvSineB . .. ... 






..'. 


3 
2 


31 


Euiployea, banks, -wine trade, 
and wholesale commerce. 

Employes. non-technical, 
miscellaneous. 

Employe's, postal, telegraph, 
and other government ser- 
vice. 


.... 


5 


54 
1 


.... 


1 
















1 

2 
"5' 

2 
5 


1 

1 
1 
2 

4 
2 








3 




1 
2 
6 


1 
1 
7 

2 

7 
1 


"2 

8 

1 
4 


1 
3 
4 

1 


2 
2 
2 

4 
10 


"2 
4 

2 
4 


2 

1 
1 

9 

1 


1 
2 
5 

2 
9 






n 


Employes, retail trade 

Employes, technical, boiler 
and machine shops, chemi- 
cal works, etc. 

Employes, technical, build- 
ing, locksmithing, etc. 

Employes, technical, woollen 
industry. 




""5' 


2 

8 


4 
4 

4 
6 


I 

9 


23 
66 

21 


.... 


G 


3 


2 


77 
2 


Eoad and bridge construction 


.... 


2 


5 




2 
1 
2 

1 


I 

1 
2 


2 


1 


1 






1 


14 








1 


.... 


1 




4 


Students, colleges and colle- 
giate institutes. 
Students, institutes of tech- 






1 






1 
4 
6 


^ 






1 
5 

"2" 

4 

6 

61 


10 








2 


.i 


9 


2 

3 
1 


6 
1 


11 7 


52 


nology. 
Students, normal schools 










3 
2 


3 


"'4' 

2 
"72" 


1 
2 

6 

3 

86 


19 


Students, schools for naval 














11 


engineers. 
Students, other schools 


















12 






2 
59 


1 
37 


2 
44 


1 

39 






1 
54 


1 
65 






2 
82 


19 


Left school without gradu- 
ating. 


18 


27 


60 


59 


56 


819 


Total 


18 


81 


58 


70 


66 


53 


77 


93 


99 


93 


83 


118 i^"^ ii:^? Ii"'!- 


1,270 













S. Ex. 65 17 



258 



REPORT OF THE COMMIbSIONER OF LABOR. 



OCCUPATIO^q^S OF EX-STUDEXTS (LEAVING SCHOOL WITHOUT GEADTJATIITG) OF 
THE MANUAL APPRENTICESHIP SCHOOL, EEIMS. 



Occupation. 


1877 


1878 


1879 


1880 


1881 


1882 


1883 


1884 


1885 


18S6 


1887 


1888 


1889 


1890 


189i{Total. 

! 






3 
1 
1 


2 
.... 


3 

2 
4 


1 


1 


"i" 

3 
2 


3 

"9' 


1 
5 

2 


4 
2 
3 

1 

1 


1 
1 

3 


"3' 

4 

2 
1 


2 

"i' 


1 
1 
10 

5 


1 

1 • 23 






2 18 


Employes, bank's, wine trade, 
aud wholesale commerce. 

Employes, iion-t«c-imical, 
mi.scellaneoua. 

Employes, postal, teleffrapli, 
and other government ser- 
vice, 

Emploves railTvav service 


.... 


.... 


1 
1 


1 
3 

^ 


46 
21 








1 








4 




1 
2 

1 

4 






1 
2 
1 

6 


1 
2 
2 

8 

1 

1 

1 


2 
1 
3 

6 

1 




14 
4 




6 


Employes, I'etail trade . ... 




2 

a 


3 
3 

6 

2 
2 


5 
5 


3 
2 

11 


6 i 6 


3 
3 

12 
2 
2 


13 
5 

25 
2 


8 

1 

13 

1 
5 


65 


Employes, technical, boiler 
and machine shops, chemi- 
cal works, etc. 

Employes, technical, build- 
in.i:, iocksmithin.sc, etc. 

Emjdoyes, technical, woollen 
industry. 


3 


2 
11 


1 

IG 

1 

1 


30 

143 
14 












15 






2 


1 








1 : 


1 




Students, agricultural schools 










i 








1 

4 


2 


3 


Students, collesces and colle- 
giate institutes. 




1 


1 


1 


1 




1 






1 




3 


1 


15 



nology. 








1 


















1 


.... 


1 


3 





























engineers. 








1 
15 


'27' 


2 

12 


1 
36 


'29' 


38 


'25' 


1 

22 


A 


2 

24 


2 
17 


1 
21 


13 




15 


43 


27 


306 




1 " 




Total 


18 


.. 


37 


44 


3» 


27 


60 


54 


65 


59 


56 


82 


72 i r, i 


61 


819 











A very large proiDortion of students, nearly two-thirds, leave witlioufc 
comi3leting the course of study. The percentage is not abnormal nor 
appreciably higher than for other similar schools in different parts of 
France. There are several causes for this state of affairs. Students 
are in many cases compelled to withdraw by their parents removing from 
the neighborhood of the school. This accounts for the large number of 
those whose occui)ations are unknown in the table for students leaving 
without graduating. 

Parents of students attending manual apprenticeship schools of this 
sort belong usually to the working or lower middle classes. IS'eeding 
all the income possible, they are apt to take away theii' children as 
soon as they can find for them a remunerative occupation. Such lack 
of consideration works a grave injustice alike to scholar and school and 
is the greatest obstacle manual apprenticeship institutions have to con- 
tend with. A gTcat many parents send their children for a year, or a 
year and a half at most, for the sake of the name of having them edu- 
cated in a manual apprenticeship school, a fact which enables a boy to 
more easily find employment. 

There has been with the growth of time, however, a marked imx:)rove- 
ment in the sentiment of the working classes, particularly, in this 
regard. Experience has taught them that a year or two of sacrifice at 
this age of a boy's life is better for all parties. 

All tuition charges were abolished in 1882-'83. This fact accounts for 
the large augmentation of scholars leaving without graduating, which 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 



259 



began in that year. A greater percentage of cliildren of tlie i)Oorer 
classes came in, and consequently the in'oportion of those who from one 
cause or another were unable to finish their course of study increased. 

The occupations enumerated in the foregoing tables (students of 
course excepted) are those which were finally chosen, not those into 
which students entered the first thing upon leaving, which might well 
be in many instances mere makeshifts. 

The taMes disclose the fact that among graduates whose occupations 
are known some 65 per cent, are pursuing technical vocations for 
their life's work. Amongst those who left before graduation 53 per 
cent, of those about whom the essential facts are known are technically 
employed. 

MANUAL APPRENTICBSHI? SCHOOL, NANTES. 

This institution was founded in 1838 and has graduated in all nearly 
4,000 pupils. Only in recent years has an alumni society been formed. 
The statistics of occupations, followed by members of this organization, 
give the foUowing results : 

OCCUPATIO:NrS of EX-STUDE^J'TS of the manual APPKEN^TICESHIPSCirOOL, 

i^-ANTES. 



Occupation. 


Number. 


Per cent. 


TecTinical eniploy^s incliistricil establisbiueiits ... 


184 
81 
15 
28 


30 8 




13 5 


Technical ciuploycs railways. -. - - ... ................ 


2 5 




4.7 






Total 


308 


51 5 








159 
84 
47 


20 6 


JS^on-tecbiiical employes soveriUDeiit service ................... 


14 




7.9 






Total 


51)8 


ICO 







MANUAL APPRENTICESHIP SCHOOL, SAINT-CHAMOND. 

This school was founded in 1879. In January 1892 the attendance 
was 90. The table below gives a list of the occux)ations chosen by the 
409 pupils who have left the school since the beginning: 



Occupation. 


K'uniber. 




5 




11 




25 


Cbemists .. 


5 


Clerks etc 


34 


I)rau"'btsnien 


15 


Dyers . 


g 


Fitters 


100 


Locksuiitlis ... . 


11 




8 


Moulders 


4 




9 




26 




2 




82 


students bigbcr schools .. .. 


37 




27 








Total 


409 







260 REPORT OF THE COxMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

MANUAL APPRENTICESHIP SCHOOL, ROUEN. 

Since the foundation of tlie school in 1878 about 200 pupils have 
graduated. They are mostly occupied in industrial establishments in 
the city and vicinity and in the railway car shops. All work at tlie 
trades they learned in school. 

MANUAL APPRENTICESHIP SCHOOL, BOULOGNE-SUR-MER. 

In 1891 the attendance was 46 in the first year class, 15 in the second, 
and 7 in the third. The relative diminution is caused by parents put- 
ting their children to work before they have finished their studies. Pu- 
pils leaving school generally adopt some trade. Some of them enter 
the navy as engineer apprentices. 

BOOK WOEK IN EELATION TO MAI^UAL TEAININO. 

This question is difficult to answer directly. It will be remembered 
that the advanced primary and manual apprenticeship schools are con- 
sidered to be of the same grade. In the first instance the law prescribes 
eighteen hours as the minimum of intellectual instruction per weok. 
In the second the maximum is set down as ten. As a matter of prac- 
tice the minimum in the former case far exceeds the number named. But 
this is after all merely a comparison of a high school where manual 
training may or may not exist, according to the circumstances, with an 
elementary trade school. 

Though statistics are not available in support of the assertion, careful 
observation and inquiry lead to the belief that the amount of book work 
accomplished by students in manual training schools is practically the 
same as that done by students in schools of the same grade where 
manual training is not a factor. Furthermore, it is generally the case 
that students who do weU at manual training are also apt in intellectual 
exercises, while the converse does not nearly so often hold good. 

Too often in advanced primary schools the only time available for 
manual training is two hours after the intellectual exercises of the day 
have been completed, and when under ordinary circumstances the 
school would have adjourned. In such cases, therefore, the intellectual 
work of both classes of students must of necessity cover the same 
ground. 

EDUOATIOIsr OF A PUEELT IISTDUSTEIAL CHAEAOTEE. 

In the schools which we have thus far considered we have been deal- 
ing with the four classes of schools in the general system of public 
primary education, viz., the infant schools, the elementary primary 
schools, the advanced primary schools, and the manual apprenticeship 
schools. In the first three classes the manual work is educative pure 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 261 

and simi3le, and any industrial value whicli it may have is general and 
remote ratlier tlian special and immediate. In the last class — manual 
apprenticeship schools — the training begins to assume a purely indus- 
trial character. It is designedly elementary trade training. Schools 
of this class, as has been indicated, are founded by departments and 
municipalities, and their operation is determined by the larw of Decem- 
ber 11, 1880. 

With the exception of the class of schools last mentioned education 
of a purely industrial character does not possess in France any general 
organization, nor are the institutions in which it is given subject to 
any special obligation. These institutions may be divided into three 
grades — primary, secondary, and superior. 

Primary education of an industrial character is given in three differ- 
ent classes of schools — the national manual apprenticeship schools at 
Armentieres, Yierzon, and Voiron, and the national school for watch- 
making at Clusesj the manual apprenticeship schools just referred to 
as a part of the general i^ublic school system and fully described in 
an earlier part of this chai^terj and institutions or annexed courses 
founded by industrial societies, chambers of commerce, or private asso- 
ciations. 

The national schools are maintained by funds annually voted by the 
chambers and appropriated in the budgets of the ministers of public 
instruction and of commerce and industry. 

Manual apprenticeship schools are supported in the same way. 

The third category — i. e., institutions founded by industrial societies, 
chambers of commerce, or private associations — are maintained at the 
expense of their founders. They may draw, however, a special subsidy 
from the minister of commerce and industry. During 1890, 87 institu- 
tions and annexed courses of this character received from this source 
subsidies amounting to $19,624.49. 

Secondary education of an industrial character is given in the three 
national schools of arts and trades at Aix, Angers, and Chalons, in. 
the central school of Lyons, and in the Industrial Institute of the ]N"orth 
at Lille. The first three schools are supported by appropriations from 
the ministry of commerce and industry, the fourth mainly from a pri- 
vate eiidowment, and the last principally by the department munici- 
pality. 

Besides the schools for telegraphy, mines, and road and bridge con- 
struction, which are attached to the appropriate ministries, superior 
technical instruction is given in the National Conservatory of Arts and 
Trades, and the Central School of Arts and Manufactures. 

The Kational Conservatory of Arts and Trades was founded in 1794. 
The aim of its founders was to promote the industrial transformation 
of the country and to disseminate a knowledge of mechanical inven- 
tions. At the outset indeed special agents were charged to demonstrate 



262 KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

to visitors tlie ox)erations of new maeMnes and to report to tlie govern- 
ment all inventions and mechanical imx>rovements. 

Later, in addition to the museum, courses of applied science were 
organized. These courses are public, and are held in the evening from 
November to April. They are open to the public without any for- 
malities whatever. 

More detailed information in relation to representative institutions 
of the various grades mentioned will be found in anotlier part of this 
report. 

PEIMAEY INDUSTEIAL SCHOOLS. 

NATIONAL SCHOOL OF MANUAL APPRENTICESHIP, ARMBN- 

TIBRES. 

This school was founded in accordance with a decree of the national 
government passed March 10, 1882. It. was opened in 1887. Like 
those at Yierzon and Voiron, it is intended to serve as a type for the 
other iustitutions for manual apprenticeship that may be organized by 
the departments, communes, or private associations. 

The school comprises three divisions: The kinder gar teu, the elemen- 
tary primary school, and the advanced primary school. 

The object of the kindergarten division of this school is to teach the 
children to read, write, talk, reflect, and do a little work with i)ai)er 
and linen. They begin with i)aper flowers, then make objects in card- 
board after pictures and explanations by the teachers, or sometimes 
after drawings on the blackboard. They also do needlework after 
l^atterDS, make paper lamp shades, etc. The teachers relate to them 
events of history and give them ideas of geography, illustrating by 
means of pictures on cardboard. The school is in session from 8 
to 11 a. m. and from 1.30 to 4.30 p. m. Four hours a day are devoted 
to intellectual traini:3g, one hour to manual work, and one hour to rec- 
reation. This school differs from those generally known as ecoles 
maternelles puMiques in th.2it its aim is not so much to render service 
to laborers by taking care of their children, as it is to prex)are the 
way for further instraction. For this reason the hours of session are 
much shorter. The children are mostly those of the better class of 
working people. One hundred and ten pupils attend this school, 
ranging in age from 3 to 7 years. They are instructed by a directress 
and an assistant. 

The elementary primary division follows the programme, decreed by 
the minister of public instruction, for the elementary x)rimary schools 
of France. Each pupil has two hours per week of manual training. 
They begin with making patterns of woven goods, simple squares, etc., 
on paper. In the second year they have albums in which they paste 
different colored papers, making first simple weaving patterns, then 
geometrical figures. All this work, even the cutting of the paper, is 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 263 

done by the cliild. At the end of the second year the impils begin to 
draw geometrical figures in pencil. Later on they do i)asteboard and 
wire workj and finally, during the last year, they enter the workshops 
for wood and iron work. 

The course of study is for five years. The puxiils are divided into 
four classes — two primary and two advanced classes. The school is in 
session from 8 to 11 a. m., and from 1.30 to 4.30 p. m. Pui3ils of the 
two advanced elasses remain from 5 to (> p. m. for study. 

The pupils are from 7 to 12 years of age; 150 attend this school; 125 
have graduated. Of these 80 entered the advanced i)rimary school. 

The instruction is given by a director and three assistants.. 

The manual work of the highest class (which goes to the workshops) 
is done one day in the forenoon and the next day in the afternoon. 
For the other classes the manual training is always gone through in 
the afternoon from 3.30 to 4,30, the last school hour. 

The object of the advanced primary division of this school is to edu- 
cate the pupils so that they may become foremen and superintendents 
of workshops. 

The course of instruction covers from three to six years, accordiag 
to the efficiency of the pupils. The programme of studies is general, like 
that prescribed for advanced primary schools, except that special at- 
tention is given to practicrd branches which a^re not covered by the 
general programme. 

During the first year pupils go five month^s to the workshops for 
carpentry and five months to those for iron work. At the beginning 
of the second year x)upils specialize, after which they remain either at 
wood or iron work. Those who take the course in weaving begin at 
that work immediately upon entering the school. There are three 
workshops for carpentry, and eight for iron work (fitting and forging) 
and weaving. 

During the first year three hours per day are devoted to manual 
training, and during the second and third years four hours daily. The 
period is from 1.30 to 4.30 p. m. for the first year, and 8 to 12 a. m. for 
the other years. The school is in session from 8 a. m. to 12 m. and from 
1.30 to 6 p. m. 

The attendance is 155 pupils, 105 of which board at the school. 
Sixty-seven jjupiis have comi^letely finished their studies. Of these 1 
has gone to a national school of arts and trades, 10 into the marine 
service as engineers, 34 in various industries, 10 in commerce, 3 in 
the railway shops as fitters and machinists, 6 in other institutions of 
instruction, 2 in the government service (roads and bridges, etc.), and 
1 is a teacher. 

The instruction is gratuitous. 'No charges are made for books or 
materials. Boarders pay 500 francs ($96.50) per year, and day board- 
ers {demi-pcnsionaires) are charged 200 francs ($38.{>0) annually. There 
are a number of free scholarships provided by the state, which are ob- 
tained by competition. 



264 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



Pupils are admitted by comx^etitive examination from among those 
who have finished their elementary primary education. They are gen- 
erally from 13 to 15 years of age when they enter, and about 18 years 
of age when they finish their studies. 

The school is supported by, and is under the administration of the 
ministry of public instruction. The faculty consists of 1 director, 1 
accountant {comptaMe), 1 general overseer (who occupies himself with 
the discipline), 5 overseers, 6 professors, 1 superintendent of shops 
(graduate of a national school of arts and trades), and 7 foremen (chosen 
from among the master workmen). 

Following is the annual budget of this institution: 

EXPENSES. 

Salaries of director, professors, etc $12, 738. 00 

Expenses of maintenance 9, 650. 00 

Materials, tools, etc 4,632.00 

Total 27,020.00 

RECEIPTS. 

Board of pnpils 8,202.50 

Sul3sidy of state for free scholarships 2, 991. 50 

State subsidy 15,826.00 

Total 27,020.00 

COURSE OF STUDY OF THE :N-ATI0^"AL SCHOOL OF MAIN'UAL APPEE:S"TICESHIP, 

AEMENTlfiEES. 





Hours per week. 


Subject. 


First year. 


Second year. 


Third year. 




Section A. 


Section B. 


Section A. 


Section B. 


Section A. 


Section B. 


Alo'eljra 








1 
2 
1^ 








2 


2 
14 


2 
li 








I' 




Descriptive : sketchiug, 
study, interrogation. 

Designing (imitation) and 
modeUiug. 

T)ra AVI n cr ^p.nnv^ 




3 


1| 




^ 


1* 














H 


^ 


T)rnTvino- linpar 


I 

4 
2 


3 

1 
4 


3 
2 
3 


3 

2 
3 




2 
2 






2 


French composition 




I 

1 
1 


1 
2 
1 
1 


1 
2 
1 

1 




1 


npniTiptrv 


2 

1 
1 


2 

1 




Gymnastics .. ... --. 


1 


Historv 


1 




2 


8 










li 


Music 


1 
1 

1 


1 






Music, instrumental, and 

study. 
Natural history 


1 
1 


1 
1 


1 
1 


1 






1 


1 


1 

16 

I' 




"PllA^Qlpq iiTirl st.iiflv 


1 


Rhnn worlc 


12 


12 


16 
4 


16 
4 

il 


16 


Shop work, sculpture for 

carpenters. 
Study 


4 


3^ 


a 


1 




3 






Total 


48 


48 


48 


48 


48 


48 







CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 



265 



The table which is given below shows the occupations followed by 
the graduates of the three national schools of manual apprenticeship 
at Armentieres, Yierzon, and Voiron. The small number of graduates 
from these institutions is accounted for by the recent date of their cre- 
ation, the school at Yoiron being established in 1886 and those at Ar- 
mentieres and Yierzon in 1887. The whole number of pupils in attend- 
ance at the three schools in May 1889 was 1,418. 



OCCUPATIONS OF GRADUATES OF THE NATIONAL SCHOOLS OF MANUAL APPREN- 
TICESHIP, ARMENTlfiEES, VIERZON, AND VOIRON. 



Occupation. 



Number. 



Per cent. 



Army aud navy 

Employes, agriciiltural pursuits 

Employes, banks, financial institutions, commercial marine, etc 

Employ68, commercial pursuits 

Employes, government service 

Employes, railway companies 

Employes, technical, industrial establishments 

Students, higher technical schools 

Students, other schools - — 

At home or unknown 

Deceased - 

Total 



5 


B.3 


4 


2.6 


6 


3.9 


14 


9.2 


5 


3.3 


7 


4.6 


55 


3*5. 2 


27 


17.8 


12 


7.9 


16 


10.5 


1 


.7 



lUO.O 



NATIONAL SCHOOL FOR WATCHMAKING-, CLUSES. 

This school was founded in 1848 by the government of Savoy, and 
reorganized by the French government in 1860 and in 1890. The 
objects of the school are: First, to educate skilful workingmen capa- 
ble of executing in whole or in part all kinds of instruments for 
measuring time and such other mechanisms of precision as are used in 
the sciences and arts; second, to give to young men the instruction iiec- 
sary for attaining to the positions of manufacturers or superintend- 
ents of workshops in this industry. 

The course of instruction covers three years. Ko pupil can attend 
a fourth year unless on account of sickness or for some other legiti- 
mate reason he was obliged to suspend work for more than six weeks. 

The practical work comprises : 

First year. — (1) Preliminary exercises in filing and chiselling: filing 
squares, octagons, rules, drill-boxes, screws, and barrel arbors. (2) Tool 
making : one set of drills with drill-box, one set of screw taps with wrench, 
one set of polished beams, one screw ferrule, one set of cutting files, 
one set of lathe tools, exercises in i)olishing arbor and plate work. 
(3) Eough work : draughting of plans for, and executing rough work, 
balances, and cages of various kinds and sizes,- different sorts of bar- 
rels ] rough work for chronometers and auxiliary fusees. First year 
pupils can not pass into the second year's work until they have passed 
a satisfactory examination before an examining board. 

Second year. — Wheel work, setting, cylinder escapements, etc. The 
instruction comprises : (1) The mechanisms for winding adopted in the 



266 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

manufacture. (2) Tools for wheel work. (3) Wheel work: comx>risiiig, 
in succession, cutting and finishing the centre supports and cogs, and 
work on pinions. The pui3ils fasten the pinions on the wheels, pivot 
and set all the movements 5 set also the minute wheels. Movements as 
indicated by the board of administration. (4) Tools for cylinder es- 
capements. (5) Cylinder escapements, comprising the cylinder, the 
balance, etc. (6) Setting the escapements, mounting clocks and watches, 
and repairing cases. 

Third year. — Escapements, finishing, regulating, and accessory work. 
Instruction comprises : (1) Tools for escapement work, such as for the 
anchor, the spring, and the duplex, and the necessary ideas of palette 
escapements. (2) Setting the escapements and finishing. (3) Tools 
for finishing. (4) Finishing watches : comprising the verification and 
correction of all the parts, encasing, setting the dial, the hour and 
minute hands, boring the holes for the caps of the watches, making the 
diiferent adjustments on stem- winders, and, finally, examining and regu- 
lating. (5) The execution of compensated balances and of various 
kinds of spirals. (6) Other accessory work, such as setting jewels, 
polishing, and watch repairing. 

The theoretical work comprises: French language, arithmetic, ele- 
ments of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, mechanics, cosmography, 
physics (especially electricity), and draughting machinery. 

The hours of work are arranged as follows : 

From October 1 to April 1 — 8 a. m. to 12 m. and 1.30 to 5 p. m., shox:) 
work; 5 to 7 p. m., theoretical instruction. From Ajoril 1 to October 
1—7 a. m. to 12 m. and 1.30 to 4.30 p. m., shop work; 4.30 to 6.30 p. m., 
theoretical instruction. The time from noon to 1.30 p. m. is set aside 
for recreation. In the middle of the morning and of the afternoon 
20-miiiute pauses are introduced. The jurisdiction of the authorities 
of the school extends beyond the hours of session. 

The instruction is conducted by a director, who is also professor of 
theoretical instruction; an assistant director, who is also secretary of 
the institution; a chief and a subchief for each of four workshops; 
two overseers. All these are appointed by the minister of commerce, 
of industry, aud of the colonies. 

The present attendance is 130 pupils. More than 1,300 pux^ils have 
graduated since the school was founded. With rare exceptions all 
pupils remain in the profession. Some work in the neighboring coun- 
tries, but the majority are scattered all over France. Some are exer- 
cising the mercantile branches of the industry, some are vratch repair- 
ers, some are chiefs and overseers of watch factories, and, finally, a 
certain number are constructors of telegraphic apparatus and scien- 
tific instruments. 

The instruction hi gratuitous. The raw materials and some tools are 
furnished gratis by the state, while some other tools and the necessary 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 267 

books are paid for by tlie pupils. A sum of 25 francs ($4.83) is deposited 
for eacli i)upil to secure against damage or loss of property tlirougli neg- 
ligence. The minister of commerce, of industry, and of the colonies de- 
cides upon the acceptance of pupils. Funds for their partial or entire 
maintenance are granted from the state treasury to pupils of parents 
who have established their inability to p-ay for the same. Classes are 
formed on November 3 of each year, and candidates must be at least 
14 years of age. Every application is made to the prefect of the de- 
partment in which the parents reside. The educational standards 
exacted are certificates of primary education, or of knowledge of the 
elementary branches. On the physical side there is a negative require- 
ment that candidates shall possess no infirmity which might interfere 
with the exercise of their profession. 

The institution is under the jurisdiction of the minister of commerce, 
of industry, and of the colonies, and under the special supervision of 
the prefect of the department of Haute-Savoie. It is entirely support- 
ed by the French government. 

At the end of each scholastic year an examination, covering the sub- 
jects taught during the year, takes place before a board consisting of the 
director, the assistant director, and one chief of a workshop. After this 
examination all pupils are classified accordingly, a<icount being also 
taken of their conduct and the work executed by them during the year. 
Those who have terminated their studies and have passed a satisfactory 
examination obtain graduatiug diplomas, conferring the title, graduates 
of the National School of Watchmaking at Cluses. Pupils who rank 
first at the end of the third year obtain a gold medal containing the 
name of the recipient and the inscription Ecole JSi'ationale Wliorlogerie 
de Cluses — Eecomjyense. A special diploma is awarded jj^ such cases 
stating that the pupil obtained the medal. Prizes consisting of tools 
and scientific works as well as honorable mention are accorded to the 
best pupils of the first and second years. 

This school was founded in 1848 for the x)urpose of giving a new im- 
X)etus to the watchmaking industry, which had been losing ground in 
Savoy. The institution had the following objects: 1st, to introduce 
into Savoy the perfected methods of work already adoi:)ted at Geneva 
and in the cantons of Yaud and Neuchatel: and, 2nd, to cause the man- 
ufacture of comxilete watches in Savoy, by teaching the young men all 
the various branches of the profession. 

The result of the school was an immediate revival of the watch- 
making industry. When Savoy was annexed to Prance, in 18G0, the 
school was reorganized and its scope extended. Later on the French 
government erected the present building, which holds 200 pupils. A 
decree passed by the French government, in February 1890, eflected 
another reorganization of the school, and on this basis th^ school is at 
present conducted. 



268 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

LA MARTINIBRB SCHOOL, LYONS. 

This school was founded in 1831, with the legacy of Major-General 
Martin. It comj)rises two distinct branches, the school for boys and 
the school for girls. 

DIVISION FOR BOYS. 

In the division for boys the pupils study the scienciss and arts 
applied to commerce and the industries; the object of the instruction 
is not to prepare the pupils for any distinct trade, but to render them 
apt to succeed in any industrial or commercial career by giving them 
advantages of a practical intelligence, a habit of scientific reasoning, a 
relatively broad instruction, and above all, by creating an enthusiasm 
for work. 

The course of instruction is for three years. Each year pupils are 
advanced by competitive examination, and in this way the incompe- 
tent are eliminated. 

The subjects taught are the following, all of which are obligatory for 
all puxiils in the respective classes : 

Fh^st year. — Mathematics, drawing, grammar and French composi- 
tion, physics, chemistry, natural sciences, history and geography, pen- 
manship, manual training, and military exercises. 

Second year. — The same subjects with the addition of English and 
bookkeeping. 

Third year. — Completion of the preceding programme, machinery 
drawing, literature, commercial geography, political economy, visits to 
workshoi)S. 

The manual training consists of carpentry, turning, and metal work^ 
all pupils taking turns at each, quarter after quarter. No effort is 
made to apprentice the pupil for any one of these, the object being 
simply to create a i)roficiency in a general way in manual work, to give 
the pupils some ideas for choosing their professions, and as a comple- 
ment to the instruction in drawing. The school possesses a comj)lete 
outfit of looms, materials, and accessories for theoretical and practical 
instruction in silk manufacture for such pupils as desire to enter into 
that branch of industry. 

The class instruction, particularly in mathematics, is carried on 
according to a i^eculiar method called the Methode Tadareaii. The 
idea of this system is to obtain from the whole class simultaneous 
work, and to execute immediately, under the eyes of the pupils, the 
correction of the samej to assure a constant attention by a special 
system of interrogations addressed to each jDupil and to all at the 
same time. Each pupil has a blackboard, chalk, and an eraser. The 
problem or question is given by the teacher, and all work out the same 
problem or write the answer to the same question simultaneously. After 
a specified time all must stop work, when the work is examined and 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 



269 



the corrections explained to all pupils. This system allows no lagging 
and comx)els each pnpil to be constantly active. It creates an enthu- 
siasm for quick, careful work, which in business life is very advan- 
tageous. 

In drawing, also, a peculiar method is adopted, that of Dupasquier. 
Pupils never copy drawings. The pupils are ranged in a circle around 
a model in such a way that the perspective is different for each i)iii)il. 
The models consist of plane figures represented by wire, then cubes, 
cylinders, columns, and finally complete machinery. The drawings 
are executed in chalk on blackboards, and in pencil, ink, and water 
color on paper. 

In chemistry the instruction is theoretical and practical and com- 
X)rises both the mineral and organic, with the applications to the vari- 
ous industries, particularly dyeing. 

In the courses in physics and natural sciences the lessons are accom- 
panied by the exhibition of apparatus or samples, or by drawings on 
blackboards. 



COURSE or STUDY FOR BOTS IE" LA MARTINi:^EE SCHOOL, LYONS. 



« 


Hours per week. 


Subject. 


Prepara- 
tory class. 


First year. 


Second year. 


Third 




Section 1. 


Section 2. 


Section 3. 


Section 1. 


Section 2. 


year. 


Boolikeepin"" . . • . .... 










2 


2 


2 


Calculation 


6i 










Cliciuistrv 


2 
10 


I 


2 
10 


6i 
10 
3 


C4 
10 
3 


Q\ 


nrawin "'' 


10 


12 










1 
4 

1 

1^ 












5 
2 
9 

^1 


1* 

2 


5 

f 

3 
2h 


4 
2 

8i 


4 
2 

8i 


4 


History ..... . .. 


2i 




8* 






rhysics 


1 


1 


2i- 


T*f>litio'il PfrniOTTiv 




1 




3 























1 


1 






1 


H 


3 


3i 




Shop work or weaving. 


3 . 


3 


3 


1 








Total 


37i 1 37* 


"* 


37i 1 40i 


m 


44| 








1 





The attendance of each section is from 80 to 100 pupils. 

The graduates of the school at once obtain positions, as the applica- 
tions of employers for young men exceed the number of graduates. 
The proportion of offers for employment is as follows : For commerce, 85 
per cent.; engineers, architects, or mechanics, 7 percent.; chemical in- 
dustries, 1 per cent.; various industries, 7 x)er cent. 

Instruction is gratuitous. The school admits only day pupils. The 
age of candidates must be 13 years for the school proper, and 12 years 
for the preparatory class. About 300 i^upils are admitted annually 
by competitive examination in such branches as are taught in the 
elementary primary schools. About one-third of this number falls out 
at the end of the first year and about one-half of the remainder at the 



270 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

end of the second year, either for voluntary reasons or on account of 
inconipetence. 

The administration of La Martiniere School is carxied on by a com- 
mittee of seven members named by the municipal council of Lyons. 
The mayor of Lyons is ex officio president of the committee and chooses 
the active x^jresident, vice-president, and secretary of the committee. 

The administrative committee (or boxird) prepares the budget to be 
submitted to the in^nicipal council, makes and revokes all apT)oint- 
ments except that of the director, iixes salaries, prepares the plans of 
study, programmes, and regulations, and discusses all questions relat- 
ing to the school. The director of the school is named by the mayor 
of Lyons. The members of the committee are generally the most prom- 
inent men of the city engaged in commerce, industry, or science. 

A jury comi)osed of merchants, manufacturers, artists, and pro- 
fessors, none of whom are directly connected with the school, conduct 
the final examinations, after which generally 50 or GO diplomas are 
annually distributed. 

In 1885-'83 the receipts from interest on donations and bequests 
aggregated 150,2161 francs ($28,991.74). Of this sum t^kQ General 
Martin fund yielded 110,169 francs ($21,262.62)- others, 40,017i francs 
($7,729.12). 

This school is under the direction of M. Lang, and is unquestionably 
the best normal training school in France. 

Complete statistics of the occupations taken up by the students and 
graduates of this school have never been gathered. The experience of 
the director, which covers nearly twenty years, is that 25 per cent, only 
pursue some technical vocation for a livelihood. The rest drift into 
commerce in one capacity or another. 

There is probably a reason for the low percentage of those entering 
industry in the fact that Lyons is above all a city given up to commerce 
in silk. A very large number of graduates enter some of these silk 
houses in one capacity or another. 

DIVISION FOR aiRLS. 

This division of the school aims to give to girls of working people 
an apprenticeship in a trade, and at the same time a general education. 
It differs in this respect from the division for boys. 

General instruction comprises penmanship, grammar, history and 
geography, mathematics, physics, chemistry, drawing, domestic econ- 
omy, and manual work. The class exercises are conducted according 
to the same peculiar methods as in the division for boys, and, in most 
cases, by the same teachers. 

The si)ecLal instruction includes four branches, or sections, as follows : 

Section of commerce: Special subjects, penmanshixD, bookkeeping, 
and English. 

Section of industrial drawing : Drawing with practical applications 



CHAP. IV. — IXDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 



271 



for industries, preparing cards for looms, composition of designs, litlio- 
grai)liy, etc. A subdivision of tliis section covers embroidery for gar- 
ments, furniture, cliurcli ornamentation, etc. 

Section for ladies' tailoring : Sewing by liand and machine, cloak 
and dressmaking (taking measurements, cutting, and finisliing), and 
all tliat relates to a complete apprenticeskix) of the trade of ladies' tai- 
loring. 

On being admitted pui^ils have the option of choosing their professions. 
The apprenticeship is for three years. All pupils must take the gen- 
eral course of instruction, and none can do that Avithout at the same 
time following one of the special courses. 

The following table shows the hours per week given to the various 
branches of instruction in the several courses : 

COTJBSE OF STUDY FOR GIRLS ZN" LA MAnTENTfeRE SCHOOL, LYOXS. 





Hours per week. 


Subject. 


Commercial. 


Embroidery. 


Industrial draw- 
ing. 


Ladies' tailoring. 




First 
year. 


Sec- 
ond 
3 ear. 


Tbird 
year. 


First 
year. 


Sec- 
ond 
year. 


Tbird 
year. 


First 
year. 


Sec- 
ond 
year. 


Tbird 
year. 


First 
year. 


B^ 




4 


4 


6 

1 
1 
2 
























1 

1 

9 

10* 






1 

1 
2 







1 


Domestic economy . 


















1 




2 


2 


9 


1€ 


m 


l^ 


^ 


2 


2 


Embroidery ...... 




Eiioiisli 


8 
5 
3 
3 
4 


11 
5 
3 
3 

2 
1 
2 


7h 














Grrammar .... ..... 


4 
3 
3 
3 


5 
3 
3 
2 


5 

3 
3 

1 
1 


4 
3 
3 

1 


5 
3 
3 
2 


5 

3 
3 

1 

1 


4 
3 
3 
1 


5 
3 
3 

2 


5 
3 
3 

1 


4 


History and geograpby.. 
iTatbematics . 


3 
3 




1 


!Pbysics ..... 






3 


2 














Sewii>"' (ta/ilorino") . . . 














10 


10 


10 


Tailoring 




















7^ 






















Total 


32 


33 


321 


32^ 


«i 


32i 


32i 


32i 


15 


32* 


32i 


32i 





There are also classes in ironing on Mondays and Fridays. 

The attendance at the close of the year 1891 was So pupils in the 
first year's class, 50 pupils in the second year's class, and 35 i)upils in the 
third year's class. Several who have passed through the school remain 
for further practice, in addition to the above. 

Pupils who complete the courses of instruction satisfactorily receive 
diplomas. The administration of the school interests itself in finding 
positions for such graduates. They find employment very easily, as a 
rule, in occupations for which they have been trained. 

Pupils are admitted at the age of 12 years, upon leaving the pri- 
mary schools. Instruction is gratuitous. The work done is for ])sl- 
trons, or is sold. Graduates who desire to continue their practical edu- 
cation may bring their own work with them, perform it under the su- 
pervision of the teacher, but retain the same for their own benefit or use. 

This school is under the same management as the division for boys. 
The i)rincipal of this school has the rank of assistant director. 



272 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



INSTITUTION LIVET, NANTES. 

This institution was founded in 1846 by M. E. Livet, tlie present 
proprietor. It has for its object the training of young men, destined 
for commercial and industrial pursuits, for the marine, and for the pub- 
lic and private administrative service. 

The instruction is given to three divisions of pupils, as follows : The 
preparatory division, for pupils from 6 to 8 years of age, requiring two 
year? : the elementary course, for pupils from 8 to 12 years of age, 
requiring four years j the division for professional instruction, for 
pupils of 12 years and over, requiring five and six years. 

The first two of these divisions include such studies as are taught in 
the primary schools, special features of the former division being ob- 
ject lessons, and of the latter division, drawing and modelling. 

The instruction given to pupils of the professional division comprises 
such studies as are taught in the advanced primary schools of France, 
together with technical branches. This division is again subdivided 
into two principal sections — one for commerce, and the other for the in- 
dustries. 

Following are the studies taught in each of these two sections, with 
the number of hours per week devoted to each : 

COURSE OF STUDY ZS" THE INSTITUTION LIVET, NANTES. 
Industnal section. 



Subject. 



Hours per weel 



First 
year. 



Second 
year. 



Third 
year. 



Fourth 
year. 



Fifth 
year. 



Ethics 

French language 

Literatare 

History and geography 

Mathematics 

Mechanics 

Physics and chemistry 

Study of steam engines 

Natural history 

Bookkeeping 

Calligraphy 

English language 

Linear and ornamental drawing. 

Artistic designing 

Shop work 



Total. 



39 



8| 
3 . 

43 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 



273 



COURSE OF STUDY LN" THE lifSTITUTION LI VET, NANTES— Concluded. 
Commercial section. 



Subject. 



Hours per week. 



First 
year. 



Second 
year. 



Third 
year. 



FourtH 
year. 



Fifth 
year. 



Sixth 
year. 



Ethics 

French language 

French literature 

History and geography 

Mathematics 

Mechanics 

Physics and chemistry 

Natural history 

Chemical manipulations 

Legislation 

Commercial accounting and hootkeep- 
ing. 

English language 

German language 

Calligraphy 

Linear drawing 

Artistic designing 

Yocal music 

Shop work 



Total 



42 



42 



42 



42 



42 



The professional division also comprises a section for engineers for 
the marine service, a school of watchmakingj and special classes in 
which pupils are prepared for the national schools of arts and trades, 
the schools of fine arts, the schools of architecture, schools of agri- 
culture, veterinary schools, and the school of mines at Saint-Etienne. 

The pupils of the section for engineers for the marine service pass 
four hours per day at the workshops; the rest of the time is exclusively 
devoted to the study of drawing and other subjects useful for the pro- 
fession, French language, English language, industrial economy, pure 
mathematics (arithmetic, algebra, etc.), and applied mathematics (me- 
chanics, physics, etc.). Several special professors are employed for 
this section. The final examinations of this section are conducted and 
the prizes awarded by a board appointed by the minister of marine and 
of the colonies. This gives official recognition to the examinations, 
and graduates are eligible to the grade of student engineers of the 
navy. 

In the watchmaking school, which has existed since 1878, the pupils 
are occupied four hours per day at practical watchmaking. The rest 
of the time is devoted to theoretical studies, principally mechanics. 

Pui)ils preparing for the other schools mentioned above take the 
regular professional course of study, with such slight variations in 
manual and theoretical work as will fit them for the required 
examinations. 

A gymnasium is attached to the school for the use of pupils, and mil- 
itary exercises are given according to government regulations. 

The linear drawing of the industrial section is at once theoretical 
and i)ractical. Pupils are taught in drawing geometrical plans, trac- 
ing, executing plans of machinery (often very complicated) of which 
S. Ex. 65 18 



274 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

tliey previously make sketclies from tlie models, being instructed at the 
same time in the uses of the different x^ieces. All objects are drawn 
from nature either in the shops of the school or of city establishments, 
or from casts or xiatterns. 

The course comprises also architecture, applied building construc- 
tion, ships, etc.; it permits the graduate to take a position in an estab- 
lishment for construction of machinery, in an architect's of&ce, etc. 

The workshops, covering 800 square metres, are completely furnished 
with tools and machinery, a steam engine, etc., and comprise a shop 
for fitting (mechanics), one for turning, one for foundery work, and one 
for carijentry and j)atternmaking. There is also a special hall for clay 
modelling. Special teachers are employed for each of these shops. 

The attendance averages about 600 pupils, most of whom are in the 
professional division. 

The tuition per year is as follows : 

For boarders: Preparatory division, 600 francsg;$115.80) ; elementary 
division, 700 francs ($135.10) ; professional division, 800 francs ($154.40). 

For day boarders : Preparatory division, 300 francs ($57.90) ; middle 
division, 350 francs ($67.55),- superior division, 400 francs ($77.20). 

For pupils without any board: Preparatory, 100 francs ($19.30); 120 
francs ($23.16); 150 francs ($28.95). 

Sixty francs ($11.58) per year, extra, is charged for manual training, 
from 12 to 30 francs ($2.32 to $5.79) per year for class and drawing ma- 
terials, 2 francs (39 cents) for military exercises and gymnasium. 

The course in watchmaking costs 200 francs ($38.60) jjer year for in- 
struction, and 50 francs ($9.65) for materials. 

Pupils must, upon being admitted, present their certificates of birth, 
vaccination, and good conduct. Candidates pass examinations accord- 
ing to the grade which they desire to enter. 

The school is entirely private, being supported by tuition fees. A 
slight income is derived from the sale of tools, machinery, etc., made 
by the pupils. Some free scholarships were created by subsidies from 
the ministries of public instruction, of the marine, and of commerce, 
iodustries, and the colonies of the national government, and from some 
of the neighboring dei)artments. 

The administration of the school is in the hands of M. Livet and 
his assistants. There are 21 teachers in the middle and superior divis- 
ions, and 6 teachers in the preparatory division, for class instruction; 
5 specialists, for technical instruction; 6 overseers, and 9 instructors 
for optional branches, as music, fencing, dancing, etc. 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 275 

OCCUPATIONS OF EX-STUDEXTS OF THE IXSTITIJTIOX LIVET, NATS^TES. 



Tear. 


Iiulustrinl 
occuratious. 


CoTiiTnorcial 
occupations. 


Government service. 


Students veterinary 
school of agriculture. 




Xuuiber. 


Percent. 


l>iumheT. 


Percent. 


Xuraber. 


Percent. 


Xunibcr. 


Pel cent. 


1875 


20 
21 
21 
19 
29 
26 
32 
37 
29 
32 
38 
44 
58 
65 
67 
66 
69 


42.5 
48.8 
36.2 
39.6 
45.3 
49.0 
45. 1 
52.9 
42.7 
49.2 
50.0 
47.8 
52.7 
.50.4 
.50.0 
49.6 
50.4 


21 
15 
27 
23 
28 
24 
26 
26 
. 28 
25 
32 
38 
44 
51 
54 
56 
55 


44.7 
34.9 
46.6 
47.9 
43.8 
45.3 
36.6 
37.1 
41.2 
38.5 
42.1 
41.3 
40.0 
39.5 
40.3 
42.1 
40.1 


6 

I 

6 
7 
3 
11 
6 
9 

4 

t 

8 

? 

10 


12.8 

11.6 

17.2 

12.5 

10.9 

5. 7 

15.5 

8.6 

13.2 

10.8 

5.3 

6.5 

4.0 

6.2 

6.7 

5.3 

7.3 






1876. 

1877 


' 


4.7 


1878 






187') 






ISSO 






18S1 

1882 

1883 


2 

1 

9 

I 

4 
3 
5 
4 
4 
3 


2.8 
1.4 
2 fl 


1884 

18S5 

1886 

1887 

1888 


1.5 

2.6 
4.4 
2.7 
3 9 


1889 

1890 

1891 


3.0 
3.0 
2.2 


Total. . - . 


673 i 48-1 

1 


573 


41.0 


119 8.5 


33 1 2.4 

1 



APPRENTICESHIP IN FRANCE. 

Althongli there exist a large number of scliools especially devoted 
to trade education, ifc is still held by many to be the best course to 
apprentice cliildren during a certain time to an employer who will 
instruct tbem in all the details of bis trade. 

The engagement of an apprentice is not, as in the case of a workman, 
terminable at pleasure. .It is made for a definite time, and before its 
expiration it is illegal for either the patron to dismiss the apprentice 
or for the latter to leave his iDatron. 

This contract which exists between the patron and the apprentice, 
represented by his parents, only becomes definite after two months. 
This period, called the time of trial, is accorded by law in order to 
permit each i:)arty to determine whether it is for his interest to continue 
the connection. These contracts are written by notaries, recorders of 
the conseil des lyruWliommes^ or by justices of the peace. They stipulate 
any conditions not in violation of the law of February 22, 1851, concern- 
ing apprentices, or that of 1874 on the employment of children in fac- 
tories. Inspectors enforce the provisions of these laws. Any disputes 
which may arise, regarding the contract, are heard by the conseil des 
prud^Jwmmes, or by a justice of the x>eace. If the dispute is over a 
verbal agreement the conditions are presumed to be those of local 
usage. Judgment for damages will run for thirty years. 

The duration of aijprenticeship is not always the same. The age, 
X)rior instruction, physical development, aptitude, and nature of the 
trade generally determine the duration. Local customs and habits of 
employers differ greatly on this point. 

In all professions the workshop is the best place for apprentices to 
learn their trades, provided they receive proper attention and are not 
made mere errand boysj but there are many details of theory necessary 



276 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

for a complete education which they are unable to receive in shops. 
Besides ijerforming the work a workman should be able to put on 
paper the plans of the objects he executes. To enable apprentices to 
acquire this knowledge many employers have annexed appropriate 
courses of instruction to their industries. 

TRADE SCHOOLS AT PARIS. 

At Paris courses of this nature have been established by chambers 
of commerce of particular trades. They .are comj)leted by examina- 
tionSj at which prizes are generally distributed. Loan libraries are also 
attached. Trades having such schools at Paris are: 

(1) Jewellery: A trade school of design and modelling, founded by 
the organized company of jewellers and goldsmiths. 

(2) Imitation jewellery: School of design and modelling, founded 
by the comi^any of imitation jewellery makers. 

(3) Bronze work: Special school of design and modelling founded 
by the company of bronze manufacturers. 

(4) Ooachmakers: Trade and artistic course of coachmaking for ap- 
prentices, founded under the patronage of the association of coach 
makers. 

(5) Wheelwrights' trade: Trade school, founded by the association of 
wheelwrights. 

(6) Boiler making : The association of boiler makers of France have 
established for the department of the Seine courses in boiler making, 
steam engines, and legislation concerning steam engines, in eight dif- 
ferent quarters of Paris. 

(7) Eooflng and plumbing: Trade courses established by the asso- 
ciation of plumbers, roofers, and zinc workers of the department of the 
Seine include instruction in sanitary plumbing, technology, hygiene 
of habitations, drawing, and practical courses in lead and zinc work. 

(8) Eoofing and plumbing: A course of theoretical and practical 
roofing and plumbing, established by the association of roofers and 
I)lumbers of Paris. 

(9) Oabinetmaking : School of professional drawing, founded by tbe 
Industrial Patronage of Children in the Gabinetmaking Trade. 

(10) Flower and feather work: The society for the assistance of chil- 
dren employed in the flower and feather trade have organized courses 
of instruction. 

(11) Paper and cardboard manufacturing: Courses organized for 
instruction in the art by the association of paper manufacturers. 

(12) Tapestry: Courses by the Patrons of Tapestry Apprentices. 

(13) Carriage making: Technical courses organized by the associa- 
tion of carriage manufacturers. 

There are also in existence in Paris four societies having for their 
object a general, in addition to a special, instruction of apprentices 
and adults. These societies have established numerous courses in 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 277 

every quarter of Paris. The iustrnction is entirely gratuitous. Most 
of tlie instruction is devoted to literature, science, music, matliematics, 
languages, and elementary studies. The following technical subjects 
are also treated by the societies named : 

(1) Society for Elementary Instruction (for girls and women only). 
Stenography, needlework, cutting and finishing garments, domestic 
economy, drawing and water color painting applied to industrial and 
decorative arts, ceramic painting, enamelling, painting on fans, mod- 
elling, and engraving and etching. 

(2) The Polytechnic Association (for both sexes) : Modelling, paint- 
ing on porcelain and on fans, construction, technology, industrial 
metallurgy, steam engines, style in furniture, practical mechanics, 
classes for metal workers, classes for masons and stone cutters (stone 
cutting, geometry and practical drawing); for women only, cutting- 
garments, sewing, millinery, and telegraphy. 

(3) The Phiiotechnic Association (for both sexes) : Technology, teleg- 
raphy, stereotomy, cutting, sewing, and finishing garments, cutting 
(for men's tailors), millinery, special courses for coppersmiths, fitters, 
firemen and mechanics and foundery workers, cutting and sewing shoes, 
photography, and industrial api)lications. 

(4) The French Union of Young People (for both sexes) : Industrial 
chemistry and physics, mechanics and applied sciences, stenography, 
embroidery and sewing, and drawing. 

These courses are mostly given in the evenings or on Sunday morn- 
ings. 

Considerable effort has been exercised, particularly in the last twenty- 
five years, to raise the standard of trade education in France. It has 
come from the side of labor organizations, industrial employers, trans- 
portation comiDanies, private institutions, religious and associated bei levo- 
lence. It would be exceedingly instructive to attempt a census of those 
activities, but lack of space forbids the attempt. Nothing more is pos- 
sible here than brief mention of a few of the more j)rominent agencies. 

GUTENBERG TYPOGRAPHICAL SCHOOL, PARIS. 

This school was founded in 1886 under the patronage of the Printers' 
Union. The object is to educate young typographers. Pupils serve 
either a three years' apprenticeship at the school, or during ai^preutice- 
ship at an establishment attend school two consecutive days weekly, 
or if desirous of perfecting themselves in any particular branch of work 
they frequent classes for any period they may desire, but not less than 
six months. 

The school is ojyen eight and a half hours daily throughout the year, 
and trade instruction absorbs six hours of this x)eriod. Twenty pupils 
are in attendance at one time. All of the 67 who have thus far gradu- 
ated have entered into x^ositions found for them by the Printers' Union. 



278 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Tuition is free to the first class of pux)ils^ viz., those who serve a three 
years' apprenticeship at the school. A certificate of primary education 
is the i^rincipal and indispensable requirement of admission. 



TRADE SCHOOL OP THE CHAIX PRINTING COMPANY, PARIS. 

This school was founded by the company in 1863 with the object of 
educating skilled workmen for all branches of the company's service. 
The course extends over four years. This is one year more than is re- 
quired for ordinary apprenticeships, as the scope of the work is much 
greater and much of the time is sj^ent in class instruction. 

Pupils' must be at least 13 years of age to be admitted. They must be 
introduced by their parents or guardians and must produce the following 
pai)ers: Their birth certificates j a certificate of primary education at- 
tested by the mayor; a certificate of release in case they are akeady 
apprenticed elsewhere. On entering the apprentices submit to an ex- 
amination covering the primary branches. They are then assigned to 
such branches as they appear to be best fitted for. For comjjositors 
and lithographers the examination is competitive and takes place once 
jcvery year. On an average the number of competitors is six times as 
great as the number of vacancies. Only ten pupils are received an- 
nually. One hour daily is devoted to instruction in the intellectual 
branches; the rest of the time is given uj) to manual instruction and 
practice. The theoretical work includes reading, writing, and compo- 
sition in the French language, and such instruction as will impart an 
understanding of the letters, words, etc., of the English, German, Greek, 
and Latin languages, both printed and written; the letters, figures, 
signs, etc., of higher mathematics, besides class instruction in history, 
geography, mathematics, physics, punctuation and grammar, and theory 
of printing, all of which are directed especially to their i^ractical apjdi- 
cation. 

Pupils pay no tuition. On the contrary they are paid while serv- 
ing this apprenticeship, according to the following scale: Compositors 
and lithographers, first six months, nothing; second six months, 50 cen- 
times (10 cents) per day; during second year, 1 franc (19 cents) per 
day; during third year, 1 franc 50 centimes (29 cents) per day; during 
fourth year, 2 francs (39 cents) per day. Printers and others doing 
mechanical work obtain, during first four months, 75 centimes (14 cents) 
I)er day; second period of four months, 1 franc (19 cents) per day; third 
period of four months, 1 franc 25 centimes (24 cents) per day; after one 
year 1 franc 50 centimes (29 cents) per day, increasing 25 centimes (5 
cents) per day every four months until the apprenticeship is finished. 

The boys receive the pay of skilled workmen as soon as they gradu- 
ate. Of the 250 who have been trained in this school since the begin- 
ning about 200 are now in the emx)loy of the company as compositors, 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 279 

litliographers, engravers, pressmen, book-biuders, and office employes. 
During the past five or six years all beginners in the service of the 
company have been graduates of the apprenticeship school. No vacan- 
cies in higher positions, such as foremen, office employes, or other 
officers of the establishment, are filled by any others than graduates of 
the school, linearly all the higher positions in the offices and workshops 
from the i>roprietor down are filled by graduates. All positions are 
open to them. Few of these workm.eu leave the service of the company, 
and then it is to accept positions of importance in other establishments 
or to become proprietors themselves. 

The secretary, M. Berger, adds in regard to the effect of the school 
and its value to the company: "It has increased the quantity, quality, 
and artistic value of our work. All our student workmen are so much 
more valuable to us that we consider the heavy expense of maintain- 
ing a school with the necessary faculty of teachers, the materials, etc., 
as insignificant in comparison Avith the effects such instruction has 
upon the value of our workmen.^^ 

SCHOOL OF TKB EASTERN RAIL"WAY COMPANY, PARIS. 

This school [Ecole Professionnelle dti Chemin de Fer de VEst) had its 
beginning in 1852, but the present organization dates from 1884. The 
object of i^\Q. school is to produce skilled mechanics for the company's 
shops, and to afford the sons of its workingmen an opportunity to learn 
a useful trade. Admission to the school is not strictly confined to the 
sons of workingmen employed by the company, but by far the larger 
proportion of the students are such. 

The course of instruction is for four years, and embraces reading, 
writing, spelling, grammar, history, geography, arithmetic, j^hysics, 
chemistry, mechanics, design, and instruction in that trade for which 
the student shows i^reference and aptitude. Four hours each day are 
devoted to theoretical instruction and five hours to practical work in 
the company's shox)S. 

The total number of students who have been and are now being in- 
structed is 248, of whom about 200 have completed the course. Mechan- 
ics for the company's shops are entirely recruited from the graduates 
of this and other schools of the com]3any, but no obligation rests on 
the student to enter the company's emj^loy after having completed his 
course of instruction. 

The school, including books and one meal (luncheon), is free to such 
as fulfil the requirements of admission, and, in addition, the students 
are paid a wage of 10 cents each school day, commencing with the date 
of their entrance into the school. This wage is increased 5 cents 
per day each six months if the instructor in the shops recommends it. 

Apx3licants for admission must be 13 years old, and must have a cer- 
tificate from an instructor that they have acquired the rudiments of in- 



280 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. 

struction of a primary school. They must present a physician's cer- 
tificate shoAving that they are physically able to follow a trade in the 
company's shops. They mnst also pass an examination in the rudi- 
ments of arithmetic. 

Other schools, or special courses, are conducted by this company in 
the large workshops at La Yillette, Eomilly, Epernay, and Mohon. 



Another practically similar school exists in connection with the 
is'orthern Eailway. It was founded in 1883 and has been attended by 
about 170 students, two-thirds of whom have remained to graduate. 
Only sons of the comi:>any's employes are admitted. Results have 
been thoroughly satisfactory. 

TRADE SCHOOL FOR TAILORS' APPRENTICES, PARIS. 

This school was founded in 1881 by the Society of Tailo :s of Paris. 
The object of the school is to form good workmen, and to raise the 
standard of hand work, which had been greatly neglected since the in- 
troduction of the sewing machine. 

The duration of the studies is for three years. The children receive, 
at first, an elementary idea concerning sewing, and gradually increasing 
the scope of work, they take i)art finally in the making of garments of 
all kinds. 

The school is in session ten hours per day. One hour is devoted to 
l)rimary instruction, and the rest to practical work. The pupils are 
organized into groups of four or five apprentices, each group having its 
own instructor. The articles made, such as suits, coats, overcoats, etc., 
are never transferred from one place to another, but remain in the same 
group from the beginning until they are finished. Care is taken to 
give each apprentice experience in every detail of the work. The work 
is all done by hand until the end of the third year, when machine work 
is done. 

The school began in 1881 with 8 apprentices and 2 instructors j in 
1891 there were 40 apprentices and 8 teachers. About 180 young men 
have finished their apprenticeships, and are all occupied in the pro- 
fession. 

Tuition is gratuitous to the children of poor parents j those in better 
circumstances must pay a fee. 

The apprentices receive a compensation of 1 franc (19 cents) per week 
the first year, 2 francs (39 cents) the second year, and 3 francs (58 cents) 
the third year, but these amounts are retained until the end of the ap- 
prenticeship, when they are paid out in full. The compensation is, 
however, only paid when the work and conduct of the x)npil has been 
entu-ely satisfactory during the week. In addition to the above ap- 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 281 

prentices of special merit receive every Saturday 25 to 75 centimes 
(5 to 14 cents) pocket money. The pupils lunch at the school, the 
meals being furnished gratuitously. 

The school is maintained and administered by the Association of 
Tailors of Paris. 

TRADE SCHOOL FOR WATCHMAKING, PARIS. 

The school for watchmaking at Paris was founded as a private insti- 
tution in 1880. The object of the school is: To form proficient work- 
men in the various branches of the manufacture of watches, clocks, 
and timepieces of precision j to give a good professional and scientific 
instruction to young men, who desire to practise the art of watch- 
making; to give an oj)i)ortunity to young workmen and apprentices, 
who have already served an apprenticeship, to perfect themselves 
theoretically and practically in certain parts of the trade, in regulat- 
ing, in adjusting, and in reiiairing. 

The period of apprenticeship is four years. Theoretical instruction 
is given for three hours daily except Saturdays, and shop work occuj)ies 
seven hours daily. 

Sixty-six pupils are at present in attendance. Two hundred and 
fifty-five have graduated, all of whom have found technical employment. 

Pupils must be 13 years old to be admitted and possess the certificate 
of primary instruction. Young men and workmen who have served an 
apprenticeship of at least two years in another watchmaking school 
and such workmen as desire to perfect themselves in specific branches 
maybe admitted for one year or longer. 

The tuition is 300 francs ($57.90) per year. 

An excellent municipal watchmaking trade school at Besan^on and 
a private institution at Ault with the same end in view hardly need 
special descrii)tion after what has already been given for the schools 
at Oluses and Paris. 

SCHOOLS OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION OP 

WOMEN, PARIS. 

The first of these schools was founded in 1864 by the Society for the 
Industrial Education of Women at the initiative of Madame EHsa Le- 
monnier. It was the first industrial school for girls in France. The 
object of the school is to give to girls such instruction as will enable 
them to gain an honorable living. 

The instruction does not differ much from that of the industrial 
schools for girls maintained by the city of Paris. The courses of in- 
struction comprise three years. They are divided into general and 
special courses. 

The general course comprises: French language, arithmetic, geom- 
etry, history and geography, applied sciences, writing, and a course iii 



282 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

cutiiug. This iustructionis given from 8.30 to 11.30 a. m. Tlie special 
or i)rofessioiial courses of study are as follows: 

COMMERCI.SX COURSE. 

Element& of bookkeeping, keei)ing the principal aud auxiliary books, penmanship, 
balances. Business forms, invoices, statements, receipts, acquittances. Review of 
tlie principles of bookkeeping, complex business operations, balances, inventories, 
balance sheets. Studies of the eifects of commerce. Calculations of commercial 
interest, discount, current accounts. General bookkeeping. Opening and closing 
sets of books. Foreign money calculations. Commercial and civil law. German 
and English languages. 

SEWING. 

Plain sewing, such as is done by all the pupils of the schools. During the first 
year elementary work in sewing. The work of the second and third years includes 
two ladies' dresses and one child's costume. Exercises in cutting, fitting, and trim- 
ming, repairs, various kinds of work, infant clothes, etc. 

INDUSTRIAL DRAWING. 

Geometrical drawing (descriptive and persx^ective). Drawing from copy; from 
nature. Anatomy. History of art. Decorative composition (in copybooks, al- 
bums, and frames). 

PAINTING. 

Painting on china: decorative panels (comx)osition and execution done by the 
pupils), flower pots, vases, dishes, and various objects. 

Painting on enamel: enamelled household articles, trays, fancy boxes, etc. 

Painting on porcelain: cups, plates, plaques, etc. 

Painting on silk : fans, screens, etc. 

Painting on wood: boxes, etc. 

Painting on glass : church windows, etc. (the design and execution done by the 
pupils). 

Painting on ivory : miniatures. 

WOOD ENGRAVING AND CARVING OF VARIOUS KINDS. 
EMBROIDERY, 

Embroidery: plain, in silk, in gold, etc., on dresses, drapery, pincushions and 
various objects; composition and embroidery done by the pupils. 

The instruction for the special courses is given from 12.30 to 5.30 
p.m. 

The attendance in 1891 was as follows: The first school, 200 pupils; 
the second, 110 pupils; and the thirci, 190 pupils. 

The society occupies itself also as much as possible in finding posi- 
tions for the i^upils who leave the school. 

The tuition is from 12 to 15 francs ($2.32 to $2.90) per month. Free 
scholarships are also given. The age of admission is at least 12 years. 

The Ternes Industrial School for young women and the Protestant 
Industrial School for young girls at Paris are quite similar to those be- 
longing to the Society for the Industrial Education of Women, though 
of not quite tlie same importance. 



CHAP. rV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 



283 



TRADE SCHOOL OF THE INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY OP SAINT-QUENTIN. 

The trade scliool of tlie iRdustrial Society of Saiiit-Qiieutin was 
opened in 1884 with the object of forming workmen, foremen, and 
technical directors for the i^rincix^al industries of the neighborhood. 
The period of instruction is three years. Manual work includes wood 
work and ironwork and the construcion of machin^rj- used in spinning, 
weaving, and sugar making. The theoretical instruction includes the 
usual branches with special attention given to drawiug and mathe- 
matical calculation of work to be executed. 

The present attendance numbers 77. The 70 graduates since the 
school was founded immediately found suitable technical employment 
in the vicinity. Instruction is gratuitous and candidates for admission 
are received between the ages of 12 and 16 years. 

Special industrial classes are held by the Industrial Society for work 
people of both sexes. They comprise instruction in hand and power 
loom weaving 5 embroidery j needlework j industrial chemistry^ ele- 
mentary physics j practical sugar refining j practical mechanics; in- 
dustrial drawiug, etc. J enlarging for mechanical embroidery j drawing 
and designing for the various textile fabrics,- English language; Ger- 
man language; bookkeeping; industrial drawing; agriculture; and 
application of chemistry to fertilizing. 

The following table shows the distribution of classes and the attend- 
ance (January 1892) ; 

ATTEXDANCE AXD COUUSE OF STUDY IX THE CLASSES OE THE IXDUSTKIAL 
SOCIETY OF SAINT-QUEXTIX. 



Sul»ject. 



Hoiirs. 



Attendance. 



Weaving, simple 

Weaving, power loom 

Weaving, special, for foremen 

Xeeclleworlc, linens, embroidery, dresses, etc. 

MecLanical embroidery 

Practical mechanics 

Elementary pbysics 

Industrial chemistry 

Agriculture - 

Heat 



Preparing cards for various textiles 

Designing and enlarging for mechanical embroidery. 

Industrial drawing ....". 

Political economy 

Gcograpliy, commercial 

English Isuaguage 

German language 

CoraiTiercial law 

Practical sugar refining 

Weaving (at Eoliain, a suburb) 

Industrial drawing (at Bohain) 

Bookieeping (at Eohain) . . 

Industrial drawing (at (3hauny) 



> Daily from 7 a. m. to 5 p. m 

Sundays 11 a. m. to noon 

Daily,'8 a. m. to Gp. m 

Daily, 7 a. m. to 7 p. m 

'.Lectures delivered to working- 
[ men on certain evenings. 

Sunday mornings 

<; Daily, 9 a. m. to noon and 2 to 5 p 
\ m.'; also special evening classes 



Instructions to workingmen at 
times most convenient — even- 
ings or Sundays. 



Varies. 



f Varies. 
1 Varies. 
j Varies. 
I "\ aries. 



Varies. 
Varies. 



1 Varies. 



28 



1,268 
29 



For those courses of instruction which continue aJl day i^upils need 
only attend at such times as they can afford to be absent from their 
daily work. 

Persons in attendance are for the most part workmen who are occupied 
in gaining a livelihood, and who visit the classes, whenever time per- 



284 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

mits, in order to ])erfect themselves in tlieir own trade or to learn a 
new one if tliey find themselves adapted for it. Thns it happens some- 
times that unskilled workmen or laborers acquire a skilled profession 
such as weaver^ master weaver, embroiderer (mechanical), draughts- 
man, etc., simply by making good use of their leisure time. 

All these special courses are absolutely gratuitous and are open tc 
all who desire to avail themselves of their benefits. On the other hand, 
persons who excel in their respective classes are liberally rewarded 
with prizes of money, books, medals, etc. 

These courses, as well as the professional school of the society, are 
uBder the direction of a boardof administration consisting of the may oi 
of ihe city, the president and last ex-president of the chamber of com- 
merce, who are ex-officio members, and five elected members of the 
society. Each course has a special committee of surveillance elected 
from among the members of the society. The courses are supported 
chiefly by regular dues of the members of this philanthropic society. 
and by city, state, and department subsidies. 

At Eeims, Lyons, and ISTantes industrial societies maintain courses 
of instruction. All these institutions are very similar to those at Saint- 
Quentin, already described. Their work is highly appreciated and 
excellent results are attained. At Lyons 8,012 persons attended the 
classes of the Society for Trade Instruction of the Ehone in a single 
year. 

SCHOOL OF APPRENTICES OF THE INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY OF 

NANTES. 

In this school the instruction is given one hour every morning before 
the apprentice goes to the workshop. His term of apprenticeship is 
therefore lengthened to four years instead of three, as is the local 
custom. 

A unique feature of the School of Apprentices of the Industrial 
Society of Infantes are the conditions made by contract when the 
apprentice is admitted. The pupils are indentured as apprentices at 
some establishment. The contract of apprenticeship is tripartite, 
between the loresident of this society, the employer, and the parents oi 
the boy. The Industrial Society pays each pupil during the continu- 
ance of this contract 3 francs (58 cents) per month, of which one-half 
is put away as savings for the boy, and the other half may be given to 
the parents. In addition 6 J pounds of bread are furnished i)er week 
to those in need. The society has surveillance over the pupil, also at 
the workshop, and any breach of contract on the part of the appren- 
tice, either against the emx)loyer or the school, may be punished by 
imprisonment of the apprentice or by a reimbursement with interest 
to the society for the expenses to the school caused by the appren- 
tice. The materials for instruction are furnished gratuitously by the 
society. 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 285 



ADVANCED SCHOOL OF COMMERCE AND WEAVING, LYONS. 

This scliool was founded in 1872 by the Society of Industrial Sciences 
of Lyons. The division for weaving was organized in 1877. 

The object of the division for weaving is to give a practical and the- 
oretical education to such persons as desire to occupy the higher posi- 
tions in weaving establishments. This divison is entirely separated 
from the division for commerce. The course is for one year only. 

COURSE OF STUDY IN" THE DIVISION FOR AVEAVIEG OF THE ADVANCED SCHOOL 
OF COMMERCE AND WEAVING, LYONS. 



Subject. 



Hours 
per Aveek. 



Theory of weaving (four parts) 

Practical work (pupils pass three months in each shop) 

Applied mechanics— study of motors and looms 

Study of textile materials— bleaching, dyeing, iinishing, etc. 

Designing patterns, etc., and preparing cards 

Boolikeeping 

Total 



The school x)ossesses 14 hand looms, 8 power looms, 7 i^reparatory ma- 
chines, and a gas motor. 

The practical instruction is given by foremen under the direction of 
the professors, and the theoretical instruction by special professors. 
■ During the last three months the puiiils, conducted by their pro- 
fessors, visit weaving, dyeing, and other similar establishments. 

The school is in session from 8 to 11 a. m., and from 1.15 to 5.15 p. m. 

The candidate for admission must be at least 16 years of age, and 
must pass an examination. Foreigners may also be admitted. 

The administration of the school is in the hands of a board appointed 
by the Society of Industrial Sciences and by the chamber of com- 
merce of Lyons. The annual expenses of this school amount to 116,000 
francs ($22,388). 

SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY, LYONS. 

The School of Industrial Chemistry was founded in 1883 under the 
patronage of the Lyons chamber of commerce. 

The object of the school is to give instruction in the theory and 
practical application of chemistry to siuih young men as desire to 
adopt industrial pursuits in which such knowledge is necessary. This 
is particularly the case in the textile industry in the vicinity of Lyons. 

The duration of these studies is two years. The instruction is both 
oral and by means of laboratory work. The best pupils, generally a 
very small number, are retained one or two additional years for original 
researches. 

The oral lessons or lectures consist of organic, inorganic, and Indus- 



286 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LA130R. 

trial cliemistry, mineralogy, physics applied to cliemistry, and experi- 
mental mechanics. 

Tlie laboratory work is carried on every day in inorganic chemistry 
during the first year and in organic chemistry during the second. 
Visits for practical study are paid to industrial establishments in the 
vicinity. Special attention is j^aid to such laboratory work as is most 
useful to the pupils for their future vocations. The school is in session 
from 6.30 to 11.45 a. m., and from 2 to 5.45 p. m. All the time not 
required for class instruction is devoted to laboratory work. 

The attendance in 1890 was 28 pupils. The young men who graduate 
find i)ositions very easily, and in many cases are engaged in advance. 



CHURCH SCHOOLS FOR INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 

The Society of Christian Brothers has industrial schools in the fol- 
lowing cities : Paris — the Saint-Nicolas School (manual apprenticeship) ; 
Lyons — the La Salle School (manual training) j Saint-Etienne — School 
of Manual Ai3prenticeship. 

They are doing excellent work. The La Salle School has an attend- 
ance of 172, picked out from the most promising pupils in the Catholic 
schools of Lyons. The Saint-Mcolas School is attended by 250 i^uijils 
annually. A combination of shop apprenticeship and school attend- 
ance constitutes one unique feature of this institution as well as of the 
school at Saint-Etienne. The great majority of graduates take up tech- 
nical vocations. 

SECOIS^DAEY INDUSTEIAL SCHOOLS. 

NATIONAL SCHOOLS OP ARTS AND TRADES, CHALONS, ANG-SRS, 

AND AIX. 

The first of these schools was founded as a private institution in 
1780 on the estate of a nobleman. It became a national institution 
during the first republic, and was removed to Chalons-sur-Marne in 
1806. The second was organized at Beaupreau in 1804 and removed 
to Angers in 1815. The third was founded in 1843 at Aix. A law 
passed in 1881 directed the construction of a fourth, which is now 
being completed at Lille. 

These schools have for their object the instruction of students in the 
mechanical arts, and such other branches as will enable them to become 
superintendents and masters of workshops and industrial establish- 
ments. 

The three schools have the. same iDrogramme and regulations. The 
studies are for three years. Ko person can remain a fourth year unless, 
on account of sickness or another unavoidable cause, he was absent 
more than six weeks. 



CHAP. IV. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 



287 



Theoretical auci practical iustriiction is given. The following table 
sho^ys the theoretical branches taught and the number of lessons de- 
voted to each : 

COUESE OE STUDY IN THE NATIONAL SCHOOLS OF AIITS AND TRADES AT AIX, 

ANGERS, AND CHALONS. 





Number of lessons. 


Subject. 


First year. 


Second year. 


Tbird j'ear. 




First lialf. ' Second lialf. 

1 


First balf. jSecondbalf. 


First balf. 


Secondbalf. 


Al ebra 


... 

5 


10 


























8 
20 


20 
14 


24 


JPrtiu'h 


20 
30 


18 


14 


15 








37 
17 


40 
14 








HislOi-y iiiul geoLiiaphy 


19 


19 






14 


12 










35 




Land surveying and cos- 
mograpby. 

Land surveying and level- 
ling. 

Matbcraatics, supplemen- 
tary notions of. 

Mocliauics 


7 













5 
15 
























GO 


45 


PhyciiCS 






20 


20 








20 


















Total 


96 


102 


108 


102 


108 


96 







These studies include elements of analytic geometry, descriptive 
geometry, theoretical and applied kinematics, pure and applied mechan- 
ics, industrial application of physics and chemistry, drawing, industrial 
applications; technology, application to the construction of machines; 
accounting and elements of industrial economics and industrial hygiene. 

The practical instruction is given in the following workshops: Car- 
pentry and patternmaking, foundery, fitting, forging, and coppersmith.- 
ing. 

The first tliree months the pupils work in the different shops. After 
that time they are permanently placed in the shops for which they are 
best fitted. During the last year, however, they are again placed in 
the different shops for a short time to get a better general knowledge 
of practical work. In this way they work at their own particular j)ro- 
fessions a little over two and a half years. 

These schools each admit 100 pupils every year who board at the 
schools. Since 1885 pupils who board outside the school may also be 
admitted. 

Over 4,000 pupils have graduated from these schools. Nearly all of 
these occupy important positions in the various industries and in the gov- 
ernment service. A society of former pupils has existed since 1846. Its 
aim is to find occupations for graduates, to maintain a fraternity among 
them, and to publish articles on technology, science, and industrial arts 
written by its members. A list of the occupations of members of this 
society is given in another imrt of this rei)ort. 



288 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



The instruction is gratuitous. The price for board is 600 francs 
($115.80) per year. A sum of 75 francs (114.48) for incidental expenses 
is paid upon entering. The cost of the uniform and clothing outfit is 
fixed at 300 francs ($57.90). 

The state provides a scholarship for the payment, either entirely oi 
in x)art, of the board of pupils who have not the necessary means. In 
certain cases the expenses for the clothing outfit is paid by the state. 

The admission to the school is by comxoetitive examination. Pui)ils 
must be between 15 and 17 years of age at the time of the examina- 
tion for admission, and must be of French parentage. 

Following are the branches in which the candidates are examined : 
Penmanship 5 French grammar and orthography; arithmetic, theo- 
retical and practical; elementary geometry; algebra, to equations oi 
the second degree; history of France and geography, as taught in the 
high schools. 

The following exercises are also included : A dictation, with the defi- 
nition of the words, and a grammatical and logical analysis; a lineal de- 
sign, and a pen and ink ornamental design; two problems in arithmetic 
and two in geometry; one piece of wood work and one piece of iron 
work, to test the manual skill of the candidate. 

These institutions are under the j arisdiction of the minister of com- 
merce and industry, and are maintained entirely by the state. The 
interior affairs are administered by a director, with the concurrence of 
a board composed of the professors and chiefs of the workshops. 

The expenses of the three schools during 1890 were as follows: 

Materials and Sundries. 

Cluilous $48,809.31 

Aix 41,848.58 

Aniiers 40,622.06 



Total 131,279.95 

Expenses at Paris on account of these schools 1, 421. 83 

Expenses on account of examinations for admission 3, 121. 00 

Prizes and compensations to best pupils 4, 342. 50 



Grand total 140,165.28 



OCCUPATIOIv^S or GRADUATES OF THE NATI0i^"AL SCHOOLS OF AETS AND TEADES 
AT AIX, ANGERS, A2S^D CHALONS. 



Industries and occupations. 


Num- 
ber. 


Industries and occupations. 


Num- 
ber. 


Army service : 
Geue^'ul 


1 
3 
17 
35 

47 
26 

5 

107 

3 

16 


Building: 

Architects 


44 


Hi""b cominissioned. ofl&cers ............ 


Building materials— hrich work, cement, 
ceramics, lime, mosaics, paints, plaster, 
quarries, slate, tiling, timber: 
Manufacturers, merchants, and em- 
ployes. 
Education : 

Directors, engineers, professors of in- 
struction, chiefs and assistant chiefs 
of workshops, and curators. 
Electric works: 

Constructors, directors, and engineers. 
Chiefs and assistant chiefs of work- 
shops, draughtsmen, etc. 








Non-commissioned officers and soldiers. 
Bridges and metallic constructions: 

Pi-oprietors, Uianngers, and engineers... 

Chiefs of worksliops and construction, 
draughtsmen, etc. 
Bridges, roads, etc. : 

Engineers and assistant engineers 

Superintendents and 0Tcrsee'''3 


49 
61 


Telegraph and telephone constructors.. 
Superintendents of mines, surveyors, 
experts, and managers. 


45 
29 



CHAP. IV 



-INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 



289 



OCCUPATIONS OF GEADUATES OF TJIE ]SrATIOXAL SCHOOLS OF AETS A:ND TEADES 
AT AIX, ANGERS, AND CHALONS-Continued. 



Industries and occupations. 


Num- 
ber. 


Industries and occupations. 


Num- 
ber. 


Engineers : 

Civil enfiueers .............. . .... 


143 
16 

236 

45 

14 

3 

365 
340 

74 

210 
125 

43 

6 

11 

15 

5 
32 
11 

129 

22 
11 

8 

42 

3 

1 
6 

1 

1 

4 

119 
16 

162 

22 
116 

29 

11 

59 

41 

40 

116 


Spinning, combing, weaving, finishing, and 
dyeing : 
Proprietors, directors, engineers, and 

various higher occupations. 
Manufacturers of laces, velvets, tulles, 

etc. 
Constructors of materials, looms, stitch- 
ing machines, and paper tubes. 
Steam upparatus, and brass and copper 
work : 




Consulting engineers and patent solici- 
tors. 


99 
4 


Gas works: 

Proprietors, engineers, directors of 

-works, draughtsmen, etc. 
Gas fitters 


15 


Insurance: 


80 


Mechanical construction -works in general: 
Proprietors, managers, and engineers.. 
Chiefs and assistant chiefs of work- 
shops and construction , draughtsmen, 
accountants, etc. 
Mercantile branches : 

^Merchants and employes . .... 


Sugar works, refineries, and distilleries: 
Proprietors, managers, engineers, and 
heads of factories. 


42 
6 


Constructors of sugar works, refineries, 
and distilleries: managers, engineers, 
chiefs of -sv- orkshops, foremen, and con- 
struction draughtsmen. 
Various professions and occupations : 


15 


Metal works, fonnderies and forges : 

Proprietors, directors, and engineers... 


5 


shops and factories, draughtsmen, etc. 


Dentist 


1 




1 


Engineers, managers, and superin- 
tendents. 
[Mechanics etc . 




100 


Eepresentatives of various industries.. 
"Water works : 

Contractors for works of conveyance and 
distribution. 

Managers, engineers, and agents 

Miscellaneous : 

Proprietors, managers, engineers, and 
constructors of materials in the follow- 
ing industries : 


53 


Navigation — construction -workshops : 

Proprietors, managers, and construction 

engineers. 
Chiefs and assistant chiefs of -work- 
shops, foremen, draughtsmen, etc. 
Navigation — commercial and military 
marine, maritime canals : 


9 

22 

18 


Marine officers and principal engineers. 
Engineers, inspectors and chief en- 

gnaeers. commercial marine. 
First and second master engineers, 

engineers' apprentices, engineers on 

commercial vessel^, etc. 
Paper -works : 

Proprietors, managers, and engineers. . . 


Articles for travel, fans, saddlery.. 


5 


Artistic^metal work — iron, copper, 

lead, and tin. 
Eell fo'underies 


15 
2 


Belting and straps of leather, cotton, 
and india-rtibber. 

Blacking, paints, and varnishes 

Bottles, corks, bottle clasps, and si- 
phons. 


16 
2 


Constructors of materials' for paper 


1 


Powder and dynamite works, cannon foun- 
deries and arsenals, and tobacco works : 


Cables and chains . . . 


1 


Carpentry, sawmills, cabinetmak- 
ing, an'd patternraaking. 


18 


Public officials : 


7 


Collectors of revenues, and of alms 


Chemical products, salts, etc 

Chemist 


14 
1 


Notaries, court presidents, judges, ex- 
perts, and arbiters. 
Insnector of child laboi in manufacto- 


Chest makino" 


1 




2 


Coalmines .... ..... 


8 






2 


Secretary of mayor's ofiice 


EnoTiivincr. .. . .. ....... 


3 






q 


Public works : 


Files 


4 


Contractors, engineers, and foremen. . 


Food products 


2 


Mechanics, draughtsmen, etc 


Founderies, bolt and nail forges, 
horseshoes, sad-irons, buttons, 
hooks. 


28 


Eailways, road construction : 

Engineers, chiefs and assistant chiefs 
of sections and workshops, overseers, 
and draughtsmen. 





Gas ovens and other ovens . . . 


5 


Eaih^ays, plant and rolling stock: 

Engineers and assistant engineers 

Chiefs and assistant chiefs of railway 
stations, offices, etc. 


Gilding, silver plating, nickel plat- 
ing, and galvanizing. 


6 
13 


Grinders ... 


5 


Locomotive engineers and firemen 

Railways, offices and n orkshops : 

Engineers and assistant engineers in 

offices and workshops. 
Chiefs and assistant chiefs of work- 


Grindstones and emer3^ paper 

Hardware and tinware 


4 
21 


Heaters, flues, and ventilators 

Ice making and ice machinery 


26 

9 

10 


shops and offices, and other employes. 
Forem n, assistant foremen, finishers, 


Machinery, tools, stamps, and saws . 


28 

7 




Matches 


6 


Draught snicn J 


Mills for flour and other foods 

Motors, petroleum 


20 


Railways— inspection and control: 


1 


Inspectors, sub-inspectors, controllers, 
and assistant controllers. 


Oil and grease, iietroleum, soap, and 
candles. 


9 



S. Ex. 05- 



-19 



290 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



OCCUPATIONS OF GHADUATES OF THE NATIONAL SCHOOLS OF ARTS AND TRADES 
AT AIX, ANGERS, AND CHILONS— Concluded. 



Industries and occupations. 


Num- 
ber. 


Industries and occupations. 


Num- 
ber. 


Miscellaneous— continued. 

Proprietors, managers, etc.— cont'd. 
Publisliiug, printing, lithographing, 
heliographing, bookbinding, and 
photographing. 
Pumps and hydraulic motors 


22 

15 
1 
2 
3 
6 
1 
8 


Miscellaneous — concluded . 

Proprietors, managers, etc. — conc'd. 
Velocipedes, carriages ^arsd wagons, 
tramways, and onmibuses. 
TVatchmaking, goklsmithinz, scien- 
tific and musical instruments, phys- 
ical and surgical apparatus, etc. 
Wire mills 


23 
13 




3 


Starch 


"Wire screens and other metallic cloth 






2 


Tar and asphalt 


Total 




Tubes copper or iron ..... ...... 


4,045 









CENTRAL INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, LYONS. 

Two important institutions projected along practically the same line 
as the national schools of arts and trades are the Central Industrial 
School at Lyons and the Industrial Institute of the IJ^Torth of France at 
Lille. The former of the two just mentioned is of a somewhat higher 
grade. It is in fact to Lyons very much what the Central School of 
Arts and Manufactures is to Paris. 

About 350 have graduated from the Lyons institution^ and nearly all 
have chosen technical vocations. They are found principally as pro- 
X)rietors, managers, or employes in silk and velvet factorieSj chemica] 
and iron works, paper mills, engineers on railway or road construc- 
tion, etc. 



INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE OP THE NORTH OP FRANCE, LILLE. 

This school is largely a technological institution. It was founded by 
the department of the north in the city of Lille. Its object is to fit 
civil engineers, managers, and superintendents for the workshops of 
the x)rincipal industries of the north of France. 

The instruction is theoretical and i:)ractical, and includes lectures, 
designing, experiments and work in general, industrial and analytic 
chemistry, experiments in dyeing, work in shops, and numerous visits to 
industrial establishments in the region. A great part of the time is 
spent in the shops and laboratories. The in'Ogramme of studies has 
special reference to industries of the neighborhood. Instruction in the 
textile arts is greatly developed at the institute. The lessons are ac- 
companied by practical exercises in a large and well equipj)ed shoj), 
with machines of a sufficient variety to initiate the student into 
nearly all the operations belonging to the linen, cotton, or woollen in- 
dustries. 

The instruction is given in two distinct divisions — of technology (on 
the type of schools of arts and trades) and civil engineering (on the 
type of the Central School of Arts and Manufactures). Each course is 
divided into three sections — mechanics, sx)inning and weaving, and 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 291 

industrial cliemistiy. The plan of studies is absolutely the same for 
all ill the begiuuiug; in the second year the spscialization commences, 
and is accentuated in the third year. 

The plan of studies for the section of mechanics has been devised 
with a view of specially preparing for the industries of machine con- 
struction, and for x^ublic works. The pupils of this division are partic- 
ularly trained in drawing, fitting, carpentry, operations of taking plans, 
levelling and surveying. 

The pupils of the section of spinning and weaving follow, in the sec- 
ond year, a si)ecial elementary course. During the last year they pursue 
a higher course relative to textile materials and the industries which 
they are to follow. The practical exercises of si^inning and weaving 
commence in the second year, and are greatly extended during the last 
year. 

The pupils of the section of chemistry commence, in the second year, 
the study of analytic and industrial chemistry. Later they studj^, in 
special advanced courses, the principles of industrial chemistry. They 
are trained in experiments. During the last year the greater part of 
their time is employed in practical work. 



NATIONAL SCHOOL FOR TRAINING FOREMEN AND SKILLED ME- 
CHANICS, CLUNY. 

The original design of the three national schools of arts and trades 
at Aix, Angers, and Chalons was to train skilled mechanics and fore- 
men. In later years there has been an advance both in the char^icter 
of the instruction and object sought to be accomplished. These schools 
now train, in reality, overseers and mechanical engineers. 

The new institution at Oluny is meant to fill in the gap between the 
training given in the national schools at Armentieres and at Aix, for 
example. It was only opened in Sei>t ember 1892^ so it is imjjossible, 
as yet, to speak of results. 



SUPEEIOE mDUSTEIxlL SCHOOLS. 

The government of France maintains an elaborate system of techni- 
cal schools from which to recruit the service in its various administra- 
tive dei)artments, state manufiictories and industries. These schools 
include: Army and navy schools, schools of agriculture and horti- 
culture, schools of forestry, veterinary schools, schools for the postal 
and telegraphic services, various schools of navigation and seamanship, 
schools for engineers of naval vessels, a polytechnic school, a national 
school for bridges and highways service, schools of mines, and art 
schools connected with state manufactories at the Gobelins tapestry 
works at Paris, and also at Beauvais and at Sevres. 



292 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL, PARIS. 

The principal object of this school is to educate technical engineers 
for service in the various departments of the government service. The 
course of study covers two years. 

The instruction includes a great variety of subjects, as: Mathematics, 
tNA^o years; descriptive geometry, one year; stereometry, one year; 
mechanics and machinery, two years; physics, two years; chemistry, 
two years ; geodesy and astronomy, one year ; architecture, two years ; 
military art, one year ; history, geography, and literature, two years; 
German language, two years; drawing and water color, two years. 

The studies are supplemented by visits to establishments in the city 
and the neighboring country. 

Students upon graduating either go directly into the service of the 
state, or continue their studies in other state schools, such as the school 
of mines, the school of bridges and highways, etc. Graduates not 
going into the state service have no difficulty in getting employment 
in responsible positions. 

All students board at the school. The price for board is 1,000 francs 
($193) per year, and that of their outfit, 500 francs ($96.50). Numer- 
ous partial or entirely free scholarships are given. In 1889 there were 
144 of these. 

Candidates for admission must be between the ages of 16 and 21 
years, and must be either bachelors of science, bachelors of special in- 
struction, bachelors of letters, or must possess a certificate relative to 
the first x)roof for bachelor of letters. Numerous preparatory schools 
exist in various parts of France to fit students for admission to this 
school. 

NATIONAL SCHOOL OP BRIDGES AND HIGHWAYS, PARIS. 

This school is maintained to recruit the corps of government engi- 
neers of bridges and highways. Government students are taken ex- 
clusively from the Polytechnic School at Paris. In addition to these 
students the school receives also others as day students, young men 
who wish to obtain the same instruction, but who upon graduation do 
not enter the government service. Their situation is very similar to 
those of engineers of the school of arts and manufactures. 

The course of instruction covers three years, as follows: 

First year. — Applied mechanics (resistance and materials), road con- 
struction, mineralogy and geology, architecture (the employment of 
wood and iron in constructions — decoration of bridges), political econ- 
omy, general iirinciples of construction. 

Second year. — Applied mechanics (hydraulics), construction (interior 
navigation), construction (bridges), steam engines, architecture (em- 
ployment of wood and iron in constructions — decoration of bridges), 
administrative law. 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 293 

Third year. — Construction (railroads), construction (maritime works), 
administrative law, fortifications. English and German languages are 
also required. 

In eacli division the students are exercised in practical work, graphic 
work, drawing, sketching, manipulation, and testing of materials of 
construction, levelling, and laying plans for machinery, buildings, etc. 
Supplementary courses are also given in pisciculture, the operation of 
railroads, photograi)hy, electric telegraphy, etc. The instruction is 
entirely gTatuitous. 

Students not coming from the Polytechnic School must be 25 years 
old and must pass an examination for admission. This class of stu- 
dents is very small. A preparatory department for day students is 
also maintained by this school. 

NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL OP MINES, PARIS. 

This school is maintained primarily to educate engineers for employ- 
ment in the exploitation of state mines. For this purpose the students 
are recruited exclusively from the Polytechnic School. Independent of 
these, the school also admits a limited number of other students. 

The duration of studies is three years. The instruction has for its 
object the imparting of knowledge concerning the exploitation of mines, 
the treatment of mineral substances, and the management of railroads. 
The following are the principal subjects taught : 

First year. — Working of mines j general metallurgy (iron) ; analytical 
chemistry of the metalloids; industrial chemistry; mineralogy; animal 
paleontology; topography; designs and plans for exploitations ; exercises 
in the analysis of minerals; exercises in mineralogy and paleontology; 
exercises in topography. 

Second- year. — Metallurgy (different metals); analytical chemistry 
(metals); geology and petrography; machines and resistance of ma- 
terials ; railroads ; industrial economics ; theses in metallurgy and ma- 
chines; exercises in mineral analysis; exercises in petrography; indus- 
trial visits and geological courses. 

Third year. — ApjDlied geology; construction work; construction of 
machinery; legislation concerning mines; applications of electricity; 
artillery; analysis of theses; projects of thesis and of exi^loitation, 
machines, and metallurgy. Students of the third year must also fol- 
low a course in English or German. 

In addition to visits to mines and industrial establishments and nu- 
merous excursions which students have to make in order to complete 
their education, they are required during vacation to make a stay of 
a month in a mining or metallurgical district of France or Belgium. 
On their return they must make a report on the places they have 
visited. 

The instruction is entirely free. Students who are not graduates of 



294 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

tlie Polyteclinic School are admitted according to the following condi- 
tioiis: 

(1) Day students ttIio intend to become engineers or managers in the 
working of mines for private i^ersons. Only, four or five are admitted 
each year. They must be between the ages of 17 and 23 years and are 
soleeted by examination. They follow the same course as the govern- 
ment students, but are not given employment by the state upon grad- 
uating. When they finish they receive a diploma, and generally find 
employment as engineers in mines, metallurgical industries, the rail- 
road service, etc. There are i)reparatory courses for entrance as day 
students. 

(2) Foreign students are admitted by request of their governments. 
They must i)ass an examination. 

(3) Free students are admitted on their own initiative, to follow all or 
part of the courses. They receive no title or diploma, and are not con- 
sidered as regular students. 

SCHOOL OF MINES, SAINT-ETIENNE. 

This is a national school, intended to furnish managers and engineers. 
The organization and requirements are very similar to those mentioned 
in connection with the previous institution. 

Tiie average number of students admitted annually is twenty-five. 

The administration does not guarantee i)ositions to graduates. All, 
however, obtain i)ositions without difficulty at salaries which commence 
at 1,800 to 2,400 francs ($347.40 to $463.20) per year and advance as 
they gain experience. The school furnishes also engineers to metal- 
lurgical and chemical establishments in France and foreign countries. 
In the metallurgical industry of the department of the Loire 32 out of 
the oQ managers and engineers are graduates of the Saint-Etienne 
School of Mines. Out of 372 engineers directly emx)loyed in private 
mines in France 278 are graduates of this school, 68 of the Central 
School of Arts and Manufactures at Paris, and 26 of the National 
High School of Mines at Paris. 

The instruction is gratuitous. The conditions for admission are the 
same as for the Central School of Arts and Manufactures at Paris, with 
the additional requirement of a knowledge of chemistry. 

SCHOOLS FOR MASTER MINERS, ALAIS (G-ARD) AND DOUAI 

(NORD). 

These are practical schools, Intended to educate master workmen 
for mines. The instruction is both theoretical and practical, and lasts 
two years. One-half of each year is given up to work in the mines, 
and the other half to special studies in the elements of mathematics, 
physics, chemistry, working of mines, designing, etc. 

Pui)ils must be 16 years of age to be admitted to the Douai school 
and IsS to be admitted to the Alais school. 



CHAP. IV. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 295 

Tbe state gives scholars liii)S, preference being given to tlie sons of 
miners. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR NATIONAL MANUFACTORIES. 

The government maintains a school of decorative art and tapestry 
and a practical school of chemistrj^ as apx3lied to dyeing at the national 
manufactory of Gobelins, a school of decorative art at the manufactory 
of Beauvais, and a practical school of ceramics at the national manu- 
factory of Sevres, to recruit the service at these state establishments 
with artisans possessing technical artistic skill. 

CENTRAL SCHOOL OP ARTS AND MANUFACTURES, PARIS. 

The Central School of Arts and Manufactures was founded in 1829 
as a private institution. It became a state institution in 1857. 

The aims of the founders were to establish a school for the higher 
industrial studies, uniting the scientific theoretical branches with 
practical work. The plan originally adopted exists at the present 
day. The institution is intended to form engineers for all the various 
branches of industry and for the public service. 

The minister of commerce, industr^^, and the colonies has direct 
control of this institution. 

The course of study covers three years, as follows : 

First year: Lessons. 

Analysis (differential and integral calcnlus) 33 

Kinematics and rational meclianics 52 

Descrii)tire geometry and applications 50 

General physics 60 

General chemistry 60 

Mineralogy and geology 30 

Construction of the elements and parts of machines. 20 

Architecture and civil constructions 30 

Industrial hygiene and applied natural sciences 25 

Total 360 

Second year: 

Applied mechanics 60 

Applied resistance .V 22 

Construction and erection of machines 50 

Industrial physics 44 

Applications of electricity and of light 28 

Stc.nm engines 36 

Analytical chemistry 48 

Technological chemistry 40 

Architecture and civil constructions 50 

Legislation and industrial economics 25 

Total 403 



296 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Third year : • Lessons. 

Applied mecbanics (hydraulics) 45 

Constrnctiou and erection of machines 45 

Industrial chemistry 50 

General metallurgy and metallurgy of iron 55 

Exploitation of mines 4C 

Public Tvorks 53 

Railroads 40 

Total 328 

The first j^ear's studies relate to the general sciences. I^hey consti- 
tute a basis of the encyclopedic instruction of the engineer. 

The second year's courses pertain more especially to technical instruc- 
tion. They are taught by engineers who are in actual daily practice, 
and the pupils must adapt themselves to ideas which are more positive 
and less abstract. The studies are comi)leted by laboratory exercises 
and visits to factories. In the middle of the second year students have 
to specialize into one of the four branches — ^machinists, constructors, 
metallurgists, or chemists. 

The average number of pupils admitted each year is 250. Graduates 
find ready employment as engineers, managers of establishments, con- 
structors, etc. 

During the last half century more than 4,000 graduates of the school 
have been distributed over all parts of the globe. About 600 foreign 
pupils have graduated, most of whom are now occupying high positions 
in their respective countries. Many of the buildings of the late expo- 
sition, the Eiifel tower, the palace of the Trocadero, and part of the 
machinery hall are works of former pupils of this school. 

Candidates for admission must be at least 18 years of age and must 
pass an examination. 

A sum of 60,000 francs ($11,580) annually is set aside by the govern- 
ment for assisting worthy young men with limited resources. 

NATIONAL CONSERVATORY OF ARTS AND TRADES, PARIS. 

The ]^ational Conservatory of Arts and Trades, which ranks as one 
of the great scientific institutions of France, was founded by the na- 
tional convention in 1794, but was not organized until 1796. The cele- 
brated museum was definitely installed in 1798. 

The original object was to establish a collection of machinery, pat- 
terns, models, tools, drawings, descriptions, and books relating to all the 
branches of the arts and trades, and also of tlie originals of all instru- 
ments and machines invented or perfected ; and to provide means for 
the explanation of the tools and useful machinery to those interested 
in the arts and trades. By a special ordinance of the government 
gratuitous courses of instruction on the application of the sciences and 
industrial arts were begun in 1819. The conservatory is to industrial 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 297 

science Avliat the College of Fraree is to pure scieuce. It has rendered 
great service in the application of science to industry and in the popu- 
larization of industrial quevStions. 

There are fifteen professorial chairs, of which twelve are devoted to 
science applied to the arts and three to the general laws and results 
of lahor, constituting, as. it were, the philosophy of the subject. These 
fifteen courses vary in subject matter from year to year, as each course 
runs a number of years. The following are the subjects treated: 

Mechanical arts — geometry applied to the arts, mechanics applied to 
tlie arts, spinning and weaving ; art of construction — descriptive geom- 
etry, civil constructions; physics — as applied to the arts; chemistry — 
general chemistry, industrial chemistry, chemistry applied to the indus- 
tries of dyeing, ceramics, and glass making; agriculture — agricultural 
chemistry, agricultural works and rural engineering; economic sciences 
and legislation — political economy and industrial legislation, industrial 
economics and statistics, commercial law. 

As the instruction is addressed to an audience which is occupied 
during the day in commerce or industry, the courses are given in the 
evening between the hours of 7.45 and 10 o'clock. They continue from 
IS'ovember to April of each year. 

The lectures are public and gratuitous. In each course places are 
reserved in the amphitheatre for a certain number of pupils who have 
made application for the same to the professor. These constitute a 
class of regular auditors known by name to the teacher. From among 
these the prize men are selected. 

The number of auditors varies from 120,000 to 130,000 -pev year. The 
number of regular auditors for which places are reserved is about 
20,000. 

The minister of commerce, industry, and the colonies has direct con- 
trol of this institution. 

The annual budget of the conservatory is about 290,000 francs 
($55,970) for salaries, administration, and prizes, and about 152,000 
francs ($29,330) for materials and sundry expenses, making a total of 
about 442,000 francs ($85,306). 

INDUSTRIAL ART EDUOATIOK 

France possesses, in addition to the schools of fine arts, a number 
of institutions giving instruction in art as related to indastry. The 
following are the principal schools of this kind: 

NATIONAL SCHOOL OP DECORATIVE ARTS, PARIS. 

This school was created especially to educate artists and artisans for 
industries in which art plays an important part. It has, therefore, 
both morning and evening classes. The instruction is given in two 
divisions, as follows: Elementary division — mathematics, geometrical 



298 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

drawing, designing of ornameuts, drawing figures and animals, sculp- 
ture; advanced division — arcliitecture and construction, arcMtectural 
drawing, legislation concerning buildings, rllievo designs, antique, 
living models and large rilievo ornamentation, sculi)tnre, anatomy, 
liistary and comi)osition of ornamentation, general history and history 
of industries. 

Students must be at least 10 years old for the morning classes^ and 
14 years for the evening classes. Instruction is gratuitous. 

KATIOia'AL SCHOOL OF DBSIGN FOR GIRLS, PARIS. 

This school is intended to provide the same instruction for girls as 
that provided for boys by the ]!:s'ational School of Decorative Arts. The 
teaching is done in three divisions, the elementary section, the advanced 
section, and a special course, as follows : Elementary section — free-hand 
drawing, i)erspective, plans, ornaments, designs from rilievo heads, 
flowers, etc. J advanced section — designs of ornaments, architecture al- 
ternating with the composition of ornaments or industrial models, de- 
signs of figures after the antique or nature, designs from natural 
flowers, history of art and comi)arative anatomy j the special course 
relates to modelling, oil and water color painting, painting on porceUiin 
and Delft v/are^ engraving on wood, and etching. 

Tuition is free. Candidates for admission must be at least 12 years 
of age. 

Schools on the model of the National School of Decorative Arts at 
Paris have been created in several departments, for both sexes. The 
instruction is gratuitous. Candidates must know how to read, write, 
and perform simple mathematical calculations. 

SCHOOL OF TAPESTRY, AUBUSSON. 

The instruction at this school relates i^ore especially to the manufact-_ 

ure of tapestry. It comprises geometrical drawing, ornamental de- 
signing, the elements of architecture, anatomy, and decorative comi)o- 
sition; special courses relating to local industries, tapestry designing, 
I)reparation of cards for weaving, embroidery, and chemical coloring. 
Boys must be at least 13, and girls 12 years of age, to be admitted. 

SCHOOL OP CERAMICS, LIMOGBS. 

The instruction relates especially to the manufacture of ceramics. 
There are three divisions — the elementary, superior, and special. The 
elementary division comprises free-hand drawing; ornamental design- 
ing 5 geometrical drawing (perspective, shading, and coloring); rilievo 
(ornament, flower, fig-ure). The superior division includes drawing 
from the antique, nature, and living models; comparative anatomy; 
drawing from large rilievo and models taken from art industries 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 299 

(bronze vases J ceramics, furniture, tapestry, etc.)^ arcliitecture; com- 
position of ornament; general history. The special course iucludes 
modelling; drawing and i)ainting of flowers from nature; ceramic 
painting; engraving for ceramic impressions. 

Boys must be 13, and girls 12 years of age, to be admitted. 

SCHOOL AT NICE. 

The instruction consists of geometrical drawling and dravfing of 
ornaments after the antique and. from nature; sculpture after the 
antique and from nature, with exercises in comx^osition ; elementary 
mathematics and perspective; elements of architecture; architecture 
(course in construction); historj^ and composition of ornament; com- 
parative anatomy; applications to decoration. 

Pupils must be at least 10 years of age to attend the day classes, 
and 14 for the night classes. 

NATIONAL SCHOOL OP INDUSTRIAL ARTS, ROUBAIX. 

This school, w^hich was organized at the expense of the state and 
the city of Roubaix, has for its object the education of artists and. arti- 
sans lor the industries of Eoubaix. 

The instruction comprises twenty-two courses of study, as follows: 

Section of design and painting: Preparatory free-hand drawing; ele- 
mentary drawing and the perspective of observation; intermediate 
drawing (orna^ment, head); advanced drawing and artistic anatomy; 
history of art; i)aintiDg; decorative composition. 

Section of architecture: Linear and plain geometrical drawing; alge- 
bra and geometry in space ; applied mechanics and descriptive geometry ; 
sketches of machines; architecture; general constrnction, for workmen 
onbuildiugs. 

Industrial section: Chemistry; physics; dyeing, first year; dyeing, 
second year; experiments; weaving, first year; weaving, second year; 
practical work in threading; heating. 

This school possesses large physical and chemical laboratories. The 
laboratory for dyeing permits fifty students to work at the same time, 
and to perform experimentally all the operations required in dyeing. 

The average attendance is 600 pui:)ils. The annual budget is 70,000 
francs ($13,510). 

SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS, S AINT-BTIENNE . 

This school w^as organized on the model of that of Eoubaix. The in- 
struction includes nineteen courses: Three in drawing; eight si)ecial 
courses — elementary geometi^? descrii^tive geometry, x>erspective, 
anatomy, history of art, i:)hysics, chemistry, geometrical drawing; eight 



300 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LADOR. 

courses of application — decorative composition, modelling, arcliitectiirej 
engravin,i>' of arms, preparation of cards for Tveaving, weaving, dyeing, 
lieat and mechanics. 

The average attendance is 450 pnpils. 

SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS, REIMS. 

Tliis school was created for the education of artisans for different 
industries. It is a day school. Evening classes are also held. 

The day classes are for x)upils who specialize in a certain branch of 
industrial art, and the evening classes are for artisans, laborers, and 
employes who desire to x)erfect themselves in their work. The 
instruction comi)rises an elementary division, an advanced division, 
and special courses, as follows : 

The elementary division: Geometrical and free-hand drawing; per- 
spective and shadows J elements of drawing from rilievo and from 
figures. The advanced division: Drawing of figures from nature and 
the antique; comparative anatomy j drawing of ornaments from models 
borrowed from art establishments, tapestry, furniture, bronzes, vases, 
etc.; elementary study of arcliitecture; drawing of machinery; com- 
l)ositionof ornament; general history of art. The special courses com- 
X)rise: Modelling; wood and stone sculpturing; oil and water color 
X)ainting; architecture; construction of buildings; carpentry; stone 
cutting; iron work ; verification of works; preparation of cards for loom 
work. Twice a week the classes are open to girls, who must be accom- 
panied by a parent or guardian. 

The attendance in 1889-'90 was 350 pupils. Pupils are required to be 
at least 13 years of age. They must be able to read and write and 
understand the elements of arithmetic. They are classed according to 
special aptitude, as determined by examination. 

MUNICIPAL DRAWING SCHOOLS. 

There exist, also, numerous municipal drawing schools in France, 
most of which are subsidized by the state. Although the state ex- 
ercises, to some extent, a control over the instruction, the latter is far 
from uniform. The programmes vary according to the particular needs 
of the locality or the existence of local industries. 

The instruction is divided into three classes, which generally include 
the following subjects: 

Elementary classes: Free-hand and linear drawing. Intermediate 
classes : Drawing of ornaments and parts of rilievo, the practical study 
of projection (sketches, plans, levelling, etc.). Advanced classes: 
Drawing from rilievo, general history of art, study of order and ordi- 
nances, the ai)plication of projection to carpentry^ ii'on work, stone 
cutting, etc. 

About 250 schools of this kind exist in France. 



CHAP. IV. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 301 



DRAWING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, PARIS. 

Instruction in drawing is commenced in the infant classes, where it 
precedes that of writing 5 it is continued in the elementary jirimary 
schools, and carried to a still further extent in the advanced primary 
schools. As the latter are available for only a few, the city of Paris 
has provided for evening classes in «; number of the communal (public) 
schools, where gratuitous instruction is giA^en in drawing and modelling 
to apprentices and adults. This instruction consists of: Gleometrical 
drawing, with its practical applications — draughting machinery, archi- 
tectural drawing, coloring, etc. 5 free-hand draAving (ornament and figure) 
executed after relief; round rilievOy plants and living models, modelling, 
and sculpture. 

These courses are open every evening from 8 to 10 o'clock. There are 
70 of these schools for men and 17 for girls and women. 

The instruction given in the above mentioned schools is mainly of a 
general and theoretical character. 

The city of Paris, desiring to complete the education thus given by 
instruction relating more particularly to industry, created in 1883 two 
schools of design, one of preparatory practical designing, and the other 
for the application of the art to a certain number of industries. The 
latter is a complement of the former. 

GERMAIN PILON SCHOOL, PARIS. 

This is a municipal school preparatory to practising designing. The 
instruction, which is entirely gratuitous, lasts three years, and in- 
cludes: Applied mathematics, drawing from relief work, round rilievo^ 
plants and living models, sculpture and decorative painting, archi- 
tectural designing and history of art, history and comx^osition of orna- 
mentation. There are two courses, one during the day and the other 
in the evening from 8 to 10 o'clock. 

Candidates for admission to the day classes must be 14 and those 
for the night classes 15 years of age. Candidates provided with cer- 
tificates of primary education may enter at 13 years of age. 

BERNARD PALISSY SCHOOL, PARIS. 

This is a municipal school for the application of the fine arts to in- 
dustry. 

There are four shops for practical work, viz., one for ceramics, glass- 
work, and enamelling; one for decorative painting; one for sculpture 
in wood, marble, ivory, and metals; and one for designing for cloths and 
furnishings. These branches relate to the industries which x)redomi- 
nate in the quarter where the school is located. 

The course is for three years. The instruction is gratuitous. There 



302 REPORT OP THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

are botli uiglit and day scliools. Candidates must be at least 14 years 
old for the day school and 15 years old for the night school. They are 
examined for admission. The annual budget amounts to about 62,000 

francs ($11,966). 

TRAYELLIE^a SOHOLAESHIPS TO GEADUATEB OE II^DUS- 

TEIAL SCHOOLS. 

The minister of commerce and industry gives every year a number 
of travelling scholarships to graduates of industrial or trade schools. 

The value of these scholarshix)s varies according to the importance 
and duration of the trip from 1,500 to 3,000 francs ($289.50 to $579) a 
5'ear. They are renewable once or twice, but not longer. Holders of 
scholarships may choose the country wherein they temporarily sojourn. 
T]iey must study industrial matters while abroad and send a report of 
their studies and observations at least every three months to the min- 
ister of commerce and industry. 

Scholarships are awarded after comiietitive examination, comxDri sing 
a translation, a composition, and a technical industrial report in either 
English or German, at the choice of the candidates. 

Candidates must furthermore be of Erench nationality, between 21 
and 30 years of age, have graduated from a public school either whoiiy 
or partially under the control of the minister of commerce and indus- 
try, and have produced also certificates of health and good morals. 



CHAPTER V. 



PRESENT STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN 

GERMANY. 



oOo 



CHAPTER y. 

PRESENT STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 

MAKUAL TEAINIKO. 

The author of the Leipsic treatise on Education for Labor expresses 
the opinion that it is a reproach to Germany, the land of schools, 
that she has permitted France, Austria, Sweden, and Switzerland to 
anticipate her in the establishment and extension of a system of manual 
training in the schools. 

He claims that, ever since Martin Luther's day, the leading German 
educators have strongly urged the necessity of introducing hand train- 
ing into the schools as a means of mental discipline. Yet he declares 
that the ideas of such men have been spurned as dreams and phantasms, 
well enough in the realm of thought, but incapable of growth in the 
solid ground of reality. 

According to Herr Endris the first instruction in manual training 
given on German soil was begun by Olauson-Kaas, a Dane, at Emden, 
in the province of Hanover, on the 6th day of September 1880. This 
foreign enthusiast organized a course of training for teachers, of whom 
there were 63 in the first class formed The subjects of instruction 
included carpentry, basket making, straw work, bookbinding, etc. 

From this small beginning came a demand for similar instruction 
elsewhere, resulting in the formation of associations at Leipsic and 
Dresden for the promotion of the new enterprise. In Saxony the 
movement excited gi*eat enthusiasm. To reduce the exj)ense of the 
experiment the minister of internal affairs granted a subvention of 3,000 
marks ($714), and the minister of education declared his willingness to 
aid the cause by every means in his power. At Dresden, where 
Clauson-Kaas gave a course of instruction, a class of 66 members was 
formed, composed of as many distinguished men as were ever placed 
under one teacher together, except possibly in Dr. Holmes's class at 
Harvard. There were Bottcher, Kockel, Birch-Hirschfeld, and many 
more whose rightful titles can confer no additional honor on their 
names. These men submitted themselves to the unwonted discipline 
of hand work daily, from 7 o'clock in the morning until nightfall, 
during the entire course. The subjects taught were the same as at 
Emden, with the addition of metal work and modelling in plaster. 

The interest was great. The king, ministerial officers, and deputa- 
tions from various societies, besides many other high jDcrsonages, hon- 
S. Ex. 65 20 305 



306 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

ored tlie occasion by tlieir presence. Minister von Gerber declared 
that liereafter no Turnlialle should be conducted without the adjunct of 
a school workshop. 

In northern Germany there are now many institutes of manual 
training. School workshops have now been established at Emden^ and 
at Konigsberg, Kiel, Bremen, Leipsi^, Dresden, Pforzheim, Stuttgart, 
Oarlsruhe, etc., and recently manual training has been introduced into 
tlie Teachers^ Seminary a^t Dresden^ and pla(3edt under the Section of 
Clauson-Kaas. 

This indefatigable worker organized a women's class at his home in 
Dresden in the month of July 1887, in order to prepare mothers for 
training their boys to some form of manual dexterity. By this means 
he sought to h«lp those families whose boys could not, or would not, 
attend the public manual training school. 

On the Isfc day of July 1887 Dr. Giitze opened a manual training 
seminary at Leii^sic. At the beginning, of the course only 2,2 pupils 
were in attendance j but soon the experiments attracted so much atten- 
tion that on the 18th of July nineteen teachers in Italy applied to the 
Italian ministry of instruction for permission to visit LeixDsic for the 
purpose of leaimng the system of manual training. 

The German peox)le began at last to appreciate mannal training, and 
to demand it as a part of school discipline. The unremitting agitation 
of the question by such exi)onents of education as Glauson-Kaas, Gotze, 
SGhenckeiidorii', and Biedermann has produced its legitimate effect. 

Public opinion in Germany seems to favor the extension of manual 
training, which is now regarded as essential to a complete educational 
system. 

Hugo Elm gives the names of thirty cities in Germany where, at the 
date of the publication of his work (1886), manual training schools had 
been established 5 yet he acknowledges that his data are incomiDlete, 
and that the number of such institutions has now doubled. 

The German schools of this class, however, are not ideally perfect. 
Prof. J. M. Ordway of Tulane University relates that a few years 
ago he visited a number of Geiverheselmlen, expecting to iind regular 
maiiual labor schools; but he found very little manual work done 
there. Prussia had a few trade schools, but these generally neglected 
the education of the man. In Sweden he found a far better system. 
The Swedes came nearest to his ideal and the ideas we are trying to 
work out. 

At the eighth German manual training congress, Herr Schencken- 
dorif, referring to the early progress and present condition of the labor 
school movement in Germany, said : 

In the year 1851 Prof. Biedermann of Leipsic wrote a book on Edu- 
cation for Labor in which he treated the subject in a striking and 
original manner from the point of view then a&sumed by the promoters 
of the movement in Germany. If we examine this remarkable work 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 



307 



we sliall discover tliat tlie ideas therein expressed are in harmony with 
ours of today. 

The speaker restricted himself to a brief sketch, but referred to a 
forthcoming statistical publication on the subject (in course of i)rep- 
aration at that time by Herr Sonntag of Leipsic), to be submitted to 
the next congress. 

Herr Schenckendorff exi)ressed great admiration for the system of 
training devised by Mikkelsen of Denmark, and said that^ in respect 
to thoroughness, it seemed to him the nearest to perfection of any. 
Next in order of preference he would place the system of Salomon, 
who limits his teaching to joinery. 

The report alluded to in the address of Schenckendorff, as in prepara- 
tioD, is entitled, Bericht ilber den Stand und die Ausbreitung des Arheits- 
tmterriclits in DeutsoMand. It is exhaustive in detail, and was pre- 
sented to the ninth German manual training congress by its author, 
Herr Sonntag of Leipsic. 

From this valuable report, and from an excellent abstract of it pub- 
lished in Blatter fur Knaden-Handarhsit, January 1890, we summarize 
the following facts (it being borne in mind that the report aims to give 
an account of the historical development of manual training in Ger- 
many, wherever it has been introduced, from the year 1880 to 1888) : 

The number of school workshops in existence in Germany, and the 
number of places where they have been established, are the matters first 
recorded. Of independent school workshops there were 67 in 62 places; 
in teachers' seminaries, 12 in 12 places f in private and common schools, 
12 in 12 i)laces ; in orphans' homes, 15 in 11 iDlaces -, in boys' homes, 44 
in 21 places; in reformatories, 10 in 10 places; in asylums for feeble- 
minded, 2 in 2 places; in blind asylums, 5 in 5 places; in deaf and 
dumb asylums, 7 in 7 places ; in school workshops with industrial object, 
12 in 12 i)lace3. A total of 186 school workshops in 120 places. 

From the same publication is drawn a table showing the number of 
pupils and instructors in manual training in Germany prior to 1880, 
and for each subsequent year down to 1888: 

PITPILS AXD rN-STEUCTOES IN" MAXUAL TEAINING IX GEEMAXT. 





Pupila. 


Teachers . 


Artisan- 
teachers. 


Year. 


Total. 


Yolks, 
schulen. 


Higher 
scliools. 


Priortol880 


113 

304 

548 

986 

1,750 

2,080 

2, 256 
2,774 

3, 839 
5,678 


66 

216 

392 

756 

1,351 

1,720 

1,879 

2,279 

2,887 

4,370 


47 
88 
156 
230 
399 
360 
377 
495 
952 
1.308 


1 

6 

16 

27 

40 

55 

65 

101 

160 

■ 208 


9 


1880 


15 


1881 ^ 

1SS2 


25 

27 


18^3 


32 


1884 


35 


1885 


36 


1S8G 


39 


1887 


42 


1888 , 


^ 







308 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



Concerning this table, it is observed tliat in tlie year 1888 the num- 
ber of pupils was almost 19 times as large as in 1880, and the number 
of teachers 12 times as great as in 1880. The pupils of the higher 
schools are of the intermediate, the Latin, the real-schools, the pro- 
gymnasia, the seminaries, the real-gymnasia, and gymnasia. 

In the same journal, February 1890, is to be found the concluding 
portion of this abstract. The first table there given relates to the spe- 
cific kinds of manual training in vogue in the different school work- 
shops, as follows : 

EXNDS OF MANUAL TRAINING AND NU^IBER OF SCHOOL WORKSHOPS. 



Year. 


Paste- 
board 
■w^ork. 


Wood 
carving. 


Joinery. 


Metal 
work. 


Model- 
ling. 


Prior to 1880 


5 
9 
13 
17 
24 
29 
36 
45 
62 


1 
2 
8 
10 
15 
21 
23 
34 
47 
61 


2 
6 
13 
17 
23 
35 
38 
41 
52 
60 






1880 


2 
2 
3 
2 
2 
4 
5 
6 
7 


1 


1881 


2 


1882 


4 


1883 


4 


1884 


3 


1885 . . . 


3 


1886 


4 


1887 


4 


1888 


3 







In 1888, therefore, pasteboard work was carried on in about 80 per 
cent, of the school workshops j wood carving, in about 63 x)er cent. ; 
joinery, in about 60 per cent. ; metal work, in about 7 per cent, j and 
modelling, in aboiat 3 per cent. 

The following table indicates the number of pupils receiving instruc- 
tion in the various special forms of manual traiuing during the same 
years : 

KINDS OP MANUAL TRAINING AND NUMBER OF PUPILS. 



Tear. 


Paste- 
board 
work. 


Wood 
carving. 


Joinery. 


Metal 
work. 


Model- 
ling. 


Prior to 1880 


67 

117 

203 

424 

553 

752 

973 

1,103 

1,600 

2,400 


6 
13 
81 

103 
202 
307 
446 
713 
1,116 
1,797 


10 

49 

194 

400 

713 

901 

945 

1,076 

1,497 

1,785 






1880 


2i- 

20 
84 
50 
24 
41 
61 
57 
70 


17 


1881 


27 


1882 


256 


1883 


166 


1884 


72 


1885 


56 


1886 


49 


1887 


32 


1888 . .. 


40 







Accordingly, in the year 1888, about 43 per cent, of the whole 
number of pupils were pasteboard workers j about 32 per cent., wood 
carvers 5 about 31 per cent., joiners j about 1.2 per cent., metal 
workers J about 0.7 per cent., modellers. 

The school workshops are sometimes located in rented rooms; some- 
times (and for the most part) in rent free school rooms. Occasionally, 
in building a new TurnJialle, a specially fitted-up room is set apart for 
a pupils' workshop in connection with it. 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 



309 



The question: Should artisans or teachers give the instruction? is in 
the way of a x)ractical solution. The percentages of instructors are as 
follows : 

PERCENTAGES OF TEACHERS AND ARTISANS. 





Year. 


Percentage of— 




Teachers. 


Artisans. 


P^ior to 1880 


10 
29 
39 
50 
56 
61 
64 
72 
79 
81 


90 


1880 


71 


1881 ... 


61 


1882 : 


50 


1883 . 


44 


1884 


39 


1885 . 


36 


188G 


28 


1887 


21 


1888 


19 







The number of teachers that instruct pupils in manual work has 
increased from 10 per cent, prior to 1880 to 81 per cent, in the year 
1888 5 while the number of artisans that teach pupils has suffered a con- 
sequent diminution. In the school workshops instituted with an edu- 
cational purpose teachers^ with few exceptions, are the instructors. In 
several institutions where artisans are still retained as manual training 
teachers, it is openly declared that a technically educated pedagogue 
is to be preferred. 

The principal specialties of instruction are pasteboard work, wood 
carving, joinery, and, to some extent, metal work and modelling. These 
are the five regularly instituted forms of discipline of manual training 
at present, though various other branches of instruction have been 
adopted in educational establishments that have to do with special 
conditions. Of these gardening is given a special preference in many 
places. 

Generally each pupil is instructed for two consecutive hours; though 
In some cases the duration of the teaching varies from one and one-half 
to three hours. In this connection it should be remarked that every- 
where iR Germany manual instruction is given every day of the week, 
including Sunday. 

The number of pupils in one department varies with the several 
specialties. In pasteboard work it runs from 12 to 20; in wood carving, 
from 10 to 24; in joinery, from 12 to 16. 

Where the so-called preparatory courses exist children are received 
at from 5 to 6 years of age. For pasteboard work they must be at least 
9 years old; for wood carving, at least 11; and for joinery, only 12 year 
old boys are admitted as a rule. 

At Wertheim, Baden, in September 1888, was founded die Scliiiler- 
werl{statt of the city, by the school superintendent of the grand duchy. 
The specialty of this school is pasteboard work. In 1889 there were 
53 pupils and 1 teacher. The ages of the pupils ranged from 9 to 18. 



310 RKPOPvT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Up to February 1889 tlic tuition for eacli pupil was 1.50 marks (36 
cents). Since that time it has been reduced to 80 pfennigs (19 cents). 

In the free city of Bremerhaven a pupils' workshop [Scliulerwerlcstatt) 
Y\'as founded in October 1888^ by Herr Reuber. The city furnishes 
the school building, light, and heat, and also gives something for tool 
equipment. 

Pasteboard work and wood carving are the specialties taught. In 
1888 there were 32 pupils — 17 taking pasteboard work, 15 wood carving. 
The pui)ils are from 12 to 14 years of age. Thirty-one of these i>upils 
attended the Vollcsscliule,, and one a higher grade. Each pupil pays 5 
marks (81.19) for instruction and material. In 1881 manual training 
was introduced into the ragged school (ArmenscJiule) at Lubeck. In 
1886, after this school had been abolished, the training (SandferUg- 
Tceitsunterrielit) was pursued in a special shop. Garx>entry, brush mak- 
ing, slipper making, spoon carving, fret sawing, wood carving, and straw 
braiding are the practical exercises. Two hours a week are devoted to 
instruction. In 1888 there were 75 boys under instruction. Pupils 
may keep their work without charge. Tuition is free. 

At Halle, Saxony, on the 8th of January 1887, a manual training 
school was established by Dr. Schrader, director of the real-gymnasium. 

The classes occupy five rooms in the old Bilrgerscliule, Foststrasse. 
Dr. Schrader is director, but a committee under his supervision man- 
ages the school. A skilled workman is chosen to give instruction in 
each of the technical subjects pursued. Pasteboard work, carpentry, 
wood carving, and (when called for) turning are taught. 

In 1889 (first quarter) there were 158 pupils — 40 taking pasteboard 
work, 52 cabinet work, 66 wood carving. By the school statute boys 
who attend a public school can take only one manual training specialty. 

In 1888 Dr. Schrader opened a teachers' course in carpentry and 
wood carving. Two Yienna teachers say, '' The Halle shops are among 
the best conducted that we have seen." 

In 1887 a manual training school shop {SeMIerSandferiigJceits-Un- 
terrichts-Anstalt) was established at Glogau by the industrial society 
of that city. The Silesian Central Trade Union contributed 300 marks 
($71.40) toward the equipment of the shop; but the establishment's 
current exi^enses are met by voluntary contributions, i^o thing has 
been received as yet from the public (municipal) treasury. Two hun- 
dred and forty marks ($57.12) would be necessary to pay for rent of a 
suitable building j but sucli expenditure is beyond the means at the 
disposal of the committee. Por this reason they are compelled to x>ost- 
pone the establishment of a much desired course in joinery. 

Herr Eckert is the director, and he is assisted by two manual train- 
ing teachers. Pasteboard work ancl wood carving are the branches 
taught, the latter having been begam October 19, 1887. The course of 
instruction runs throughout the school year. 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. Oil 

In 1887 there were 32 pui)ils in this shop, with two teachers ; in 1888 
25 pux)ils attended the conrse. The pupils come from the Yollcsschule, 
and range in age from 12 to 14 j^ears. ^o tuition fee is charged; though 
a small amount (about 50 pfennigs — 12 cents) per quarter is required 
of middle school pupils to defray the cost of materials. The income 
(from this source) is scarcely worth mentioning, however. 

The director is paid 180 marks ($42.84) annually; the two teachers 
120 marks ($28.56). 

The pupils like to attend the course of instruction in this shop ; and 
the results are good, or, at least, encouraging, is the final comment of the 
reporter. 

The Manual Training School at Gorlitz was established May 3, 1881, 
by Herr Schenckendorff. Since the second year of its existence this 
school has been under the patronage of her royal highness, the crown 
I)rincess, now the Empress Friedrich. The school is supported by the 
Society for the Promotion of Manual Training and Youthful Games. 
The expenses for 1887 were 2,467.23 marks ($587.20). The director is 
assisted in the instruction by five teachers. 

The school serves an educational purpose exclusively; it is not de- 
signed to i)romote any industrial end. The teaching in every specialty 
is conducted on pedagogical principles. Herren Neumann, Dr. Schnei- 
der of Leii3sic, Gelbe, Salomon, and Miiller are among the lecturers. 

From the beginning pasteboard work and wood carving have been 
taught in the Gorlitz school. From 1881 to 1884 modelling was one of 
the branches of instruction; but in 1884 this branch was set aside on 
accouiit of the objections urged against it by Director Grunow of Ber- 
lin, and carpentry was substituted the same year. 

The course extends through the school year. Each boy receives 
four hours' instruction a week. The ages of the pui^ils range from 12 
to 14 years. Pupils come from gymnasia, real-gymnasia, burgher, pri- 
vate, and communal schools. The articles made remain the property of 
the pupils, only a few being retained for exhibition or other i^urposes. 
Pupils of the higher institutes pay a monthly tuition fee of 1 mark 
(24 cents), as do extra course pupils. Otherpupils pay no tuition. 

The director of the Gorlitz Manual Training School receives a salary 
of 450 marks ($107.10) a year. Each teacher is x^aid 300 marks ($71.4Q) 
a year for teaching eight hours a week. 

It was the case with tliis school at first that many difficulties and 
objections raised by the master workmen had to be overcome. The 
bookbinders' guild deterioined to receive no boy as an apprentice who 
had been a pupil of the manual training school. Now there is no 
reluctance to accept such x>upils as apprentices. Master bookbinders 
and master joiners send their own children to the school, and, in some 
instances, permit them to pursue a more thorough course than appren- 
tices take. 



312 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

A teacliers' course was instituted iu March 1887 in connection with 
this school. 

On October Ij 1882, t\\Q Bilrgerschullelirer, Friedr. Potzschner director, 
established a manual training school at Markneukirchen. This school 
is maintained by the state and the commune. A school room is pro- 
vided by the commune with heat and lighting. Pedagogical principles 
govern the instruction. During the year 1885 there were 9 impils in 
X)asteboard work; but with this experiment it was given up. Fret- 
sawing has been carried on from the beginning; and to this was added 
wood carving in 1886. Four hours a week are occupied with this work. 
The number of pupils has steadily increased from 6 in 1882 to 30 in 
1838. Tuition costs 2 marks (48 cents) a quarter. 

The director and the class teachers are well satisfied with the in- 
struction in manual training. This is all the more gratifying, because, 
in the beginning (especially in 1882), the school had to contend with 
the ignorance of the citizens and the opposition of some teachers. It 
is chiefly by means of exhibitions that the cause of manual training 
has so quickly achieved success. 

Eeal-school director, Dr. G-elbe, opened a manual training school 
{KandfertigJieitsscliuIe) at Stolberg in 1885. Eooms for instruction are 
granted, rent free, in the building of the real- school. A well arranged 
joinery shop is established in the basement, while pasteboard work is 
taught in one of the class halls. 

Pasteboard work and wood work are the manual exercises. The 
course runs from May till February, and two years are required to com- 
plete the full work of either class. Eeal-school pupils, from 10 to 14 
years of age, are permitted to work in the course for pasteboard; while 
pupils, 14 to 16 years old, take the wood work course. This plan is 
adopted in order that there may be a gradual advance. All pupils are 
required to wait until their fourteenth year before beginning joinery, 
so as to insure a sufficient physical development and ample strength 
for the work. Besides, the pasteboard work constitutes an excellent 
preparation for joinery. 

In 1888 the number of pupils was 48; the number of teachers, 5. The 
tuition fees in the pasteboard work course are 1.50 marks (36 cents) in 
the lower division, and 2 marks (48 cents) in the higher. The fee for 
the joinery course is 3 marks (71 cents). 

A small class of teachers has been organized and. conducted in con- 
nection with this school for several years. 

In 1881 a manual training school was established at Dresden by the 
Gemeinniitziger Verein. This society pays out of its treasury, annually, 
between 1,600 and 1,900 marks ($380.80 to $452.20) for the support of 
the school. The minister of education grants some aid also, and 
tuition fees supply the remainder of the income. Six hundred marks 
($142.80) are paid for rent of the room at 23 Canal street, used by 
the school; while three workshops, located in different school build- 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 313 

mgSj are at tlie service of tlie scliool, rent free. On account of tlie 
size of Dresden shops are needed in all quarters of tlie city. 

The branches taught are paper work (in the preparatory grade), 
pasteboard work, cariDentry, and Avood carving. The school is in ses- 
sion from ten to ten and one-half months in the year. 

In 1881 fchere were 89 pupils in this school, taught by 4 teachers and 
1 artisan. In 1888, 305 pupils were in attendance, and there were 12 
teachers and 2 artisans giving instruction. 

In the i)reparatory department the ages of pupils range from 6 to 8 
years J in the pasteboard work grade, 8 to 14; in joinery, 8 to 17. Pu- 
pils belong to district schools, burgher, private, and society schools, to 
real-gymnasia and gymnasia. 

The articles made by pupils remain in the custody of tlie school until 
after the exhibition. Tuition costs 2 marks (48 cents) a month. Ninety 
half-rate scholarships exist, however. The manual training teacher 
receives 3 marks (71 cents) for every two hours' service, if he belongs 
to the rank of teacher; 1.70 marks (40 cents), if to the artisan class. 

A teachers' course was opened by the society in 1880 with 4 teachers 
under instruction. In 1888 there were 42 taking the course. 

Twice a year the former pui)ils meet for the discussion of manual 
training questions. Most of the managers of the five children's homes 
in Dresden have learned something of manual training, and through 
them instruction in this branch has been introduced into the homes 
over which they j) reside. 

At first ("from 1880 to 1884) the course included only pasteboard work 
and carpentry. Since 1885 wood carving has been added. 

Most of the teachers in the people's schools ( Volksscliulen) take the 
course; some of the teachers of higher schools and, since 1883, lay- 
men (Mchtlehrer), too, have joined the classes. In 1888 there were ten 
of these belonging to the most diverse stations in Ufe. The eldest is 
an apothecary 72 years old. 

In the summer of 1882 the society, in conjunction with the Leipsic 
association, instituted a course commonly called the summer course. 
The attendance was very large. In all there were 63; among the num- 
ber, 54 teachers of the YolJcsschuJen', 4 teachers from higher schools; 
and 5 non-professional pupils (McMlelirer). Pasteboard work, carpen- 
try, wood carving, modelling, and metal work were the branches to 
which they devoted themselves. 

The City Manual Training School at Weimar was founded in October 
1885 by Burgomaster Pabst. The savings bank gave 1,500 marks 
(•$357) for its equipment, and annually contributes to its support 1,000 
marks ($238). At first a room in the garden- work school served as a 
shop. In 1888, however, the school committee secured two fine rooms 
in a burgher school free of cost. 

The plan of instruction excludes special industrial training, and aims 
only at educational ends — a habit of work, exercise of eye and hand, 



314 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

and tlie formation of tlie taste and aesthetic judgment. The branches 
taught are pasteboard work, joinery, with wood carving, and metal work. 

Every boy in this school receives two hours' instruction a week. In 
1888 the school had 46 pupils. The ages range from 8 to 14 years. All 
the boys attend the Vollcsschule, and, at the same time, the City School 
of Garden-work. After a public exhibition at the end of the school 
year the articles made are sold, and from the proceeds premiums are 
purchased to be awarded, on the grand duke's birthday, to the most 
deserving and most diligent pupils. There are no tuition fees. Tlie 
instructors are i)aid 1.50 marks (36 cents) an hour. 

As one result of the training, it is observed that while formerly pupils 
©n leaving the YollcsscliiiJe commonly sought work as day laborers, they 
now, since the introduction of manual training, almost without excep- 
tion, devote themselves to manual trades. 

The introduction of carpentry into Falk Institute was brought about 
l>y a visit of several governmental officers to the Weimar school. Eec- 
ognizing the great educational value of what they saw in this manual 
training school, they took measures to extend the benefits of such in- 
struction to other establishments under their control. 

A private course for pui)ils of higher institutions was held during the 
winter of 1888-'89 at Weimar. This course — in which pasteboard 
work, carpentry, and wood carving were taught — was attended by about 
20 pupils of the gymnasium and real- gymnasium. Fifty-two boys, from 
10 to 14 years old, were instructed for six hours a week during 1891 in 
four branches taught here. 

At Pforzheim, grand duchy of Baden, a mannal training school was 
founded by the City Aid Society (Stddtischer Silfsvcrein) and derives 
its support from that association. The head teachers, Herren Worner 
and Weber, were educated for their work at the expense of the society, 
the first at Berlin, the second at Emden. The training consists of the 
following branches: Wood carving, pasteboard work, scroll sawing, 
brush making, and basket weaving. In 1888 there were 125 pupils. 
Pupils' ages vary from 11 to 14 years. All the boys attend the Yollcs- 
scliulen. Tuition is free. 

At Munich a pupUs' workshop was opened in October 1887 by the 
People's Education Society (VolJcshildungsverem) from which it de- 
rives its supr)ort. There are three instructors — one in pasteboard work, 
one in carving, and one in joinery. Pupils work at these specialties 
from 2 to 4 o'clock on Wednesdays and Saturdays, making four hours a 
week. In the school year 1888-'89 there were 71 i^upils in attendance. 
From the age of 10 to 12 they are taught pasteboard workj from 11 
to 14, wood carving and carpentry. Pupils are permitted to keep 
articles made by them, except that articles of special excellence are 
reserved for a collection of specimens to be set ui^ in the shop. Tuition 
costs 3 marks (71 cents) a month. For every hour of teaching per 
week teachers receive 72 marks ($17.14) per annum. 



CHAP, V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 315 

Tlte Leipsic pupils' sliops were fomidecl by tlie Mutual Benefit Asso- 
ciatiou. Herr Lammers and Dr. Gotze were instrumental in securing 
tlieir establishment. April 7, 1880, a teacliers' course was opened j and, 
in tlie same year, the pupils' course began. There are at present 7 
rooms occupied as workshops, in the old Thomas school. Dr. W. 
Gotze is director. The teachers (including artisans who are instruct- 
ors) are 23 in number. 

The matters taught are pasteboard work, carpentry, wood carving, 
metal work, and modelling. The instruction is timed so as to accom- 
modate as many as x)ossible — each class taking a two-hours' lesson on 
Wednesday and Saturday afternoons, from 2 to 4, 3 to 5, or 5 to 7 
o'clock. Pupils are received twice in the year, entering at Easter and 
at Michaelmas. During the summer of 1889 there were 297 pupils. 
But in winter the attendance is larger; as, in the winter of 1888-'89, 
there were 38G pupils. They range in age from 8 to 16, belonging to 
various grades — Yoll^sscliulen, -piiYSitG schools, and higher institutions. 
Teachers' fees are 3 marks (71 cents) for every two hours' teaching. 
A teachers' course has been conducted in connection with this estab- 
lishment ever since its foundation in 1880. 

At Grimma something has been attempted for a long time in the way 
of manual training at the Eoyal Teachers' Seminary, and at the Eoyal 
Seminary for Candidates for the Teacher's Office. The introduction of 
pasteboard work, for example, dates back fifty years in these institutions. 

Master Bookbinder Yorholz has taught pasteboard work since 1874, 
and Master Joiner Eohr has taught his specialty since October 1884. 
The instructors are cramped for room, however, and not until the 
seminaries obtain a new building will manual training be pursued with 
success. 

A boys' work school was opened at Oarlsruhe by the municii)al au- 
thorities February 1, 1881. The branches taught are scroll sawing, 
folding exercises, wood c£irving, pasteboard work, bookbinding, and 
brush making. This last branch, however, has been dropped on ac- 
count of the too great cost of materials, and because of its very ques- 
tionable educational value. Instruction in carpentry could be intro- 
duced only to a very limited extent, since for a long time only one 
bench could be had. 

The pui^ils are recruited from the gymnasium, real- gymnasium, real- 
school, burgher school, and a few from the boys' school. Tuition costs 
12 marks ($2.86) a year. Besides this pupils must repay the city 
treasury the cost of the raw materials used. 

Until late in the year 1890 these were the only subjects taught. Then 
Herr Eeinfurth undertook the teaching of carpentry and i)asteboard 
w^orkj Herr Galm, carpentry and metal work; and wood carving and 
pasteboard w^ork fell to Herr B. Jais. 

There are only twa divisioiis for carpentry, with 5 pupils in each, 



316 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

because tlie shop is supplied with barely euough tools for this number 
iu that si)ecialtyj two, also, for pasteboard work, with 14 and 16 pupils, 
respectively; one division for wood carving, with 22 pupils; and one for 
metal work, with 14 pupils. Each division receives two hours' instruc- 
tion a week. 

Since Easter, 1891, no tuition fee has been charged, and materials 
are furnished to pupils free of cost. 

A manual work school for boys was opened at Brieg in October 
1889. The school year of 1891-'92 began April 15, 1891. Thirteen of 
the pupils were from the gymnasium, 1 from the school of agriculture, 
17 from the burgher school, and 2 from the Yolksscliule — 33 in all. 

To the instruction in pasteboard work was added that of carpentry 
at the commencement of the school year. Every pupil receives two 
hours' instruction once a week; in summer from 2 to 4 o'clock on 
Wednesday and Saturday afternoons, and in winter from 5 to 7 o'clock 
on the same days. Tuition costs 7.50 marks ($1.79) for the half-year, to 
be paid in advance at the rate of 3.75 marks (89 cents) a quarter. 

The system of manual training pursued in the G-erman real- schools 
may be indicated \>j a description of the Eoyal Eeal-school at Augsburg. 
From the annual report for the school year 1S90-'91 it appears that the 
teaching staff of this institution consists of 24 teachers. The course of 
study is essentially the same in all German schools of this class; that 
is to say, the real school is a high school without classical studies. 

The manual exercises in this school consist of free-hand and linear 
drawing and turning. Three hours per week are given to drawing and 
two hours to exercises in turning. 

Besides these exercises two hours a week are devoted to religious 
instruction (Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish) ; six hours each to Ger- 
man and French; two hours to geography; five to arithmetic; three to 
writing German and En^iish script; and one hour to singing — in aU 
thirty hours per week. Later in the course history, algebra, geometry, 
physics, chemistry, mineralogy, stenography, etc., receive a share of 
attention, and five hours a week are set apart for the study of English 
literature and three hours each for French and German. 

At the opening of the school year the whole number of pupils in this 
school was 501. 

The prospectus of the so-called Trade School at Bremen (Handels- 
scliule (Uealgymnasium) zu Bremen) clearly demonstrates that, in spite 
of its name, this school should fall into the category of manual train- 
iDg institutions. Dr. Eduard Laubert is the director, and the names of 
26 teachers appear on the roll of the faculty, though it is stated that 
the teaching force was reduced to 24 during the school year 1890-'91. 

At the Easter season 1891 there were 351 pupils in the different 
classes of this establishment. The studies in detail are religion, Ger- 
man, Latin, French, English, Spanish, history, geography, arithmetic, 
mathematics, physics, chemistry, natural history, drawing, writing, 
singing, and turning. This last exercise entitles the school to be called 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 317 

(by mere courtesyj liowever) a manual training school^ it is not a trade 
sclioolj as that term is generally understood. 

There are three subdivisions of this school, viz., the continuation 
department, the department of industrial drawing, and the drawing 
school for boys. 

In the continuation school are taught writing, arithmetic, German, 
bookkeeping, and physics. Eifteen teachers give instruction in this 
department. In the summer of 1890 there were in the Sunday classes 
of this department 332 pupils^ in the evening classes 177. 

In the department of industrial drawing special classes for drawing 
and modelling are held. Ten teachers do the work of this depart- 
ment. During the summer of 1890 there were in the Sunday classes 
210 pupils J in the winter of 1890-''91, Sunday classes 277 j painting 
class 22; evening classes 364. 

In the boys' drawing school there were 245 pupils in the summer of 
1890 J in the winter of 1890-'91, there were 277 taught by 5 instructors. 

At Mentz, in the year 1879, there was opened a public drawing 
class, and in October 1883 this establishment was broadened and con- 
verted into a school of indnstiieil art {Kimst-Geicerde-ScJiule). It ap- 
pears that the work of this school has been constantly extending, and 
that there are now four divisions. The first division consists of an 
under, a preparatory, and an intermediate course. The second divi- 
sion contains four FacJi schools, viz., a school of architecture, a school 
for manufacturers of small wares, a school of lithography and decora- 
tive painting, and a modelling school. The third division is an eve- 
ning school, and the fourth consists of a course of instruction for 
women. 

From the latest annual report, for the year ending March 31, 
1891, we learn that in the half-year sub -class the following special 
studies are pursued, viz., geometrical and free-hand drawing, model- 
ling, arithmetic, German, and ornamentation. Drawing enters largely 
into all the courses of instruction. In the evening school (from 7.30 
to 9.30 every evening) free-hand, figure, and geometrical drawing are 
tauglit, with geometry, shading, architecture, perspective, industrial 
drawing (newly introduced), and modelling. 

In the women's course landscape drawing with pen, pencil, and char- 
coal, together with flower, still-life, and ornamental drawing, painting 
in oil and water colors, etc., are the subjects taken up. 

The teaching staff in the Industrial Art School consists of 7 
teachers. The number of pupils in this school for the half-year 1890-'91 
was 148, of whom 26 were women. 

In the Artisans' School, also under control of the Mentz Industrial 
Society {Geicerhveyein)^ there are 12 teachers, and the total number of 
pupils under instruction in this department during the year ending 
March 31, 1891, was 677, of whom 150 were joiners, 129 masons, 95 lock- 
smiths, - etc. 



318 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

In tlie seven elementary scliools of the Mulliauseii Industrial Society 
tliere were in the school year 1890^'91, 89 male teachers and 87 female 
teachers. In the boys' department there were on April 1, 1891, 3,557 
pupils; in the girls' department, 3,571; in all, 7,128. 

The course of study includes the following subjects: Eeligion, Ger- 
man, French, arithmetic, geography, history, natural history, geology, 
drawing, writing, singing, turning, and domestic economy, including 
housework and other manual employments of women. 

In 1880 a manual training school for boys was opened under the aus- 
pices of this society. Tuition is free, and expenses are x)aid out of the 
city treasury. The expense account includes the salaries of 4 teachers 
for eight hours per week, 2,400 marks ($571.20) ; work-master's salary, 
400 marks (^95.20) ; materials, and incidentals 1,000 marks ($238) ; a total 
of 3,800 marks ($904.40). 

For the purposes of manual instruction the Mulhausen pupils are 
classed in two divisions and taught in five workshops, after school 
hours, in lessons of two hours' duration each, on four days of the week. 
Only x)upils of the common school ( YoUissclmle) over 10 years of age 
are eligible as members. The teaching continues throughout the year, 
with the exception of school holidays. The manual exercises consist 
of carpentry, wood carving, clay modelling, iron work, etc. 

In the girls' department of the manual training school at Mulhausen 
the necessary materials and equipments are supplied by the city. At 
the end of the year the articles made by the pupils are sent to the office 
of the burgomaster, and distributed in the charitable institutions of 
the city and to poor children. 

In the course of the year 1890-'91 a great number and variety of use- 
ful articles were made by the girls of this school, among them 1,270 
I)airs of hose, 2,412 pocket handkerchiefs, 853 shirts, and jackets, 
blouses, curtains, etc., to the value of 4,754.30 marks ($1,131.52). 

The Miilhausen Boys' Manual Training School has four workshoj^s. 
The first one is devoted to carpentry, and is fitted up for 16 i)upil 
workers according to the Danish system, by which is probably meant 
the system of Clauson-Kaas. The second workshop is devoted to x}aste- 
board work and wood carving. The third workshop is the iron working 
room, equipped with forge, 19 vises, etc. The fourth workshop is the 
clay modelling room, fitted up with tables, or, rather, adjustable shelves, 
at which the pupils work, sometimes standing, sometimes sitting. 

Strictly speaking, the Orefeld Continuation School {FortMldungs- 
sclmle) does not belong to any class of schools to which this investiga- 
tion relates. It is a school which makes no pretence of teaching a 
trade; nor, unless drawing be deemed a manual training exercise, does 
it impart manual instruction. It is of the same rank as American 
evening schools, and it merely supplements the education of appren- 
tices and others by means of classes in which German, arithmetic, 
bookkeeping, and drawing are taught. The plan of study in this con- 
tinuation school constitutes a three years' course. 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 319 

Oiie of the many instances of tlie introduction of manual exercises 
into tlie public schools of Germany is to be found at Strasburg, 
where in August 1882 a course of modelliug was introduced into the 
common schools ( VolJcsscJiulen) of that city. In ^N'ovember of the same 
year a course in wood carving was added in the Sclinleriuer'kstatt. 

There are now seven distinct courses of instruction in manual train- 
ing in vogue in the boys' schools of Strasburg, attended by nearly 
300 pupils. 

The course in modelling was opened in 1882. A second department 
was opened in June 1881, and a third in October 1885. There are now 
60 pupils in this course. 

Wood carving was begun in l^ovember 1882, with an attendance of 
10 pupils. A second department was opened in May 1881, and a third 
in 1888. There are now 84 pupils. 

In May 1883 a course in clay modelling was instituted; and in 
April 1884 the second and third departments of this course were 
opened. At present 45 pui^ils are taking this course. 

The locksmiths' course was opened in June 1885. It has 48 pupils 
in attendance. 

A fifth department (of artistic iron work) was begun in January 
1889. There are 10 pui)ils in attendance in this course. 

The sixth course is that of joinery, opened in December 1888. It 
has an attendance of 30 pupils. 

In March 1890 the course in turning was opened. There are 6 
pupils in attendance. 

The tuition is free. The instructors are craftsmen (Faclileute)^ who 
work under the direction of the teachers of the city elementary schools. 

The fourth annual report of the Berlin Central Society of Manual 
Labor for Boys — from April 1, 1890, to the end of March 1891-— states 
that the membership of this ox^'anization, which increased from 248 to 
322 during the year 1889^ was further augmented in 1890, reaching the 
number of 348. 

The financial condition of the society also improved j the treasury 
balance December 31, 1890, being 2,340.25 marks ($556.98), against 887.96 
marks ($211,33) at the end of the preceding year. 

The Prussian ministry of education contributed to the society during 
the year 2,000 marks ($476) and the city of Berlin 1,800 marks ($428.40). 
The membership fees for the year aggregated 2,422.50 marks ($570.56) j 
the tuition, 6,038.50 marks ($1,437.16), making a total income (includ- 
ing balance on hand at end of year 1889) of 13,148.96 marks ($3,129.45). 
The total expenses were 10,808.71 marks ($2,572.47), leaving balance as 
above, 2,040.25 marks ($556.98). 

The object of the society is to establish and maintain workshops in 
connection with the schools, and accessible to the pupils of all Berlin 
schools. 

Up to date of the report four workshops had been established. The 



320 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

manual exercises in tliese shops include paper work, wood carving, and 
cari3entry. 

Attendance of puiiils in tlie shops for the summer half-year, 1890, 
was 236 5 for the winter half-year, 1890-'91, 325. 

The training is progressive, gradually advancing from i)aper work, 
for boys from 9 years old and upward, to wood carving for boys from 
11 years old and upward, and carpentry for boys of 12 and over. The 
instruction is given on Wednesday and Saturday afternoons at 3 o'clock, 
and each lesson occupies ninety minutes. 

The fees, payable quarterly for the tuition, material, and use of tools, 
amount to 5 marks ($1.19) in the paper and wood carving division, and 
to 6 marks ($1.43) in the carpentry division. 

Special provision is made in the city of Berlin for the publication of 
an annual report on the condition of the continuation schools, and for its 
distribution among the guilds and industrial societies of the metroiDolis. 
The Eighth Annual Eeport, bearing the date of February 1891, is full 
of valuable information. 

The number of pupils under instruction in the schools of this class in 
Berlin during the winter 1890-'91 is given as follows: Students of Ger- 
man, 3,718 5 arithmetic, 3,580 j drawing, 4,808 j special drawing, 2,018 j 
bookkeeping, 1,128 j geometry, 562^ physics, 560; French, 1,063 j En- 
glish, 750; modelling, 439; Fach schools, 2,726. 

In general, it is said of the city continuation establishments that they 
are designed to supplement the education of such practical workmen 
as desire to extend or review their studies and learn to speak and 
write French and English, or to acquire a knowledge of commercial 
arithmetic and bookkeeping. The tuition fee i^er half-year is 2 marks 
(48 cents) for each two hours' course, 4 marks (95 cents) for each four 
hours' course. 

Besides thirteen city continuation schools which are mentioned in 
the report a continuation school supported by the Artisans' Society is 
referred to, and three schools of the same character maintained by the 
Berlin Merchants' Union are enumerated. Eespecting the continuation 
schools for girls (five in number) under city control it is stated that the 
tuition fee per month in these schools is 1.50 marks (36 cents), ex- 
clusive of French and English; a charge of 3 marks (71 cents) per half- 
year is made for these languages in addition. The subjects taught 
in these schools include German, arithmetic, bookkeeping, drawing, 
manual labor, machine sewing, tailoring, singing, and turning. Six 
continuation schools for girls are reported, all of which are managed 
by societies. 

Mention is made of the city continuation school for deaf mutes. 
Tuition is free. Eeading, German, and arithmetic are taught to both 
boys and girls; while some form of manual labor is included in the 
training of the girls. Instruction in this school is given in the evening. 
Twenty boys and 16 girls belonged to the school at the time the report 
was made. 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 321 

For tlie purpose of securing more definite information tlian already 
existed upon some of tlie results of manual instruction in Germany, 
and tliereby aiding the investigations of this Department, a schedule of 
inquiries was prex)ared by representatives of the German Manual Train- 
ing Association. This schedule was sent to teachers in manual train- 
ing schools with the request that they should fill it out, as far as pos- 
sible, in connection with the parents of former x)upils. 

In the Blatter filr KnahenSandarheit for February 1892 are pub- 
lished the answers received from the teachers in Leipsic school shops. 
Though the results as stated in the Blatter do not show that manual 
training in every instance has a magical effect — transforming a dull or 
indifferent i)upil into an intelligent and enthusiastic artisan — yet it 
will not be denied that the replies possess a certain value. It is clear 
that the questions were answered with the utmost candor by the sev- 
eral teachers; for, while there is no direct coniiict of opinion among 
them as to the utility of manual training in the schools, the conclusions 
reached are not uniformly favorable. From the Blatter a table has been 
comi)iled which contains all of the replies that are of special importance. 
S. Ex. 65 21 



322 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIOls^EE OF LABOR. 

RESULTS OE MAIflUAL TEAINTNG IN LEIPSIC. 



Mar- 
ginal 
num- 
ber. 


Age. 


1 
2 


16 

17 


3 


18 


4 


15 


5 
6 


15 
18 


7 


16| 


8 


16 


9 

10 
11 


15 
16 
15 


12 
13 


17 
18 


14 


15^ 


15 


18 


16 

17 


16 
17 


18 


16 


19 
20 
21 


15 
16 

14| 


22 
23 


15 
17 


24 


15 


25 
26 


16 
15J 



Occupation. 



Bookbinder. 
Mason 



Joiner .. 

Wood carver. 



Brewer . 
Joiner . . 



Locksmith 

Carpet maker. 



"Wood carver. 
Locksmith... 
Tailor .^ 



Joiner . 
Joiner , 



Box maker. 



Joiner . 



Pianoforte maker . 
Machinist 



"Wood carver . 

Mechanic 

Stone mason., 
Joiner , 



Joiner 

Wood engraver. 

Printer 



Wood carver , 



Kind of training 
at school. 



Carpentry , 
Carving . . , 



^Carpentry 
(Modelling 



Carvin' 



Carpentry . . . 
5 Carpentry ... 
'Metal work-. 

Pasteboard work 



Carving . . , 
Carpentry . 



Carpentry . 



Carving 



Carpentry 



Carpentry , 

^Carpentry , 
•Carving .., 



Pasteboard work 
Carpentry ; carv 
ing. 



Carpentry . . . 
Pasteboard work 

Carpentry 

Carving . 



Modelling . 



Half- 
years 

at 
school. 



1< 
3 

3 mos. 
8 
9i 

4< 



Hours of 

training 

per 

week. 



2 each 

2 

4 
2 

2 each 



2 each 



Time 
under 

instruc- 
tion. 



1^ years. 

2J years, 



8 years.. 

5 mos . . . 

§year... 
2^ years . 

2 J years . 

8 years.. 



1 J years. 
iZ years . 
I year... 



16 mos. 
3^ years 



1^ years. 



3 J years . 



11 years . 
I year... 



4 mos... 

4 mos... 
lyear... 
I year... 

I year... 

1-^ years . 

4 mos... 



1 J years. Yes. 
2-year.-. Yes. 



Does he show 

practical ability! 



Yes 

In the first year 
was very unskil- 
ful, but much im- 
proved by the 
drawing instruc- 
tion. 

Yes , 

Yes 

Yea 

Yes 

Yes.. 

Only when under 
supervision. 



Yes 
Yes 
Yes 

Yes 
Yes 

Yes 



Yes. 



Hard to determine . 
Yes 



Yes. 
Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 
Yes. 



(&) 



a'No. It were better to give more practical instruction in drawing, which instruction is generally 
of very little value. Every business man needs drawing. 



CHAP. Y. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 323 

EESULTS OF MANUAL TRAINING IN LEIPSIC. 



Is he above the 
averagB in man- 
ual dexterity ? 



Does lie 

sLow an 

interest 

in his 

■work! 



Is he 

diligent ? 



Does the teacher believe that, rightly directed, 
manual training- 



Awakens an 

interest in 

practical work? 



Gives a general 
fitness for it? 



Inspires respect 
for manual labor? 



Mar- 
ginal 
num- 
ber. 



Don't know 

No >.... 



Yes. 
Yes. 



Yes. 

No.. 



Yes. 
Yes. 



No.. 
Y"e3. 

No.. 

No.. 



Yes. 
Yes. 
Yes. 



Yes. 
Yes. 



Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 
Yes. 



No.. 
Yes. 
No.. 



Yes. 
Yes. 



Yes 

Yes ; in contrast 
with those who 
never attended 
amanual train- 
ing school. 



Yes. 

Yes. 



Yes. 
Yes. 



Yes. 
Yes. 



Yes. 



No. 



Yes. 



No. 
No. 



No. 



Yes.. 



No.. 

Yes. 



Yes 

No 

(&) 
Yes ; but only a 

little. 
Yes 

Yes ; very much. 

It is not demon- 
strable in 80 
short a time. 

Yes 

No 



Yes.. 



Yes.. 
Yes.. 



Yes.. 



Yes. 
Yea. 



Yes. 



Yes. 



Yes. 

Yes. 



Yes. 



Yes- 
Yes. 



Yes. 



(o) 



No 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

In gener^il, it is 
only a pleasant 
divftrsion, and 
its true purpose 
is not brought 
out. 



Yes. 
Yes. 

Yes. 



Yes 

To some dcCTee.. 



At least it gives 
the young man 
an insight into 
practical work 
which stands 
him in good 
stead, and per- 
haps dispels liis 
illusions. In 
this view man- 
ual training is 
very beneficial. 

No 



Yes. 



Yes. 



Yes. 



(a) 



No. 



No ; his pupilage 
was too brief 
for that. 

No 

Yes 



Yes 

No ; it only helps 
children to 
choose an occu- 
pation. 



Yes 

Yes 

He should have 
worked at some- 
thing useful for 
tailoring, not 
for carpentry. 

Yes 

Yes 



No. 



Yes 

It is preparatory 
only. 

Yes 



Yes. 



(a) 



Not under pres- 
ent social con- 
ditions. 

Yes , 



Yes. 
Yes. 

Yes. 



Unfortunately 
no, so long as 
the apprentice 
does not regard 
what he has 
learned in the 
school shop as 
the sole end and 
aim. 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 



Yes. 
Yes. 



Yes. 



Under existing 
social condi- 
tions it does not. 

Yes 

It may in those 
who are not ar- 
tisans. 

Yes 



Yes. 

Yes. 



(&) 



res; in a small 
measure. 



(b) 
Yes ; to some ex- 
tent. 



Yes. 



Yes. 
Yes. 

Yes. 



Yes. 
Yes. 



Yes. 
Yes. 



b His trade has so little to do with the specialty he pursued in the school shop that it is not possible 
to answer these questions. Yet in the shop the pupil learned to work intelligently, and his sense of 
beauty was awakened. 



324 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

EESULTS or MAXUAL TEAIXI:N'G IX LEIPSIC- Concluded. 



Mar- 
ginal 
nuin- 
ber. 



27 



Age. 



30 



35 



37 



14 

i5i 



15| 



15i 



Occupation. 



Brass 'worker . 
Electrician . . . 



Printer 



Joiner , 



Mason 

Loctsmitli. 



16 Chimney s-weep . . . 
15^ I Steel and copper 

worker. 
15 Machinist 



16| 
19 



Basket maker 
Locksmith 



Kind of training 
at school. 



Metal work. 



Pastehoard 
TTork ; carpen- 
try; modelling 

Carpentry 



i Carpentry 
; Carving .. 



Metal TTork. 



Carpsntry 



Carpentry 



Carpentry 



Half- 
years 

at 
school. 



Hours of 

training 

per 

week. 



Time 
under 
instruc- 
tion. 



iyear. 
I year. 



iyear... 
J year... 

li years . 
I year... 



2 I year... 
ij years. 

4 J year... 



lyr. 5m. 
2i years. 



Does he show 
practical ability ? 



Yes 

Yes... 

Yes 

Yes 

No ; everything 
has to be pre- 
pared for him. 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 



Yes. 

Yes. 



a It is hard to answer in this case, because he showed th.e same devotion to his trade before receiving 
this instruction. 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 325 

RESULTS OF MAXtJAL TEAINIXG IX LEIPSIC— Concluded. 



Is he above the 
average iir man- 
ual dexterity ? 



Does he j 
show an 
interest 

in his 

■work ? i 



Is he 

diligent ' 



Does the teacher believe that, rightly directed, 
manual training — 



A-wakens an 

interest in 

practical work? 



Gives a fjeneral 
fitness for it ? 



Inspires respect 
for manual labor ? 



Mar- 
ginal 
num- 
ber. 



Clearly so, for 
his age. 



Yes. 



Tes ; if he con- 
tinues so he 
will deserve a 
broader edu- 
cation. 

Of this I have 
no experience. 

He is very accu- 
rate, and would 
become a very 
skilful work- 
man but for 
m health. 



It has been ap- 
parent from 
the first day 
that manual 
training has 
greatly bene- 
fited him. 



His skiU is quite 

satisfactory. 
Yea 



Yes. 



Yes. 



Yes. 



Yes. 



Yes. 



Yes. 



Yes. 
Yes. 



Yes. 



Yes.. 



Yes. 
Yes- 



Yes. 
Yes. 



TTe think well of 

this school. 
Yes 



(a) 



Yes. 



Yes. 
Yes. 



Yes. 



Yes. 
Yes. 



Under favorable 
circumstances. 



Great interest — 



Yes. 



If the apprentice 
has previously 
attended a 

school work- 
shop, it has 
quickly become 
evident what 
industry he is 
most interested 
in; this is a 
preparation of 
great impor- 
tance. 

Yes 



Yes. 



Yes. 
Yes. 



Yes. 



{a) 



It is not possible 
to affirm this of 
the short period 
of study. The 
novelty of the 
training excites 
interest, 
(a) 



Yes. 



Yes. 



Yes; in a single 
branch. 

I can speak of 
manual train- 
ing only in 
tenns of warm- 
est praise. 

Yes 



It is hardtosav. 



27 



Yes. 



Yes. 
Yes. 



Yes. 



Yes. 



Yes. 



35 



326 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

In cGmmenting on tlie various replies contained in the scliedule the 
writer in the Blatter says : 

In respect to single unfavorable results the individuality of the 
pupil is so clearly a factor that failure can not be laid to the charge of 
manual training. As to the skill and diligence of the pupils, as well 
as concerning their interest in their pursuits, the testimony is almost 
unanimous. 

Less unanimous are the answers to the question: Is he above the 
average? And it must be somewhat difficult to give an adequate 
reply to such a question, for it would require a wide experience in the 
education of apprentices to render a full answer. 

The question: Does the teacher believe that rightly directed manual 
training fits one, in a general way, for hand work? is not rightly in- 
terpreted by many masters, because they lay too little emphasis on 
the word general {allgemein). They think of manual training too 
much as a special preparation for a trade. But while we do not as- 
pire to promote any industrial object by our manual training, but 
keep only general education in view, we have good grounds for satis- 
faction in the testimony of master workmen concerning our instruction. 

An artist (whose answers are not included in our schedule for sufficient 
reasons) testifies of the value of manual training as follows: ^-Yes, it 
is of great utility ! Manual training should be more extensively prac- 
tised in our industrial and art schools, for it would give us more use- 
ful, competent artisans, and fewer drawing room dilettanti, for our 
handicrafts. In my judgment every boy ought to attend the model- 
ling and wood carving classes, for it is of prime importance that every 
one should learn how things are made. Without this training elo one 
can become a clever artist. Every world's exposition has brought to 
view our deficiencies." 

Finally, the writer concludes, workmen are ^^not inimical to manual 
training, but know how to value it." 

Herr F. G-roppler, the famous Berlin teacher, summarizes other 
rephes made to the schedule inquiries in a statistical report on the 
influence of training for labor upon the industrial activity of former 
manual training pupils, x)ublished in the Blatter filr KnahenSandar- 
deity for June 1892. 

He prefaces his tables with the reminder that the most of the 
German school shops are yet too young to have exerted any appre- 
ciable effect on industry. He observes, farther, that until 1891 — when 
the inquiries of this Department brought the subject to their atten- 
tion — the majority of German school teachers did not keep a list of 
their pupils, had no communication with their graduates, and no 
knowledge of the callings they followed. 

It was determined by those having charge of the matter to ascertain 
the opinions of a number of German master workmen concerning man- 
ual training, though aware, as Herr Groppler expresses it, that ^Hheir 
judgment would be subjectively colored." Accordingly, a schedule ol 
questions was sent out to 50 of the oldest German school workshops. 

To some of these inquiries no answer was returned, but from 22 
towns 301 full replies were received. The greater part were filled out 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 327 

by tlie master workmen themselves, a smaller proportion by parents or 
by shop superintendents after consultation with the master workmen. 

"We leave out of the account, in thisconnection, questions 1 to 8, 
which relate to the name, the age, the teacher, etc.," says Herr Grop- 
pler, who also doubts whether the specialty pursued in the school 
workshop exercises any influence on the choice of a calling. In general 
this influence is thought to be very small at most. The special local 
industries have much more to do with the result, as, for example, at 
Markneukirchen all the boys become violin makers. 

Herr Groppler remarks : 

We confine ourselves, therefore, to the following summary of the 
questions 9 to 14. 

Question 9. Does the apprentice show jjracitical ability? Affirm- 
ative, 2545 qualified affirmative, 16; negative, 6; no answer, 23. 

Question 10. Has he a certain degree of manual dexterity ! Affirm- 
ative, 254; qualified affirmative, 15; negative, 9; no answer, 23. 

Question 11. Is he above the average in this respect? Affirmative, 
114; qualified affirmative, 18; negative, 102; no ansv\^er, 67. 

Question 12. Does he show an interest in his pursuit? Affirmative, 
274; qualified affirmative, 10; negative, 7; no answer, 10. 

Question 13. Is he diligent ? Affirmative, 275; qualified affirmative, 
10; negative, 3; no answer, 13. 

Question 14. Does the teacher believe that a rightly directed course 
of manual instruction {a) awakens an interest in hand craft and in 
practical pursuits? Affirmative, 251; qualified affirmative, 6; nega- 
tive, 7 ; no answer, 34. 

{!)) That, in a general way, it fits one for such pursuits ? Affirmative, 
250; qualified affirmative, 12; negative, 19; no answer, 20. 

(c) That it inspires respect for manual labor? Affirmative, 253; 
qualified affirmative, 4; negative, 5; no answer, 38. 

From all this Herr Groi^x^ler concludes that the movement in behalf 
of manual training has prospered and gained favor among the laboring 
classes. "This shows us," he adds, "that we are on the right track, 
and that we should press forward unswervingly." 

Since the publication (in 1889) of Herr Sonntag's report on the con- 
dition of manual instruction in Germany the movement has made rapid 
progress there. According to that report there were then in Germany 
67 independent schools of manual labor and 97 workshops in connection 
with other institutions, a total of 164 school workshops. Within the 
last three years the manual workshops have made a gain of 89, that is, 
54 per cent. This gives a total of 253 manual training workshoiDS in 
Germany. Of these 148 are situated in Prussia, the Ehine provinces 
heading the list with 29. 

In the van of the remaining German states the kingdom of Saxony 
leads with 33 workshops. Bavaria has 15; Saxe- Weimar, 9; Wiir- 
temberg, Bremen, and Alsace-Lorraine, 6 each; Baden, Saxe-Ooburg- 
Gotha, and Liibeck, 5 each; Hamburg, 4; Brunswick, Eeuss, and Lipx)e, 
2 each; Hesse, Saxe-Meiningen, Anhalt, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, 



328 . REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

and Scliwarzburg-Euclolstadt, 1 each. lu the 7 remaining German 
states educational labor training seems to have gained no foothold. 

The advance of the new system has been such in all parts of the civi- 
lized world, however, that, according to Schenckendorff, Germany now 
occupies the ninth place in the line of states that seek to promote this 
educational reform. In his enumeration the order of precedence is given 
as follows: Finland, Sweden, E"orway, Denmark, France, England, 
Belgium, Switzerland, Germany. America is not taken into the account 
at all. 

The following data as to the cost of materials for instruction, etc., in 
Germany are derived from the General Educational l^ews (AUgemein 
unterriohtende Mitteilungen). The cost of a tool outfit for carving, j)er 
pupil, in Germany is given as 1.72 marks (41 cents) j common working 
tools sufficient for 16 pupils, 149.42 marks ($35.56). Cost of tools per 
IDupil in pasteboard work, 5,45 marks ($1.30) j equipments for 20 pui)ils 
in this department, 118.75 marks ($28.20). In the carpentry depart- 
ment the cost of tools, per pupil, is i3ut at 49.80 marks ($11.85); hence, 
for ten benches, 498 marks ($118.52). Shop equipment (ten benches 
and tools), 545.70 marks ($129.88). General outfit of workshop (mate- 
rials, lamps, pails, towels, etc.), 116.50 marks ($27.73). Total cost of 
equipment for the three departments, 930.37 marks ($221.43). 
' The current expenses of a workshop per year are — 

For administration, etc $35. 70 

Teachers' stipend, 9 divisions, at 150 marks for 1 division^ 4 hours per week. 321. 30 

Service and cleaning 8. 57 

Lighting 7. 14 

Heating 3.57 

Material nsed 70. 21 

Repair of tools, etc 7. 14 

Books, etc . . ., 4. 76 

Sundries 15.47 

Total 473.86 

The equipment of a shop for metal work for the accommodation of 
15 pupils is said to cost 96.85 marks ($23.05). 

HIGHER INSTITUTIONS FOR INDHSTEIAL EDUCATION. 

German schools have a thoroughly systematic organization, by virtue 
of which there occurs no break in the continuity of a pupiPs studies 
in passing from a lower to a higher grade. This peculiarity of the 
German school system differentiates it from that of all other nations. 

Of this fact Sir Philip Magnus takes cognizance in his essay on Ed- 
ucation in Bavaria, published in the monograph series of the Indus- 
trial Education Association, March 1888. He says : 

Nothing is more difficult than the endeavor to classify English schools. 
As regards the elementary schools, there is, of course, no difficulty, 
because they are all organized on the same plan; but as soon as we 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 329 

proceed one step liiglier in the educational ladder the difficulty of pre- 
senting in a tabular form the various grades of secondary schools is very 
considerable. * * * Where the foreign system seems to me to be 
undoubtedly superior is in the closer definition of the objects which 
each school endeavors to fulfil. * * * Another defect in the Eng- 
lish school system, arising from want of organization, is that difierent 
schools which ought to aim at educating difierent classes of pupils 
overlap one another in their aims and objects, and are with difficulty 
distinguishable. 

***** * * 

A typical example of the organization of German schools is pre- 
sented in the school system in Bavaria. This system is well illustrated 
in the city of Munich, which contains specimens of all the different 
schools existing throughout the country. * * * The population of 
Munich is about 230,000, and it contains 20 elementary schools, the 
average attendance at which is nearly 25,000 children, or 1 in 9 of the 
entire x>opulation. * * * The ordinary elementary school age is 
between 6 and 13, and it is scarcely necessary to say that elementary 
education is comiiulsory. * * * ]s[o child can leave the elementary 
school until he has attained the age of 13; and even then, if he at once 
enters industrial life, he is required to attend, during the evening, what 
is called a continuation school, where the instruction consists of the 
same subjects as are taught in the primary school, further continued, 
in addition to elementary science, bookkeeping, and what may be called 
industrial drav>ing. * * * These continuation schools are held on 
the evenings of the week-days and on Sundays. In 1884, throughout 
Bavaria, there were 273 such schools in which 1,223 teachers were en- 
gaged; and in Munich only, the attendance in these schools averages 
about 3,194 yearly. 

In the case of those intending to take a higher educational course it 
is permissible to leave the elementary school {Yollcsschule) at 10 jeavs 
of age, and enter the EeaJscUule, if able to pass the entrance exami- 
nation. 

In Bavaria there are about 46 such schools, in 34 of which the 
course of study occux)ies six years, and in 12, four years. The course 
of study comprises German^ at least one other modern language, 
science, mathematics, and drawing. Latin is not taught, nor is there 
any workshop instruction. At the age of 16 the student may pass to 
the technical college or Industricschiile. 

The aim of these schools is to enable the students to obtain a practi- 
cal education, less theoretical in character than that given in the uni- 
versities or at the polytechnic schools, which shall adai3t them to at 
once enter upon commercial or industrial work, with a fair chance of 
immediate employment, and of obtaining steady i)romotion in their 
careers. The school course lasts two years. 

WorkshoiD instruction has only of late years been given in the tech- 
nical schools of Germany. In the Eealschule leading up to this col- 
lege no such instruction is given, and the opinion is still very generally 
held throughout Germany that practice in the use of tools is best com- 
menced in the commercial works, and that the period devoted to school 
education should be wholly occux)ied in the teaching of princix)les. 



330 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

There is, however, a gradually increasing tendency to adopt the oppo- 
site view, and the importance attached to workshop instruction in other 
countries, notably in France and in the United States, is not without 
effect on German educationists. 

The opinions received from different authorities as to the value 
of these schools varied very much. More than one of -the professors 
of the university attached very little value to the instruction. On 
the other hand the testimony of managers of m. a chine works in 
Bavaria, who had had the opportunity of testing the results of the 
training given in these Bidustrieschulen, is very much in favor of the 
education they x^rovide. 

An English foreman, engaged in the works of a large machine maker 
at Nuremberg, referred to it in the highest possible terms, and dis- 
tinctly stated that he gave a decided preference to boys who had re- 
ceived, during their school course, some amount of shop work instruc- 
tion. 

After discussing German university education Sir Philip Magnus says : 

In this bird's-eye view of Bavarian education I have made no refer- 
ence to schools of art, to schools of commerce, nor to schools for the 
instruction of women. To give a full descrii)tion of the splendid Art 
School of Munich would alone form subject matter for an interesting 
paper. * * * Such a school, x)ro vided with the necessary plant and 
apparatus for the execution in the material itself, be it glass, x)orcelain, 
wood, metal, or some textile fabric, of the design prepared by the artist, 
affords facilities for experimental art work which, when successfal, 
may be, and often is, th^ means of introducing into the country new 
industries. * * * There a^re in Bavaria other educational institu- 
tions, fulfilling various puri:>oses, such as training colleges for teachers, 
music and dramatic colleges, needlework schools, military, and veteri- 
nary schools. 

In conclusion the author remarks : 

An acquaintance with the German system shows that, notwithstand- 
ing many undeniable objections, there is much to be said in favor of 
state control of secondary and higher education. The rivaky among 
different schools, the competition for pupils, involving various forms of 
exi)ensive advertisement, which characterizes the free system of Eng- 
land, does not exist in Germany. The government takes care that each 
district is x^rovided with the schools adax3ted to its wants, and the 
curricula of these schools are determined by the requirements of the 
peox)le. The gradation and coordination of schools under such a 
system is far more complete than is at X3resent possible in England. 

Erom recent consular rex)orts we obtain some suggestions as to the 
commercial advantages that accrue from the technical schools of the 
continent. In the German emi^ire there are understood to be 250 such 
schools J and to their influence is attributed, in part, Germany's ability 
to comxDete successfully with the nations of the world in manufactured 
X^roducts. 

Mr. James H. Smith, United States commercial agent at Mentz, 
remarks that these schools play an important part in x^romoting the 



CHAP. V. INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 331 

prosperity of Germany's foreign trade; and thinks tliat tlie disposition 
sliown in tlie United States during the last few years to introduce into 
the schools of the country the training of the hand as well as of the eye, 
if generally and intelligently carried out, can not fail to be of incalcula- 
ble benefit to the country, and produce a nation of skilled workmen 
whose productions will raise our country to a heig-^ht of industrial excel- 
lence unsurpassed by any country, and challenge the admiration of tlie 
world. 

More specific still is the statement of Consular Agent i^euer, of the 
United States agency at Gera. After describing the Gera weaving 
school — essentially like the one at Orefeld, already referred to — he 
says: 

I commend this system of technical education as well worthy of the 
serious consideration of our manufacturers, as specially trained and 
skilled operatives must be of vast service to us. It is an important 
factor and closely connected with the highest interests of our laboring 
classes. 

In this connection I draw attention to the English parliament having 
Tecently suggested the establishment of technical schools according to 
the German system. The advancement of German commerce in all 
parts of the world is generally admitted; and while cheap German labor, 
as well as the weighty governmental aid, may partly account for this 
fact, it is no less tke superior schooling which, opens to this country 
new markets. Our merchants ought to adopt the same methods to 
strengthen our manufacturing industries. 

The Bradford correspondent of the Irish. Textile Journal writes in- 
terestingly, in the July 1890 number of that periodical, concerning the 
Industrial Society of Miilhausen, in the province of Alsace. Under tbis 
society's supervision various technical schools have been established, 
chiefiy for teaching all branches of the textile industries. His com- 
munication concludes as follows: 

The system as carried on at Miilhausen ought to be adopted by those 
engaged in the various industries of this country, and every means 
taken to render it as efficient as possible, and the lead that we have 
undoubtedly had in most of the manufacturing trades up to the pres- 
ent would stiU be retained by us. There is certainly a lack of spirit 
amongst a majority of the employers in the British Isles in many 
matters which, with a little tact and outlay, would amply repay them 
in the long run; but, notwithstanding that such rapid strides have 
been made during recent years in the improvement in the conditions 
of labor, in the general welfare of the working pojoulation, and in the 
advance of technical education, there stiU remains much to be done in 
order to keep well ahead, in industrial and scientific matters, of other 
nations, and a leaf taken out of the book of the Technical Industrial 
Society of Mlilliausen, and thoroughly digested by all those interested 
in the future of this country, would greatly tend to uphold our present 
supremacy in the leading industries. Those specially engaged in the 
making of textile goods, and in the various classes of machinery for 
their production, ought to take up this question with spirit. 

From the report of the factory inspectors of the German empire 



332 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

for the year 1887 Uiuted States Commercial Agent Smith, of Mentz, 
condenses into an interesting abstract some accounts of the general 
industrial situation in that country for Consular Eeport ]^o. 103, of 
March 1889. In this abstract it is stated that — 

A school regularly intended for industrial education is known as a 
Geicerhcschule^ that is, industrial school, and when the school is de- 
voted to a particular line of work, or branch of industry, it is often 
called a Fachschule. * * * 

Faclischiden^ that is, schools for teaching a particular line of work, 
do not exist all over the empire, but are met with chiefly in localities 
in which the branch of industry for which they are especially designed 
flourishes most, as, for instance, the Faclischide for small ironware and 
steel, at Eemscheid; for casting, at Bochumj for ceramics, in the Kassel- 
Wiesbaden district; for industrial art, at Carlsrnhe; for watchmaking, 
at Furtwangen in Baden; for weaving, dyeing, etc., at Crefeld, and to 
a considerable extent in Saxony; for brewing and milling, at Worms; 
for the polygraphical industry, at Leipsic. 

A large number of Faclischulen are in the Chemnitz district. In the 
heart of the toy making district, at Griinhainichen, there is 2^ Facliscliule 
for teaching drawing, painting, and modelling to young toy makers. 
These Fach schools are maintained either with x>ublic money or by 
guilds. 

United States Consul Monaghan, of Mannheim, who has visited and 
carefully inspected the industrial school at Pforzheim, gives the results 
of his observations in a valuable paper published in the May number 
of the United States Consular Eeports of 1890. It is plain that in this 
case, as in most cases, the school in question had a utilitarian purpose. 
We are not left to infer this for Consul Monaghan says : 

The origin of these schools is due to the enterprise of Pforzheim's 
jewellers. The first steps toward its creation were taken after need 
for great skill in designing and a better knowledge on the part of the 
workmen of the laws of beauty, taste, harmony, metals and their ma- 
nipulation was felt by manufacturers desirous of holding what they had 
long possessed and of making new conquests in the world's markets. 

StiU further, he notes the care exercised by German jewellers to study 
universal art and adapt their wares to racial tastes : 

Tons of stuff are going to America. Mexico takes immense quantities ; 
so do all the South American states. The extending and securiDg of 
these markets is due very largely to the industrial and art industrial 
schools. * * * 

The schools are here, never to go. The sooner we get them in the 
United States — for get them we must if we will hold our home mar- 
kets, to say nothing about foreign — the better 

Finally, Consul Monaghan concludes: 

The argument, if such it can truthfally be called, so often indulged 
in by American writers and educators, that the best of such schools 
can give little if anything more than theory, has here absolutely no 
api)lication. The industrial schools here are the quintessence of prac- 
ticability. The manager who wants a boy trained by a practiced, skil- 
ful workman gets him. 

The teachers who morning after morning turn to the right to go into 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 333 

tlie school biiilcliug to give instructions are, every one, men tvIio could 
as easily turn to the left, go clown any of the city^s lanes, enter any of 
the workshops or factories, put on aprons, and take their places by the 
side of the very best in stamping or finishing room. 

The best argument, perhaps, for establishing them in lands where 
they are as yet unknown is found in their steady, rapid, and wide ex- 
tension in this and neighboring countries, and in the fact that when 
the government, if it ever should, resolves to support them no longer, 
the manufacturers themselves will provide money, and generously, for, 
their continuance. 

In continental Europe, and particularly in Germany an d France 
there are flourishing agricultural schools of various grades. 

To Prof. Thaer, who as long ago as 1810 was appointed to the chair 
of agriculture in the University of Berlin, is given the credit of having 
organized the first system of agricultural education in Germany. To 
him, also, is attributed the dictum, which today would be everywhere 
received as a self evident truth, that '^ agriculture can not be perfectly 
learned by attending lectures from the professorial chair." 

Since Thaer's day there has been a wonderful development of agri- 
cultural institutions in Germany, until now no less than 13 institutes 
of the university rank are fully equipped for imparting instruction 
in the science and art of agriculture In that empire, while a multitude 
of schools of lower grade are devoted to this important specialty. 

As an example of the former class we may take the Agricultural 
High School at Berlin. The instruction here is of a purely scientific 
character, as, indeed, it could hardly be experimental and practical in 
a large city. The building occui3ied by the school • contains an exten- 
sive museum in which agricultural implements of every descrii)tion 
are displayed for the benefit of the students. The botanical collection 
contains several thousand specimes of wood of different kinds, and 
over 18,000 specimens of corn, seeds, and fibres, which include sam- 
ples of the various kinds of artificial feeding stuffs. 

The zoological and zootechnical collections are equally as complete, 
including various species of domesticated animals, and the different 
breeds of them which exist in Europe and other countries. Skeletoiis, 
models, photographs, and pictures form together a more complete syn- 
013 sis of the animals of the farm than can iDrobably be found in any 
other institution. The wool collection alone is a marvel of complete- 
ness, for not only does it contain specimens of the wool of different 
breeds, but also that of different flocks of each breed. It is further 
divided into two portions — one historical, to show the gradual develop- 
ment of the production of wool by means of cultivation and selection, 
and the other technical, to show the applicability of the various sorts 
of wool to the manufacture of the different kinds of fabrics, and the 
effect of manufacturing i)rocesses upon the varieties of the raw material. 

The teaching staff of this school includes many distinguished men. 
There are, according to the latest available report, 12 regular teachers, 



334 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

19 assistant teachers and private doeentSj and 55 instructors of lower 
rank in tlie scliool. The whole number of students is given as 432, 
but many of these were members of the university, attending special 
lectures of the agricultural school. The fees for students are fixed by 
the minister of agriculture, and amount to about $50 a year. The gov- 
ernment grants a subvention to the school equivalent to 845,000 annu- 
ally. 

The Poppelsdorf Agricultural Academy deserves mention especially 
on account of its course of instruction in agricultural engineering, such 
as does not exist elsewhere in Eurox)e. It would conduce greatly to 
the usefulness and popularity of American agri(iultural colleges if they 
were to introduce a similar course of special instruction. In vast re- 
gions of the West millions of acres lie fallow and useless, which, under 
*the hand of a comi)etent agricultural engineer, having a thorough 
knowledge of mechanics and hydraulics, of drainage and of irrigation, 
might easily be reclaimed and made abundantly productive. 

At Halle there is an agricultural institute of high rank, having an 
average attendance of 300 students. Connected with this institute is 
an experimental farm of 100 acres, and botanical and zoological gardens. 
In the zoological garden i-s kept a variety of farm animals which serve 
as living specimens to illustrate the lectures given by the professors. 
The course of instruction extends over two j^ears ; and the entire cost of 
living and tuition at this institute does not exceed $200 per annum for 
each pupil. 

Of the intermediate agricultural schools {LandwirtJiscJiaftsscJmlen) in 
Germany there is an indefinite number. In Prussia there are 16 with 
more than 1,100 pur)i]s. These schools receive a subsidy from the state 
and take rank with American high schools — the classics being dis- 
placed m x)art by agricultural instruction, and modern languages sub- 
stituted for Greek in the curricula. 

Dr. Michelsen, director of the school at Hildesheim, is of the opinion 
that the instruction given to the small farmers of that district has en- 
abled them to grow successfully the sugar beet, the culture of which 
requires great care and intelligence. 

The Acl^erlfauscliule of Germany is a farm school of lower grade. In 
Prussia there are said to be 32 of these schools, some of which are 
connected with the intermediate schools, while others are boarding 
schools established on an independent basis. The farm schools, like 
most good institutions in Europe, are maintained largely by state aid, 
though local authorities contribute also to their support. 

In Badersleben one of these farm schools is established on an old 
convent farm of 500 acres, with accommodation for 70 iDupils. Boys 
between 14 and 17 years of age are admitted to the school. The course 
of study occupies two years. Here, on a 2-acre school garden, the 
pupils are taught the proioer rotation of crops and the best methods of 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 335 

cultivating the common agricultural staples. The expense of tuition, 
"board, etc., is about $100 a year per pupil. 

The time of the students is mostly devoted to general or special study, 
only just enough of practical work being undertaken to enable them to 
become acquainted with all the operations of agriculture. On leaving 
the school most of the students become foremen of their fathers' or 
neighbors' farms, and thus share with others the advantages of the 
instruction they have received. 

Another powerful agency for the diffusion of a knowledge of agri- 
culture, and for stimulating an interest in its pursuit, is often brought 
into requisition in Germany j this is the travelling lectureship. 
Through this means practical farmers are taught the latest scientific 
discoveries and the best modes of utilizing them. 

Before dismissing the subject of agricultural instruction in Germany 
we wish to refer briefly to the special schools, which have for their 
object the thorough preparation of their pupils for some single branch 
of work more or less directly connected with agriculture. 

Of this class are the dairy schools, such as that at Gross Himstedt. 
There, on a farm of 130 acres, 35 or 40 milch cows are kept, and dairy- ♦ 
ing in all its branches is efficiently taught to young women, who pay 
what seems the merely nominal fee of $90 apiece per year for board, 
lodging, and instruction. 

In this school the morning hours are set apart for service in the 
dairy; but in the afternoon the pupils are taught writing, arithmetic, 
history, geography, and receive lessons in sewing and cooking. 

Economical management of a dairy is demonstrated to be possible at 
this school, since one pig is kept for each cow on the farm, and is fat- 
tened on whey and buttermilk. Six oxen and 150 sheep are also fat- 
tened annually. The cows are kept in stalls all the jeai; round; but 
they have plenty of green food — in early spring green rye, and later, 
green grass and clover. 

Provision is made for the instruction of only six i)upils at onetime in 
this school; and the only feature which differentiates the school from 
similar dairying establishments in England is the instruction here 
given in common branches of education. But this collateral teaching 
is of considerable imii^rtance to the class of pui)ils in attendance. 

Technological schools of forestry, of drainage and irrigation, etc., 
are numerous in Germany. Among the most useful of these are the 
shoeing schools. 

One such school established at Grimmen a few years ago by Herr 
Koch, royal veterinary surgeon of the Greifswald district, has been of 
great service in lessening hoof diseases and lameness caused by faulty 
shoeing. Herr Koch, the founder of the school, insists that a shoer of 
horses should have a thorough knowledge of the anatomy and phj^si- 
ology of animals' legs, and especially of the horse's hoof or great toe. 

The museums of various kinds which are connected with the agri- 



336 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

cultural and other industrial scliools of European countries are 
important educational adjuncts. The American system of agricultural 
fairSj or occasional exhibits of agricultural products, are, for educa- 
tional lourposes, of slight value, compared with these permanent local 
museums, freely open and accessible to the people, in which are ar- 
ranged and scientifically classified specimens of flora and fauna; and, 
conformably to some definite i^lan or chronological order, models of 
agricultural implements, collections of improved educational appliances, 
and i:)roductions of industrial and technical art. These collections are 
to the people an unfailing source of inspiration and a constantly sug- 
gestive stimulus. 

More than five thousand si^ecimens of industrial art i^roducts were 
added to the collections in the agricultural museum of Wiirtemberg 
during the year 1889. 

Among the influences which tend to raise the standard of general 
education in Germany, and to make students emulous of reaching the 
higher grades of schools, is the natural desire to escape from the three 
years' military service which the government exacts of all young men 
who do not enter the higher institutions of learning. On condition of 
pursuing advanced studies the student is exempt from the irksomeness 
of a long term of military duty, and is privileged to take what is called 
the voluntary service of one year's duration in the army. This immu- 
nity can be secured only by prolonging the period of school attendance; 
and, accordingly, the German youth chooses what he considers the lesser 
of two evils. 

Among the testimonials to the value of the teaching in the continua- 
tion schools of Germany may be cited the letter of Herr Back, director 
of the Frankfort school, to a representative of this Department. Under 
date of August 6, 1891, he writes that this discipline inspires the pupil 
with enthusiasm and love {Lust und Liebe) for his calling and educates 
him for his trade as the workshop alone could not. 

Of similar tenor is the letter of the burgomaster of Strasburg to 
Herr Groppler of Berlin, in which he says : "' I can testify only that, 
as a rule, the pupils trained in your courses of manual work are far 
more skilful and more serviceable than others." 

IKDUSTEIAL TEADE SCHOOLS XET> OONTINUATIOF 
SCHOOLS IN PEUSSIA. 

^lemoranda of the Development of Industrial Trade Schools and Con- 
tinuation Schools in Prussia (DenJcschriften ilber die Entwiclielung der 
gewcrhlicJieriFachschulcn und der Forthildungsscliulen inPreussen), during 
the years 1879 to 1890, is the title of a voluminous report by Herr Liiders 
of Berlin. 

A partial list of the schools, with the location of each institution, is 
as follows : 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 337 

CONTINUATION" AND TRADE SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA. 



Location. 


, Name of scbool. 


Estimated 
expenses, 
1891-'92. 


Attendance 
winter of 




Englisb. 


German. 


1890-'91. 






Baugewerkscbule 

Baugewerkscbule 

Baugewerkscbule 

Baugewerkscbule 

Baugewerkscbule 

Baugewerkscbule 

Baugewerkscbule 

Weljc-, Eiirberei- und Ap- 

preturscbule. 
W ebescbulo 


$11, 065. 81 

11, 612. 02 

11,143.16 

8, 800. 53 

11,057.48 

8, 334. 28 

9, 710. 40 
13, 304. 20 

2, 389. 52 

2, 496. 02 

1, 428. 00 

668. 54 

888. 22 

8, 21L 00 
4, 400. 62 
1, 942. 08 

15, 019. 94 

9, 900. 80 
21, 056. 34 


223 


Eokernforde 


TVork scbool 


191 


Hoxtor 


Work scbool ........ . 


296 






222 


"n An t apli -irrriTi ft 


W ork scbool . .......... 


224 






208 


Berlin 


Work scbool . .. 


217 


Crel'eld ...... 


Weaving, dyeing, and fin- 
isbing scbool. 


288 


MJ.lbeim-am-Rliein .. 


54 


WeavincT scbool ... 


Webescliule 


31 






Webescbule 


22 




Industrial drawing 
scbool. 

Industrial drawing 
scbool. 

Drawing and industrial 
art scbool. 

Provincial art and band- 
work scbool. 

Provincial art and band- 
work scbool. 

Drawing academy 

Industrial art scbool 

Central German indus- 
trial art society. 

Industrial art museum. . . 

Trade scbool of ceramic 
art. 

Trade scbool of metal in- 
dustry. 

Trade scbool of small iron 
and steel wares. 

Scbool of iron manufact- 
ure for tbe Rliine 
provinces and West- 
pbalia. 

Work scbool of tbe 
society for tbe ad- 
vancement of tbe wel- 
fare of tbe working 

Artisans' scbool 


Gewerblicbe Zeicben- 

schule. 
Gewerblicbe Zeicben- 

scbule. 
Gewerblicbe Zeicbcn-und 

Kunstgewerbescbule. 
Provinzial Kunst-und 

H.andwerkscbulc. 
Provinzial Kunst-und 

Handwork s cb ule . 


64 


Elberfeld 


145 




513 




113 




81 


Hanau 

Dusseldorf 


429 


Kunstgewerbescbule 

Kunstgewerbescbule des 

MitteldeutscbenKunst- 

gewerbevereins. 
Kuns t ^e werbemu seum 


237 




294 


Berlin 




Grenzbausen-Hobr . . 


Keramiscbe Eacbscbule.. 

Facbscbule fur Metallin- 

dustrie. 
Facbscbule fiir die ber- 

giscbe Kleineisen-und 

Stahlwaarenindustrie. 
Rbeiuisch - westfaliscbe 

Eisenbiittenscbule. 

Arbeitscbule des Yereins 
zur Forderung des 
Woliles der arbeiten- 
den Klassen. 

Handwork erscb ule 

LeineuAvebescbule 

Facbscbule fiir Seedampf- 

scb iffsmas cbinisten . 
Kunstgewerbe-undHand- 

werkerscbule. 
W obescbule ... 


1, 987. 30 
7, 477. 01 
9, 662. 80 

6, 402. 20 


47 
42 




100 


Bocbum ,.... .- 


80 


"WnlflATilim'or 




Berlin 


22, 923. 21 
1, 523. 20 

5, 057. 50 

14, 527. 52 

3, 284. 40 
1, 142. 40 

8, 330. 00 
5, 964. 28 

4, 569. 60 
19, 165. 43 

7, 209. 73 

11, 440. 42 
12,076.12 
2,201.00 
1, 547. 00 
1, 856. 40 
1, 237. 60 
7, 925. 40 
3, 5S0. 47 

6, 961. 50 

5, 688. 20 


2,204 




Linen weaving scbool 

Trade scbool for ocean 
steamsbip macbinists. 

Industrial art and arti- 
sans' scbool. 

Weaving scbool 

Worksbops for weaving 
instruction. 


57 


Flensbur"" 


43 


M^a^'deburg 


1,093 


Eallienburg 


17 


Rummelsburg 

Berlin 


Webereilebrwerkstatte. . . 


14 
308 


Aacben . . 


Industrial draAving and 

industrial art scbool. 
Industrial (day) scbool... 

Artisans' and industrial 


Gewerblicbe Zeicben und 

Kunstgewerbescbule. 

Gewerblicbe Facbscbule 

Handwerker und Kunst- 
gewerbescbule. 
Werkmeisterscbulo fiir 

Mascbineubauer, Scblos- 

ser und Scbraiedo. 

Baugewerkscbule 

Baugewerkscbule 

TVebescbule 


662 


Aacben . ...... 


126 


Hanover 


1,412 








Master workmen's scbool 
for macbinists, lock- 
smitbs, etc. 


37 




126 


Magdeburg 


Work scbool 


118 


Nowawes 


W eavin o" scbool 


69 


Forst ........'. 








Somnierfeld 


W^eaving scbool 


W ebescbule 


23 










Aacben . ......... 


W eavin f scbool 


Webescbule 


100 




Work scbool 


Baugewerkscbule 

Werkmeisterscbule fiir 
Mascbineubauer, Scblos- 
ser und Scbmiede. 

Gewerblicbe Zeicben- 
Bcbule. 




ifagdebuTg „ . . . . 


Master workmen's scbool 
for macbinists, smitbs, 
and locksmitbs. 

Industrial drawing 




Halle 


383 







S. Ex. 65- 



-22 



338 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

CREPBLD. 

The institutioii now known as tlie Orefeld School of Weaving, Dyeing, 
and Finishing has existed as a weaving school of a high order since the 
year 1855, and, thanks to the powerful support of the Prussian royal 
minister of education, as well as that of the city council and chamber 
of commerce of Grefeld, it has been thoroughly reorganized for the pur- 
pose of theoretical and practical instruction. Its object is to educate 
master workmen, pattern designers, and mechanics for every branch of 
weaving, and also to equip machinists for the textile industry, as well 
as to impart to young people who wish to engage in the business of 
manufactured wares, either as purchasers or sellers, a sufficient knowl- 
edge of the process of manufacture so that they may be able more 
accurately to appreciate values. 

In order to fulfil thoroughly this object the course of instruction 
includes the teaching of weaving from the most various kinds of raw 
materials, the speediest and most exact execution of pattern designs, 
guidance for the independent invention of new patterns, and for calcu- 
lating the value of materials, and the most preferable method of manu- 
facture. 

These special studies are cultivated: Manufacturing bookkeeping, the 
elements of machinery, power machines, spinning and finishing, the 
setting up of hand looms, and other iDractice in the workshops (wood 
and iron). Herr Emil Lembcke is director of the Orefeld school. 

The course of study is of two years' duration. In the first year in- 
struction is given in drawing and i)attern work, with special reference 
to the different branches of textile industry. The composition and 
decomx)osition of fabrics are taught and illustrated by means of lec- 
tures j and practical weaving of small xDatterns in cotton, wool, linen, 
silk, and the like, on the hand loom, is also a part of the first year's 
course. 

Lectures are given on the i3arts of machines, as well as on the con- 
struction, setting uj), and manix)ulation of hand looms, and other ap- 
paratus of hand weaving. Exercises in sketching the parts of a machine 
are practised, and the pupils are required to make calculations for the 
manufacture of fabrics from raw materials of all sorts, and to study the 
bookkeeiDing of the factory. 

In the second year these studies are iDursued farther j especially is 
attention paid to the independent designing of i^atterns for the textile 
industry. Geometrical and machine drawing, lectures on patterns of 
earlier centuries, etc., come in here. The designing of new, artistic 
X)atterns for weaving and printing is given special prominence. Pupils 
in this course draw and paint from nature. 

In the higher department of the second year composition and decom- 
position are carried forward together with calculations for large i)attern 
vreaving. Here, too, are taken uj) iDractical exercises in weaving cot- 
ton, wool, half wool, linen, jute, and silk material on the power loom. 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 339 

Mounting and dismounting of tlie loom, x)i^actice at the power loom, ex- 
ercises in silk spinning and in spooling various materials, also practice 
in smith and locksmith work, and in cabinetmaking are the order of 
the day. 

The preference is given German applicants for admission to this 
school 5 and foreigners are received only when vacancies exist. Appli- 
cants must be at least 14 years old. The school year lasts from Easter 
to Easter. 

The tuition fee for Prussians is for one half-year, lower division, 60 
marks ($14.28); upper division, 90 marks ($21.42); trade division, 50 
marks ($11.90). For subjects of the German empire, other than Prus- 
sians, for one half-year in lower division, 90 marks ($21.42); upper 
division, 135 marks ($32.13); trade division, 75 marks ($17.85). For 
foreigners, for one half-year in lower division, 240 marks ($57.12); upper 
division, 360 marks ($85.68); trade division, 200 marks ($47.60). All 
fees are payable in advance. 

Pupils of the weaving school who wish at the same time to take the 
course in dyeing and finishing connected with the institution have the 
followijig fees to pay : Natives, per half-year, 100 marks ($23.80) ; Ger- 
man subjects, other than Prussians, 150 marks ($35.70); foreigners, per 
half-year, 400 marks ($95.20). Prussians only are admitted as '^guests." 
They are required to pay, in the lower division, for fifteen hours per 
week, for the half-year, 12 marks ($2.86) ; for one day per week, for the 
half-year, 30 marks ($7.14) ; for two days per week, for the half-year, 40 
marks ($9.52). In the upiDcr division, for ten hours per week, for the 
half-year, 18 marks ($4.28); for one day per week, for the half year, 45 
marks ($10.71); for two days per week, for the half-year, 60 marks 
($14.28). Pupils who take drawing only pay, per half-year, 30 marks 
($7.14). Pupils who attend Sunday instruction onlypay, per half-year, 
24 marks ($5.71). 

In connection with the school are well equipped workshops ; and in 
each shop are stationed three teachers, under whose supervision the 
pupils have an opportunity to learn practical locksmith work and 
cabinetwork. These shops, as well as the other rooms of the estab- 
lishment, including the weaving hall, are lighted by electricity. 

The institution has a library of about 2,000 volumes, exclusive of Fetch 
literature, a collection of patents of the German empire, and holds for 
distribution (on certain days of the week) among the teachers, i^upils, 
and the public about sixty journals devoted to the textile industr^^ 

Besides the necessary apparatus, models, and machines for instruction 
in weaving and S]5inning the school possesses a large collection of 
modern weaves, and a valuable, well arranged collection of i)atterns for 
weaving, etc., which is of the greatest use to the student. The greater 
part of this collection is under glass, and so arranged that pupils of the 
institution may make copies of patterns, designs, and industrial products 
at specified hours of the day. 



340 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

This museum is under the supervision of Herr Paul Schulze, and the 
collection contains over 5,000 numbers. Among these objects are By- 
zantine weaves of silk of the fourth to the tenth centuries j Saracen silk 
weaves, tenth to thirteenth centuries; early Italian silk wea-ves, thir- 
teenth to fourteenth centuries; Gothic silk weaves, fourteenth to fif- 
teenth centuries; Eenaissance, half silk, sixteenth to seventeenth 
centuries; Eenaissance, half silk, Italian, Spanish, French; Eenaissance, 
satin weaves, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; Eenaissance, linen 
weaves, German, white and colored, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, 
and so on; a vast and weU assorted collection illustrative of the art of 
weaving in all its branches down to the present time. 

The dyeing and finishing school has large collections of physical and 
chemical instruments, models, preparations, etc., and a department 
fully equipped with machinery and apparatus for the practice of dyeing, 
bleaching, printing, and finishing. The present dyeing and finishing 
school came into existence in the autumn of 1883, in connection with the 
Crefeld weaving school, under the direction of Dr. H. Lange. 

The object of this department (which occupies the east wing of the 
new weaving school building) is to give to those who wish to devote 
themselves to the special study of chemistry, by means of the most 
thorough and practical instruction, as complete an education as possi- 
ble in all branches of this science and its relation to practical life; and 
to instruct such as desire to educate themselves for the dyeing industry 
in siDCcial chemistry, dyeing, bleaching, printing, and finishing; in the 
manufacture of dye stuffs ; in the methods of experimentation with nat- 
ural and artificial dye stuffs; the preparation of chemicals; the cost of 
dyes; the indeiDendent prosecution of these operations; and, finally, to 
prepare the pupils for practical life through practical work in dyeing, etc. 

The institution possesses two chemical laboratories, one large dyeing 
laboratory, and a laboratory equii3ped in accordance with the require- 
ments of modern manufacture with the most perfect appliances and 
labor saving machines for dyeing, etc. In the first (the chemical lab- 
oratories) special attention is given to qualitative and quantitative 
analysis, particularly to practical chemistry. In the dyeing laboratory 
are conducted experiments with dye stuffs; in short, all operations 
connected with dyeing, bleaching, etc., are carried on. In the dyeing, 
printing, and finishing laboratory cotton, wool, linen, jute, silk, etc., 
are bleached, dyed, printed, and finished on a large scale. 

Attendants of this institution come not only from the best known 
industrial establishments of Crefeld, but from the neighboring cities in 
the great industrial districts on the right and left of the Ehine. Pupils 
who wish to attend this institution must be at least 16 years of age, 
and be well grounded in the elements of chemistry and physics. 

Tuition for Prussians, per half-year, is 100 marks ($23.80); for other 
Germans, 150 marks ($35.70)) for foreigners, 400 marks ($95.20). In- 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 341 

digent and very diligent students may have a partial remission of these 
fees. 

The laboratory may be used by students without cost, and chemicals 
and reagents are free, except nitrate of silver^ platinum, and chloride 
of gold. Every student that has attended the laboratory instruction 
for at least one year receives a certificate on leaving the establishment. 
The laboratory is open daily from 8 a. m. to 12 m. and 2 to 6 p. m., 
except Saturday afternoons. 

United States Consul- General Eaine cites a signal instance in the 
case of the Crefeld school of the effect of trade school instruction upon 
a local manufacturing industry. 

Some years ago, he writes, the Crefeld industry was nearly ruined j 
the old manufactories were unable to struggle any longer against 
French, English, and Swiss firms. A few Crefeld manufacturers, 
dejected but not discouraged, founded in their city a weaving school, 
and this soon changed the situation, ^ow the Crefeld factories con- 
test with even Lyons for the supply of the markets. 

SPREMBBRG. 

The weaving school at Spremberg, which has been in operation since 
1869, is designed to afford theoretical and practical instruction to those 
persons who wish to fit themselves for manufacturers, master workmen, 
etc., in the wool weaving industry, esiDCcially in the manufacture of 
cloths and buckskin materials (for bookbinding). This is a state school. 

The tuition fee for Prussians is, in the under class, per half-year, 
110 marks ($20.18) ; in the upper class, 90 marks ($21.42). For all other 
pupils in the under class, per half-year, 120 marks ($28.56),- upper 
class, 100 marks ($23.80). 

There are six teachers, with salaries as follows : Director and first 
teacher, 4,000 marks ($952) 5 second weaving teacher, 2,400 marks 
($571.20)5 first master weaver, 1,200 marks ($285.60); second master 
weaver, 1,000 marks ($238); teacher of chemistry, 650 marks ($154.70) j 
teacher of bookkeeping, 250 marks, ($59.50). 

The total expenditure of this establishment was 15,190 marks 
($3,615.22). 

BERLIN. 

The School for Manual Laborers in the city of Berlin had 41 teachers 
at the end of the year 1885, while the pupils in attendance during the 
summer numbered 1,038 and during the winter 1,485. 

The cost of maintenance for the year is stated to have been 75,897 
marks ($18,063.49), of which amount 16,891 marks ($4,020.06) came 
from tuition fees, 26,802 marks ($6,378.88) from the state, and 32,204 
marks ($7,664.55) from the city funds. Instruction is given at this 
school in mechanics, painting, joinery, etc. 



342 EEPOET 0]<:^ THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOP« 

The Berlin Handworkers' Union maintained a school for masons 
during the year, under the direction of 21 teachers, with 168 students 
who were taught ^'theory, drawing, and projection," at a cost of 32,286 
marks ($7,684.07), of which sum the students paid 15,750 marks 
(83,748.50), the remainder being made up in equal proportions by the 
state and the commune. 

The School for Chairmakers (now the City Weaving School) ad 210 
students in snmmer and 246 in th.e winter, ranging in age from 14 to 
37 years. This school derives its support :from tuition fees, state and 
city aid, etc. 

A trade school for masons and carpenters was also conducted during 
the year by 3 regular teachers and 3 assistants. Besides this a school 
for indoor joiners, with 4 teachers and 190 students, was supported by 
the usual means. In this school industrial and fi?ee-hand drawing held 
an imi)ortant place. 

In addition there were special schools for bookbinders, for painters 
(founded by the Painters' Union), for barbers, for carpetmakers, for 
bakers, for smiths, and for tailors. 

Associations churckes, and institutes in the city seem to have sup- 
l^lemented the work of the special schools, and to have made Mbexal 
provision for continuation ^chools of various kinds. 

It is no wonder that the German craftsman, with so many incentives 
to study, with so many facilities for acquiring skdl in his trade, and 
living in an atmosphere of industrial thought, becomes the accom- 
plished specialist tliat he is. 

The Weaving School is suiox)orted by the state, the city, and by con- 
tributions of those interested in textile industries, etc. There are two 
departments — ^the day school, and the school for evening and Sunday 
riistruction. The object of the day school is to give theoretical and 
X)ractical instruction in wearing to those merckants and manufacturers 
who devote tkemselves to textile specialties. 

The dei:)artment of evening and Sunday instruction serves to perfect 
apprentices and journeymen in the specialties of weaving in which they 
are practically engaged. 

In the day school the tuition fee for the first school year is 300 marks 
($71.40); for the second year, 100 marks ($23.80). '^Guests" pay 5 
marks ($1.19) for each week of teaching. 3Ierchants who attend the 
Sunday and evening departments pay 3 marks (71 cents) far each week 
of instruction, while artisans have no tuition to pay for attendance in 
this department. There are two divisions of the day school; one is 
taught from 8 a. m. to 12 m. every day, the other from 2 to 6 p. m. 

In the Sunday and evening division instruction is given in free-hand 
drawing, analysis and composition of fabrics, hand and power loom 
weaving, pattern drawing, theory of weaving, working of stocking 
machines, decomposition of yarns, practical and theoretical mechanics 
of stocking machines, etc. 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 343 

According to the report of February 1891 tlie nninber of x^upils in 
tlie day weaving school was 26; in the Sunday and evening school, 280. 

At the Masons and Oari)enters' School young people who have already 
worked for some time at a building trade may be further instructed in 
their respective specialties (as building construction, knowledge of ma- 
terials, etc.), concerning which little could be learned in acti^al busi- 
ness, except by disastrous experiment. 

Master Builder Fehsch is the superintendent of this school, in which 
493 inipils were enrolled during the year. The masons were divided 
into 9 classes and the carpenters into 5, for the purposes of instruction. 
The tuition fee is 5 marks ($1.19) per half-year. 

The School for Joiners is intended to giA^e (aside from the ]3ractical 
skill acquired in the workshop) such knowledge as is requisite for an 
independent j ourneyman or master. The instruction includes free-hand 
drawing, projections, and special drawing (FacJizeiclinen). Tuition is 
free. Instruction is given from 8 a. m. to 12 m. for 40 Sundays x)er* 
year. 

There are also two other courses — one a preparatory course in spe- 
cial drawing, the other a separate course of instruction in the nse of 
working tools and in respect to the iDroperties and qualities of materials. 
In these preparatory classes the teaching is carried on in the evenings 
of Monday and Tuesday. The number of pupils was 409. 

The School for Shoemakers is supi3orted in part by the state, in part 
by the city, by the Sunday Free School Society, and by the guild. 
Tuition is free for apprentices, but journeymen or masters pay 1 mark 
(24 cents) quarterly for instruction. 

The theoretical teaching is confined to the evening classes. The 
technical instruction is given from 9 to 12 on Sunday forenoons and 
from 7 to 10 on Tuesday evenings. The number of X3upils was 350. 

The School for Painters (sustained by the state, city, and guild) fur- 
nishes free instruction to api}rentices of members of the guild, while 
helpers have to pay 9 marks ($2.14) per semester. 

From IJfovember to March the evening classes are taught, on week 
days, from 5 to 8 o'clock. The day classes are held from half past 1 
to 4 o'clock every afternoon, and from 9 to 12 on Sunday forenoons. 
The pupils numbered 360. 

Other Fach schools of Berhn were the Barbers' School with 399 pupils, 
the Saddlers' School with 120 pupils, the School of Interior Decorators 
with 175 pupils, the School for Smiths with 114 x)upils, the Glaziers' 
School with 64 pupils, the School of the Chimney-sweepers' Guild with 
81 pupils, the Wheelwrights' Guild School with 83 x)ux)ils, the School 
of the Basketmakers' Guild with 36 pupils, the School of the Berlin 
Bookbinders' Guild with 41 pupils, the School for Printers' Appren- 
tices with 213 pupils, a school for painters with 88 pupils, School for 
Bakers' Ai)i)rentices (supported by the Bakers' Guild Germania) with 
153 pupils, the School for Ai)prentices of the Bakers' Guild Concordia 



344 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

with 98 pupils, the School for Tailors with 95 pupils, the School of the 
Wig -makers' Guild with 86 pupils, the Pavers' Guild School with 91 
pupils, the School for Confectioners with 35 pupils, the School of the 
Printers' Guild with 40 pupils, and the Potter's Guild School with 56 
pupils. 

There were altogether 11,956 apprentices under instruction in the con- 
tinuation and Facli schools of the city of Berlin during the school year 
1890. 

The Eoyal Museum of Industrial Art offers instruction in special 
classes daily from 8 to 12 in the morning and from 1 to 4 in the after- 
noon. Tuition for the winter half-year is 72 marks ($17.14); for the 
summer quarter, 36 marks ($8.57). There are 9 special classes in which 
instruction is given by day, viz., the class in modelling, the class in 
metallurgy, that in decorative painting, the class in color printing, 
that in enamel painting, the class in etching, that in art embroidery, 
the class in-sketching exercises, and the class iu smithwork. 

The evening classes are held every week-day evening, either from 
5.30 to 7.30 or from 7.30 to 9.30. Ornamental, architectural, and pro- 
jection drawing, modelling, anatomy, the history of architecture, of 
ornamentation, and of interior decoration, lettering, and drawing of 
various objects of industrial art are among the specialties taught. 

The collections of the museum are open every week-day (except 
Monday) from 10 to 3 o'clock in winter, from 9 to 3 in summer, and on 
Sunday at all seasons from 12 to 3. 

The library of the museum is open daily from 10 to 3 and from 6 to 
10, except that it is closed, during the months of July and August, in 
the evening, and from August 16 to 31 in the daytime. 

Herr O. Jessen, director of the Artisans' School, has published a 
X)rospectus of the school for the summer half-year of 1891, together 
with ^'news items concerning the school year 1890-'91." This is a just, 
as well as modest, designation of the work, for it is far from being a 
full report. 

The Artisans' School aims to give to apprentices and helpers, during 
their leisure hours, that educational training in general knowledge, in 
drawing and industrial art (adapted to every calling), which should be 
added to the workshop practice as an indispensable complement. 

Instruction is given in this school in the afternoons and evenings of 
week-days, and on Sunday forenoons. Pupils are free to choose the 
subjects of study. The subjects of instruction and practice are free- 
hand and circle drawing, geometry, special drawing, industrial art form- 
study, modelling in clay and wax, decorative painting, mathematics, 
physics, electrotechnics, mechanics, chemistry, arithmetic and book- 
keeping. 

The teaching in this school is specialized to an unusual degree. 
There are, for example, twenty-five separate courses in drawing, each 



CTIAP. y. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 345 

adapted to tlie requirements of a X3articular trade, as, tlie course for 
joiners, tlie course for turners, tliat for tinmen, for locksmiths, for 
watclimakers, for carpenters, for goldsmitlis, for engravers, etc. 

Besides tlie regular courses there are special day classes for j)ainters 
during four winter months, on all Tveek-days. Instruction is begun at 
9 o'clock in the morning, and includes exercises in drawing and decora- 
tive painting. There is also, in winter, a day class for cabinetmakers, 
and a special school for mechanics is maintained, with technical teach- 
ing, on week-day forenoons. 

Forty-four teachers assist Director Jessen in his work. Tuition fees 
are regulated as follows: For eight or less than eight hours per week, 
6 marks ($1.43)5 for twelve hours per week, 9 marks ($2.14); for six- 
teen hours or more, 12 marks ($2.86), for the half-year. For the day 
classes for painters and cabinetmakers the tuition fee is 5 marks ($1.19) 
per month. 

During the winter half-year of 1890-'91 there were in attendance at 
this school 827 helpers and 1,349 apprentices; in all, 2,176. These 
pupils represented forty. three trades ; 287 were mechanics ; 190, masons ; 
279, painters; 215, joiners; 150, locksmiths. The ages of the pupils 
ranged from 14 to 30 and upward, 43 being over 30. 

SORAU. 

The Weaving School at Sorau was organized and opened May 3, 1886. 
This school aims to educate its pupils to be practical weavers, com- 
petent masters, and skilful manufacturers. The instruction is given 
in a fall course of two classes; a half course of two classes; and an 
evening course. 

The full course is intended for those who choose to educate them- 
selves for the independent conduct of a manufacturing business. The 
short and evening courses are specially adapted to the needs of those 
who seek principally to perfect themselves in practical weaving. 

The plan of instruction is so arranged that it is possible for students 
of the full course, if well x)repared and diligent, as well as for those 
who do not care to take a thorough course in drawing, to complete the 
course in one year. The pupil must, as a rule, have reached the high- 
est class in the common school before he can be received into the 
full course of this school. 

Tuition per half-year in the full course, lower department, is 50 
marks ($11.90) for Germans; 120 marks ($28.56) for foreigners. In 
the upper dei^artment it is the same. For half-time pui)ils, in both the 
lower and higher divisions of the school, the charge per half-year is 25 
marks ($5.95). Evening pupils pay 15 marks ($3.57) per half-year. 

FRANKFORT ON THE MAIN. 

At Frankfort on the Main is a school of industrial art {Kunstgeiverhe- 
>S'c7mk), of which Prof. Luthmer is the director, and which is under 



346 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

the supervision of one of the committee of the Industrial Art Union 
of Central Germany. 

This school is divided into two sections — the preparatory school 
(drawiDg and modelling), and the Facliscliiile^ consisting of five spe- 
cial classes. The design of the preparatory school (Vorschule) is to 
fit young people, such as apprentices, helpers, etc., far the special 
classes of the Faclisclmle, and, so far as there is room, to give the like 
facilities to j)upils of other establishments. The sx)ecial classes are 
intended for such as would acquire a more extensive knowledge of 
some branch of industrial art, and fit themselves to be master work- 
men, foremen of manufactories, etc. 

The preparatory school has an evening course and a Sunday course; 
in the former instruction is given on week-day evenings from 7.30 to 
9.30 J in the Sunday course, from 8 to 11 o'clock a. m. The evening 
course falls into three divisions — an elementary, middle, and an upper 
class, each of which requires one year's attendance. 

To enter the preparatory school the pupil must be at least 15 years 
old, and must possess a general education equal, at least, to that obtain- 
able in the Yollcsscliule. 

In the Facliscliule classes the time of instruction and practice is from 
8 a. m. to 12 m., and from 2 to 6 o'clock p. m. on every week-day, ex- 
cept that on Saturday afternoons there is no school. 

The course for workers in wood, metal, clay, porcelain, glass, stone, 
etc., lasts through two years; in the other classes the course is three 
years long. These classes are as follows: One for painters on glass, 
porcelain, decorative xDainters, etc.; one for modellers of clay and wax; 
one for goldsmiths, engravers, silversmiths, etc.; and one for wood 
carvers. 

The school year begins in the middle of September and continues 
till the middle of July. Holidays consist of a week at Christmas 
time, three weeks at Easter, and eight weeks from the middle of July. 
Tuition in the evening course of the preparatory school costs 12 
marks ($2.86) per year; in the Sunday course, 6 marks ($1.43). In the 
^ac/isc7mZe it is 75 marks ($17.85) per year. On leaving the school 
pupils receive certificates specifying the length of time of their at- 
tendance, and the degree of knowledge and skill attained by them. 

The Industrial Continuation School of the city of Frankfort on the 
Main was opened April 15, 1890. Its success was immediate ; for at 
the start there were 234 x^upils. This number increased during the 
summer half-year to 585. At the beginning of the winter half-year, 
October 12, 1890, there were 612 pupils in attendance, and this num- 
ber grew to 845. These were of various ages, fi?om 12 to 33. The 
faculty consists of 27 teachers. The foundation of a library has been 
laid, and the nucleus of a museum formed, with a collection of models 
of wood work, etc. 



CHAP. V. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 347 

The hours of instruction on week days run from 3 to 5, 5 to 7, and 
7 to 9 in the evening; on Sundays, from 8 a. m. to 12 m. The tuition 
fee for journeymen is 6 marks ($1.43). For apprentices and young arti- 
sans under 18 years of age, and for school boys, the fee is 3 marks (71 
cents) a half-year. 

An evening sch.ool for working girls was opened at Frankfort on the 
Main April 29, 1889, under the management of the Housekeeping 
School Association of that city. At Easter, 1890, a morning caurse 
was added for the instruction of such girls as could not be accommo- 
dated in the evening school, and such as were not obliged to devote 
all of their time to wage- earning for self-support, and wko oftentimes, 
at 15 or 16 years of age, were not strong enough "to work full time. 

In both of the courses girls are taught cooking, ironing, and other 
details of housekeeping — in the morning from 9 to 12, in the evening 
from 7 to 9 o'clock — in three class rooms. The same teachers conduct 
both the evening and the morning classes, except in one instance, 
where a teacher in the evening school is elsewhere engaged during the 
day, necessitating the employment of a substitute in one of the morn- 
ing classes. 

By a system of rotation the girls who during one week are taught 
in the kitchen, for example, x)ass next to the division where ironing 
and other forms of handiwork receive attention, while those withi whom 
they exchange i3laces take their turn at cooking and ironing. In this 
way all branches of housework — sewing, cutting out of garments, 
household economy, etc. — are taken uj) in regular order. 

The attendance in the evening course during the year was from 25 
to 30 j in the morning course, 15 to 18. 

The work of the association received recognition by the government 
during the j^ear, the Prussian minister of trade and industry having 
granted to the society a subsidy of 1,000 marks ($238) to aid its objects. 
The city authorities also gave assistance and encouragement to extend 
the society's undertaking. The Polytechnic Association also con- 
tributed liberally in aid of the movement. The association is yet but 
two years old, and the limit of its growth bas not been reached. 

COLOGNE. 

The statistics of the industrial educational establishment {Geicerl)- 
licJien Lelivanstalten) of the city of Cologne for the winter semes- 
ter 1890-'91 are concisely given by the director, Friedrich Eomberg, in 
a general review, published in quarto sheets in January 1891. 

The organization includes a special trade school {GewerUicJie FacJi- 
scliule) with. 43 teachers and 493 puj)ilsj a special continuation school 
{FortMldunffsschule) for journeymen with 13 teachers and 232 pupils; 
and a general continuation school [Allgemeine FortJjildungsscliule) fox 
apprentices with 52 teachers and 797 i^upils. Of the pupils in the 



348 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

special trade school 282 were over 18 years of age, and 21 L under; 
in tlie journeymen's school 189 were over 18, and 43 under; in the 
apprentices' school 2G were over 18, and 771 under. 

The plan of instruction in the various departments of the institution 
under Herr Eomberg's management is much the same as in other Ger- 
man schools of this class, and it needs no detailed description. 

Among the means of education made use of in this establishment 
are excursions (undertaken in summer, and personally conducted by 
some of the special teachers) ; the museum of industrial art (which, by 
the courtesy of Herr Pabst, the director, is open to students free of 
charge); the library of the Traders' Union (added, in 1889, to the 
library of the special- trade school, and now affording to both teachers 
and pupils of the institution a very rich collection of technical works 
for circulation and reference); lectures on technical subjects (to which 
students are admitted on complimentary tickets). 

In the autumn of 1879 the machinists' school came into being as a 
department of the special trade school above described. At the oi)en- 
ing of the winter half-year of 1890-'91 it became a separate establish- 
ment. It has the same director, however, as before — Herr Romberg. 

The machinists' school includes a higher department — the technical 
intermediate school, and a lower — the master workmen's school. The 
technical intermediate school [Bie TeclmiscJie MittelscJiule) has a pre- 
paratory course and two special courses of instruction, each lasting one 
year. 

The master workmen's school has three courses of study, each of five 
months' duration. The winter session begins on the 1st day of Novem- 
ber and continues till the end of March; the summer semester begins 
on the 1st day of May and lasts until the end of September. Admis- 
sion to either of these schools is by examination. The tuition fee for 
each course (semester) is 75 marks ($17.85). 

In the preparatory classes are taught German, arithmetic, geogra- 
phy, geometrical drawing, and technical free-hand drawing, etc.; in 
the higher classes, mathematics, mechanics, physics, chemistry, geom- 
etry, machine construction, theory of steam and hydraulic motors, 
electrotechnics, etc. 

One division of the FacJiscliule is a school of industrial art (Kunst- 
gewerhesclmle). It was organized in the year 1879. The establish- 
ment includes a school of decorative painting, a school of cabinetmak- 
ing, a school of ornamentation and modelling, and a school of metal 
work. 

This department, also, is under the control of the same director — 
Herr Eomberg. The terms of instruction begin and end on the same 
days with those of the master workmen's school before reported. The 
tuition fee is the same in amount — 75 marks ($17.85) for each course. 

There are no statistics available respecting these several depart- 
ments except such as we have cited. The master workmen's school — 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 349 

tlie most recently establislied of tlie brancli schools — is organized on a 
generous plan, and its object is intensely practical. It is yet too young 
to liave a liistory, llo^yever. 

DUSSBLDORF. 

The School of Industrial Art is an institution founded by the city. 
It receives a subvention from the state, and is under the supervision 
of the state and the local authority. The object of this school is to 
afford young artisans an opportunity to acquire such knowledge and 
skill as will be of service to them in their several callings. 

There are three departments: A preparatory school (Vorsehule) -, Sb 
Fachschule, for wood carving, engraving, modelling, etc.; and an 
evening school for drawing and modelling. In the first and second 
departments instruction is given in the daytime to those who can 
devote their entire time to it. 

The course in the preparatory school lasts one year. The hours of 
study are from 8 a. m. to 12 m., and from 2 to 6 p. m., with a half 
holiday on Saturday afternoon. Eor admission to this department 
liupils must possess a good common school education, must be ^t least 
14 years old, and must have chosen some practical calling. 

As the requirement for admission to the FacJiscliule the pupil must 
have completed the course of study in the preparatory dei)artment, or 
stand a satisfactory examination. Guests, that is, such as take only a 
IDartial course, can be received into the Fachschule, if actual workmen, 
not otherwise. Pupils are admitted twice in the year, April 1 and 
October 1, by the director, and only in exceptional circumstances will 
any be received in the intervals between those dates. 

The tuition fee in* the preparatory £iYid Fach departments for the sum- 
mer session is 25 marks ($5.95) ; for the winter session it is 35 marks 
($8.33). In the evening classes for the summer session the fee is 10 
marks ($2.38), in winter the same. Guests must pay in summer 15 
marks ($3.57), in winter 20 marks ($4.76). 

ESSEN. 

At the Krupp steel works in Essen several schools are maintained 
by the famous firm for the benefit of their workmen. They maintain 
four primary schools as well as a private school for boys and girls. 
Since 1875 they have also established two industrial schools, where 
the wives and daughters of laborers who are often surprisingly 
inexperienced in housework are instructed in the theory and art of 
domestic economy. 

The continuation schools of Essen were founded by Krupp, and are 
well attended. The firm have received large reflex benefits from their 
well directed enterprise and philanthropy. Many expert craftsmen, 
laborers in special departments, and master workmen have been 
trained in the Krupp schools; and their acquired skill is equivalent to 
so much additional capital of a firm whose art is their best inheritance. 



350 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



Much greater still is tlie advantage wliicli education brings to tlie 
pupils themselves. They are thoroughlj^^ instructed in their trade, and 
become accustomed to exact work. The contiuuation schools — attend- 
ance upon which is obligatory — afford them the opportunity to gain 
further theoretical knowledge of their calling^ and to learn the art of 
drawing besides. 

HANAU. 

The Eoyal Designing Academy was founded in the year 1772, and 
since 1889 has become a Fachscliule for artistic gold work. It gives 
female i^upils an opx)ortunityj however, to learn embroidery, painting, 
and the technics of industrial art. No pupil is admitted under the 
age of 13. Instruction is given to boys and girls in 20 different rooms. 

The yearly tuition fee for foreigners (other than German pupils) is 
200 marks ($47.60) j for day pupils, 50 marks ($11.90) ] workshop pupils, 
50 marks ($11.90)5 one-hour pupils, 36 marks ($8.57); half -pay pupils, 
18 marks ($4.28),* brothers of regular pupils, 9 marks ($2.14); free 
pupils, 2 marks (48 cents). 

Instruction is given in drawing and modelling classes in winter from 
9 a. m. to 12 m., and from 2 to 4 p. m.; in summer from 8 a. m. to 12 
m., and from 2 to 5 p. m. j evenings from 6 to 8 o'clock, and from 8 to 10. 

The whole number of male pupils in the Hanau academy during the 
year 1890-'91 was 430, of whom 67 were full-day pupils, taking 47 
hours' instruction per week • 362 took only 16 hours per week. The 
number of female pupils was 60, of whom 8 were day scholars, receiving 
23 hours' weekly instruction j and 52 were girls, taking but 16 hours 
I)er week. The study period in this school lasts 40J weeks per year. 

Prof. M. Wiese is director of the academy, and under him are 14 
teachers in the varied specialties of the establishment. The majority 
of the pupils, classified according to trades, were trinket makers, 173; 
jewellers, 32; silversmiths, 30 ; engravers, 34, etc. Pupils' ages ranged 
from 13 to 45. 

INDUSTEIAL TEADE SCHOOLS AIS^D COKTIKUATION 

SCHOOLS m sAxoi^fy, hambueg, and BEEMEN. 

Between the years 1837 and 1840 five royal labor schools were es- 
tablished by the state, namely, at Chemnitz, Dresden, Leipsic, Plauen, 
and Zittau. 

The following statistics are given concerning these five schools for 
the year ending December 2, 1889: 



Location. 


Date of 
opening. 


Teachers. 


PupOs. 


Eeceired 

from 

tuition fees. 


State aid. 


Expenses. 




Oct. 1,1837 
Oct. 1,1837 
Oct. 1,1838 
Nov. 2, 1840 
Xov. 1,1840 




132 

98 

176 

109 

88 










11 

12 

8 

9 


$G05. 71 

1, 163. 82 

766. 36 

556. 92 


$5, 356. 43 
5, 582. 77 
4, 497. 96 
3, 806. 10 


$5, 969. 28 


Leipsic . .. . 


6. 748. 97 




5,325.73 


Zittau 


4, 363. 73 







CHAP. V. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 



351 



Free-liand and architectural drawing, with perspective and projec- 
tions, and the construction of articles are given special attention in 
every course. Of the 154 hours of instruction (constituting a course) 
97 are devoted to drawing. 

The tuition fee is 30 marks ($7.14) per half-year, which amount, 
according to the report, covers only 12 or 14 per cent, of the whole 
exiDense account current of these schools. The remaining cost is paid 
by the state. 

Among the other special schools of industry in Saxony are included 
29 weaving, embroidery, and lace making schools. Of this number five 
are day schools, concerning which the following facts may be of interest : 



Location. 


Kind of school. 


Year of 
opening. 


Means of 
support. 


Income 
from fees, 
1888-'89. 


Expendi- 
tures, 
1888-'89. 


Teach- 
ers. 


Pupils, 
1889. 


Chemnitz 

Grossschonau ... 
Seifliennersdorf - 
Werdau 


ffigher weaving.. 

Weaving 

Weaving 

Weaving 

Embroidery 


1857 
1866 
1881 
1835 
1861 


Coramuns 

Association... 
Association... 

Commune 

Endowment... 


$3, 339. 14 

319. 40 

130. 90 

898. 45 

1, 259. 02 


$3,960.32 
1,736.21 
1, 239. 50 
1,552.47 
2,682.97 


4 
3 
4 
3 

4 


62 
34 

49 
32 


liimbach ... 


33 







Allof these schools are equipped with hand and power looms for 
instruction and practice. The Chemnitz school has 43 hand looms and 
15 power looms; the Grossschonau school, 30 hand and 6 x)ower looms; 
the Seifhennersdorf school, 27 hand looms and 1 power loom; the 
Werdau school, 7 hand and 7 x^ower looms; and the Limbach school, 
66embroidery and knitting machines and 9 sewing machines. 

The cost of tuition i)er annum at these schools is as follows : At Chem- 
nitz, for Germans, 270 marks ($64.26), and for foreigners, 450 marks 
($107.10); at Grossschonau, for natives of Saxony, 60 marks ($14.28), 
and for others, 150 marks ($35.70); at Self hennersdorf, for natives of 
the town, free, for inhabitants of Saxony, 50 marks ($11.90), and for 
others, 75 marks ($17.85); at Werdau, 150 to 75 marks ($35.70 to 
$17.85), and for evening pupils, 18 to 6 marks ($4.28 to $1.43); at Lim- 
bach, for inhabitants of Saxony, 180 marks ($42.84), for other Germans, 
300 marks ($71.40), and for foreigners, 600 marks ($142.80). 

In addition to these 24 evening schools for weaving, embroidery, 
etc., are reported to exist in the kingdom of Saxony. Altogether 
these 29 schools employed, in 1889, 163 teachers; had a total of 2,072 
pupils; an income from entrance fees and tuition of 32,562 marks 
($7,749.76), and an expense account of 117,600 marks ($27,988.80). 

There are other industrial Fuch schools of Saxony, with various 
names, which can not be assigned to any category. There are 36 
of them, with a total membership (December 2, 1889) of 2,553 pupils. 
The number of teachers was 138. 

The amount of fees paid by students was 46,152 marks ($10,984.18); 
the total expenditures for the year in the 36 schools came to 152,916 
marks ($36,394.01) ; many of these schools are small, and derive their 
income from guilds, unions, or individual i^atrouage for the most part, 



352 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

tlioiigli some are supported by the communes, and one, the toy school 
at Griinhainichen, by the state. 

There is still another class of special schools in Saxony which 
deserves mention — the royal schools for sailors — of which there are six. 
These are state institutions, and were established in deference to 
the demands of ship owners for an improved preliminary training for 
seamanship and pilotage on the vessels and rafts navigating the river 
Elbe. Instruction is limited to a session of three or four months in 
winter, when the rivers are closed to navigation. The tuition fee is 
only 3 marks (71 cents) for each pupil. During the winter of 1888-'89 
the state appropriated 2,255 marks ($536.69) for these schools. The 
number of pux)ils for each school for the year was, in the 6 schools, 
respectively, as follows : 



Location. 


Tear 
opened. 


Pupils. 


Sdiandau . ......... ........... .. ................... ... ......... ....... 


1855 
1855 
1855 
1856 
1881 
1882 


30 




11 


Welilen 


14 


Pirna 


14 




7 


Uiesa 


16 







Since the year 1874 courses of instruction for engineers of locomotives 
and machinists have been conducted in various industrial centres of 
Saxony, under the management of the Engineers and Architects' Union. 
The object of these courses is ''to ensure safetj^, skill, facility, and econ- 
omy" in the control of the steam engine. 

Instruction is given by lectures, delivered for the most part by the 
industrial inspectors or their assistants. These lectures treat of the 
properties of steam, the construction, of the steam boiler, firing, and 
security against explosions, the steam engine and its care. A course 
consists of ten to fifteen lectures of two hours each as a rule. Each 
pupil pays a fee of 3, 5, or 6 marks (71 cents, $1.19, or $1.43) per course. 

Courses of instruction of this kind were held during the year at sev- 
eral places in the following industrial inspection districts : 

In the Dresden district, since 1878. 13 courses have been held at 
Dresden, 2 at Freiberg, and 1 at each of the towns of Potschap- 
pel, Meissen, Pirna, and Diiben. In these 19 courses there were 
1,328 pupils. In the Chemnitz district a similar school course was 
instituted in 1868 by the Artisans' TJnion. The course here is of six 
months' duration j and, in 1889, 63 pupils were in attendance. In the 
Zwickau district courses of a like kind are carried on. In the Leipsic 
district there are two schools of this sort — one of which has been 
merged in the industrial Sunday school of the Polytechnic Society. 
This is in operation from October to June, and in 1889 it had 56 
pupils. 

Another school was organized in 1887. The course lasts from Octo- 
ber to March, as an evening school. In the winter 1889-'90, 32 pupils 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 



353 



attended it. In tlie districts of Bautzen, Meissen, and Plauen similar 
courses are lield. 

Saxony has also eleven special industrial institutions for tlie all- 
round education of women and girls in female employments, lace 
making, etc. These schools are, in brief — the Industrial School at An- 
naberg, opened in 1885, with 4 teachers and 65 pupils; the Continua- 
tion School of the Artisans' Union at Chemnitz, opened in 1864, with 4 
teachers and 77 pupils; the Women's Industrial TJnion at Dresden, 
opened in 1871, with 20 teachers and 318 pupils; the Women's Educa- 
tional Union at Dresden, opened in 1870, with 18 teachers and 207 
pupils; the Women's Industrial and Daughters' Educatioual Institute 
at Dresden, opened in 1879, with 5 teachers and 57 pupils; the Higher 
FachscJiide at Leipsic, opened in 1875, with 12 teachers and 196 pupils; 
the Adult Daughters' School at Leipsic, opened in 1863, with 6 teachers 
and 54 pupils; the Female Institute of Drawing at Leipsic, opened in 
1879, with 3 teachers and 30 pupils; the Women's Industrial School at 
Plauen, opened in 1877, with 4 teachers and 21 pupils; the Eoyal 
Lace Making School at Schneeberg, opened in 1878, with 1 teacher and 
13 pupils; and the Women's School at Schwarzenberg, opened in 1884, 
with 4 teachers and 43 pupils. 

Saxony has eight agricultural schools of a grade below the Leipsic 
Institute and the Agricultural School at Dobeln, and one school of 
gardening, all of which except the last mentioned are supiiorted in the 
main by circles of the Agricultural Union. The School of Gardening 
at Dresden was organized by the Gardening Society, Flora, in 1874. 
These schools yield the foUowiug statistics up to December 2, 1890: 



Is'anie of school. 



Agricultural winter scliool 

Agricultural winter scliool 

A grictiltural fruit and gardening school 

Agricultural school 

Agricultural winter school 

Agricultural school 

Agricultural winter school 

Agricultural circle school 

Gardening school 



Location. 



Annaberg 
Auerbach. 
Bautzen .. 
Chemnitz. 
Freiberg.. 
Meissen . . 
P.ochlitz . . 
Wurzen . . 
Dresden . . 



Year of 
opening. 



1882 
1876 

1875 
1877 
1877 
1S79 
1877 
1878 
1875 



Teachers, 



Pupils. 



19 

31 

134 

59. 
37 
82 
58 
52 
55 



Of the 32 trade schools (Handelsschulen) reported in Saxony four are 
public schools for apprentices and are connected with higher depart- 
ments. These four schools are all supported by associations of merchants 
or manufacturers. The following short table shows some of the more 
important facts in regard to them : 



Location. 



Bautzen 

Chemnitz 

Dresden 

Leipsic 

S. Ex. 65 



Year of 

opening. 



3856 
1848 
1854 
1831 



Teachers. 



Pupils. 



122 
269 
588 
595 



Tuition per 
annum. 



$19. 04-$35. 70 
17. 14- 57. 12 
19. 99- 85. 08 
14. 28- 85. 68 



Income from 
tuition, 

1888-'89. 


$2, 724. 62 
9, 566. 89 
21, 468. 31 
16, 751. 39 



Expenditures, 

1888-'89. 



$4, 020. 30 
11, 599. 41 
20, 640. 07 
19, 380. 82 



23 



354 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



The remaiuing schools of this class are not in connection with higher 
departments, but are maintained almost without exception by mercan- 
tile corporations. Many of the schools are small, but they are all in- 
cluded in this tabulation as an index of the extent to which Saxony is 
permeated by the system. 

The following trade schools of Saxony have no organic. relation with 
other educational estabhsliments : 



Location. 



Year of 


Teacliers. 






1887 


2 


1881 


3 


1885 


2 


1887 


4 


1889 


3 


1864 


4 


1859 


6 


1850 


3 


1855 


4 


1870 


3 


1887 


5 


1857 


4 


1852 


6 


1845 


2 


1869 


3 


1850 


1 


1859 


6 


1858 


8 


1888 


4 


1877 


5 


1885 


4 


1889 


2 


1876 


3 


1888 


8 


1876 


6 


1847 


3 



Pupils 
Dec. 2, 1889. 



Annaberg 

Auerbach 

Eischofswerda 
Crimmitzscliau 
DJppoldiswalde 

Dobeln 

Franlienbcrg... 

'Freiberg , 

Grinama 

Grosseiibain ... 

Haiiiicben , 

Karaenz , 

Leipsic 

Leisnig ^... 

Meissen 

Oschatz , 

Pirna 

Plauen 

Padeberg 

Piesa 

Pochlitz 

Posswein 

Schneeberg 

Werdau 

Zittau 

Zwickau 



115 
39 
30 
62 
19 
59 
47 

127 
28 
44 
21 
23 
G3 
20 
64 
30 
65 

233 
18 
29 
17 
24 
27 
42 
81 

128 



There are two trade schools conducted by private persons which 
should be mentioned in the category of educational establishments in 
Saxony. Both schools are in Leipsic. They together employ 13 teach- 
ers and furnish instruction to about 300 pupils. 

The 32 trade schools mentioned employ 184 teachers and in 1889 had 
3,364 ])upils in attendance. The amount of tuition fees (18S8-'89) was 
319,306 marks ($75,994.83) and the expenses were 363,686 marks 
($86,557.27). An analysis of the statistics concerning the above schools 
shows that 28 of these trade schools are controlled by mercantile socie- 
ties; 2, by private persons: 1, by the commune 5 and 1, by the cham- 
ber of commerce. Pupils must be 14 years old to enter any of these 
schools. The instruction courses last three years in most cases,- but 
in four instances two years only. 

The plaiting and braiding of straw are such important industries in 
some parts of Saxony that children are taught them in four special 
schools. In the winter of 1889-'90, 240 children under 14 years of age 
received instruction in these branches. Six female teachers carried on 
this v/ork under the supervision of four directors who were si^ecialists 
in the art {Fachmdnnern). Pupils are received at from 5 to 7 years of 
age — at Dippoldiswalde, at the age of 4 years. The duration of instruc- 
tion is unlimited. There is no Sunday teaching. There is no charge 
for tuition ; but the children receive a small wage for good work. 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 355 

The entire expense of these schools was 2,798 marks ($665.92). Of 
this sum 915 marks ($217.77) went to the female teachers and 1,200 
marks ($285.60) for material. The cost is mostly covered by state aid, 
(to the extent of 2,100 marks or $499.80). Eent, heating, lighting, and 
cleaning of the school rooms are provided for by the communes. 

In that x)oition of the kingdom known as Swiss Saxony are several 
schools of household industry, founded by the enterprise of Herr Clau- 
son-Kaas, and supported by subventions from the state and communes. 

These schools are two carving schools for boys, at Pirna and Hohen- 
stein; five basket plaiting schools for women and children — one at 
each of the five points, Pirna, Wehlen, Schandau, Holienstein, and 
Hinterhermsdorf; one school of cane making for men and boys at 
Holienstein; two schools of artificial flower making for women and 
girls at Hohenstein and Schandau; one straw braiding school for chil- 
dren at Hohenstein. 

The teaching staff for these schools consists of 2 head teachers and 
7 assistants, 9 in all. On December 2, 1889, there were 190 pupils 
attending, 64 adults and 126 children. Of the 190 pupils 25 belonged 
to the carving school at Pirna; 85 to the basket and toy schools, and 
other similar schools at the five jDlaces named; 80 to the schools of artifi- 
cial flower manufacture. Ko fees are i^ayable for tuition. 

Boys of ten years of age and young men and adults are admitted to 
the carving and cane making schools ; children of both sexes at ten years 
of age, and women and girls may enter the schools of basket making; 
women and girls (at ten years of age) may be admitted to the schools 
of flower making, while only children of tlie earliest school age ma-y 
attend the schools of straw braiding. 

DRESDEN. 

The Eoyal Academy of Arts {Die KoniglicJie Academic der Bildenden 
Kiinste) was originally endowed as an academy of painting in 1705, 
but in 1764 it was expanded into an academy of art. This is a state 
institution, and provides instruction in drawing, painting, sculpture, 
coi)i)er engraving, wood carving, and architecture. 

During the year 1888-'89, in this establishment, 21 teachers imparted 
instruction to 131 pupils. Of these pujpils 91 were from Saxony, 37 
from other German states, and 3 from foreign countries. 

An entrance fee of 20 marks ($4.76) is paid by the pupil on admission 
to the academy. During the year, however, 22 students were exemi^ted 
from the x)ayment of tuition fees. 

State travelling scholarship stipends of 2,400 marks ($571.20) annually 
are provided for 2 artists; 3 scholarships for painters, each worth 980 
marks ($233.24) per annum; 3 scholarships for pupils of the acad- 
emy classes of 200, 250, and 300 marks ($47.60, $59.50, and $71.40), re- 
spectively, per annum, and 2 of 135 marks ($32.13) each. These trav- 
elling scholarships are much sought after and highly ai)preciated, since 



356 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

their holders have access to all other museums and academies of art 
free of charge. 

The i)ublic exhibition of the works of i)upils of the Dresden academy 
in 18S9 consisted of 450 numbers. The library contained 4,094 volumes. 
The tuition fees aggregated about 5^000 marks ($1,190). The total 
expenses amounted to about 100,000 marks ($23,800), of which sum the 
state contributed 95,000 marks ($22,610). 

The Eoyal School of Industrial Art {Die Konigliclie Kiinstgewerles- 
cJntle mit Ktinstgetverlemiiseiim) became a state establishment in 1875. 
Prior to that date it had been connected with the Polytechnic Insti- 
tute. Besides the director this school has 21 teachers, and on Decem- 
ber 2, 1889, 289 pupils belonged to its classes. Two hundred and two 
of these were from Saxony, 74 from other German states, and 13 from 
foreign countries. 

In the day department of this academy there are special schools 
of architecture, of ornamental modelling, figure modelling, sculpture, 
decorative painting, pattern designing, iDorcelain painting, lithography 
and color printing, general and theatrical decoration; in the eveniug 
division, classes are instructed in architecture, modelling, figure and 
free-hand drawing. 

Since its opening there have been educated at this school 1,005 
persons, of which number 874 wore members of the day classes and 131 
of the evening classes. 

The day pupils have made choice of the following occupations : Indus- 
trial architecture, etc., 100; painting, lithography, and color printing, 
369; pattern designing, 178; sculpture and carving, 173; drawing, 54. 

In the evening school the pui3ils choosing modelling, wood and stone 
carving, etc., numbered 28; cabinet making, goldsmith work, etc., 34; 
engraving and sculpture, 17; decorative i3ainting, pattern drawing, etc., 
41; other industries, 9; without occupation, 2. 

. The school library contained, December 2, 1889, 4,538 works, with 
about 7,200 volumes. In connection with the library is a collection of 
materials and manufactured articles of industrial art, numbering 67,677 
objects, as well as a collection of ornamental works, with 17,523 wood- 
cuts and copperplate sheets illustrative of earlier periods of art. 

The Eoyal Museum of Industrial Art stands in close relation with 
this school. It contains 22,300 specimens of objects of industrial art 'in 
its collection, representing the various branches of industry of the 
kingdom — especially the textile industry, ceramics, architectural occu- 
pations, and decorative painting. During the year 1888-'89, 7,605 per- 
sons visited the museum. 

German pupils in the day classes pay 30 marks ($7.14) per half-year 
for tuition; foreigners, 45 marks ($10.71). For evening instruction, per 
month, four hours a week, 1 mark (24 cents) ; for five to eight hours 
per week, 1 mark 50 pfennigs (36 cents); for nine to twelve hours per 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 357 

week, 2 marks (48 cents). The tuition fees for tlie year 1888 came to 
7,780 marks ($1,851.64). 

The total expense of the school and of the museum amounted to 
about 133,000 marks ($31,654) -, of this sum the state gave 124,300 marks 
($29,583.40). 

The preparatory school of the Eoyal School of Industrial Art {Bie 
Yorscliule der Kdnigliclicn Kunstgewerljcscliide) is of a grade interme- 
diate between the common school and the special courses of the school 
of industrial art. Formerly this preparatory school was in immediate 
connection with the school of industrial art, but the increasing num- 
bers of the pupils made a sex)aration necessary. This was effected on 
October 1, 1886, when it became an independent institution. Only 
such pupils will be received into special classes of the industrial art 
school as have been able to pass an examination for x>romotion in the 
preparatory school. In 1889 the school emi^loyed 8 teachers for the 
instruction of 53 pupils. It is supported mainly by the state. Out of 
a total expenditure of 17,570 marks ($4,181.66), 15,730 marks ($3,743.74) 
was from state aid. 

At Dresden there are 8 municii^al continuation schools, for boys only, 
with a total attendance of 1,770 pupils. Seventy-nine teachers are 
em.ijloyed. Besides, there are 5 continuation schools for boys in the 
city, which are sustained by associations. Forty-nine teachers are re- 
quired in these schools, and the number of pupils is 1,282. A x>rivate 
continuation school also flourishes in this city, having 6 teachers and 
an attendance of 252 pupils. There are also 12 schools classed as tech- 
nical schools, with continuation schools annexed. One hundred and 
twenty-eight teachers give instruction to 2,799 pupils, all boys. 

Finally, 10 special technical schools are in operation in the city. 
These are mixed schools, with an aggregate attendance of 1,208 — 344 
boys, 864 girls. One hundred and fifty -nine teachers are employed. All 
of these are Facli schools, as the Special School of the Painters' 
Guild, etc. 

CHEMNITZ. 

At Chemnitz there are the following technical institutes, all under 
one roof and mainly sujiported by the state: A higher industrial school 
founded in 1836, with departments for technical mechanics, technical 
chemistry, and, since 1878, for building j a labor school, founded in 
1837 J a school for master workmen, founded in 1855, which originally 
educated only mechanics (machinists, spinners, weavers, etc.), but 
which, since 1869, has had divisions for dyers and bleachers, since 1880, 
for millers, and since 1885, for soap making j a school of industrial 
drawing, founded in 1796. These schools together employ 43 teachers. 

The conditions, of admission to these schools are: For the higher in- 
dustrial school the pupil must be at least 15 years old, and must have the 
travelling certificate of a real-school or its equivalent^ for the labor 



358 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

school tlie requisites are 15 years of age, tlie completion of a coramon 
school course, and practical experience of at least 2 half-years in some 
manual trade ; for the school for master workmen the same as for the 
labor school and at least 2 years' practice in some business j for the 
school of industrial drawing the pupil must be 14 years of age, must 
have received confirmation, and have reached the grade Qf the common 
school. 

The teaching in the several schools lasts as follows : In the indus- 
trial school, division of mechanics and chemistry, three and one-half 
years, in the building department, three years; in the labor school, four 
winter half-years; in the school for master workmen, one and one-half 
years, in three half-year courses; in the school of industrial drawing 
an unlimited time. 

The tuition fees, per half-j^ear, in the difi'erent schools are — for the 
industrial school, 60 marks (811.28) for Germans, and 120 marks ($28.56) 
for foreigners ; for the labor school, 30 marks ($7.14) ; for the master work- 
men's school, 30 marks ($7.14); and for the school of industrial draw- 
ing, 3 marks (71 cents) for each branch. 

Since the opening of this establishment there have been— in the 
higher industrial dej)artment, 4,000 pupils; in the labor school, 1,650 
Xmpils; in the master workmen's school, 3,000 impils; and in the indus- 
trial drawing school, 3,000 pui)ils; a total of 11,650 i)upils. 

The number of pupils attending the several dej)artments of the 
Chemnitz Technical School on December 2, 1889, was as follows : 

Mechanical department 142 

Chemical department 35 

Building department 49 

Labor school - 132 

Master workmen's school 243 

Dyers' school IS 

Millers' school 24 

Soap makers' school 4 

Industrial drawing school 135 

Total 777 

Of these 498 were natives of Saxony; 230 of other Gerr^an states; 
while only 49 were foreigners. The expenditures for the year were 
195,200 marks ($46,457.60). Of this amount about 42,500 marks 
($10,115) came from tuition tees, and 148,000 marks ($35,224) from the 
state. 

liEIPSIC. 

From the historical sketch which accompanies the report of the Eoyal 
Academy of Art, and of the Art Trade School, at Leipsic, by the 
director, Prof. Meper, Ph. D., we learn that this institution was 
founded under royal i)atronage in 1764. For one hundred and twenty- 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAI. EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 359 

eight years, therefore, the academy has been dedicated to the object for 
which it avowedly exists, viz., ''The cultivation of the graphic art, and 
of art in its applications to industry.". 

The specialties taught in this institution are three, viz., architecture, 
sculpture, drawing and painting. The technical instruction is supple- 
mented by lectures on such subjects as industrial art, human anatomy, 
physics, chemistry, i3hotograi)hy, etc. 

In the year 1889-'90 there were 208 pupils in attendance at the 
academy. Since 1871, 1,732 students have belonged to the diifereut 
classes. The ot^cupations chosen by these students have been as fol- 
lows: Decorative painters, 391 j sculptors, modellers, etc., IGl; Irtho- 
graphers, 525; xylographers, 272; engravers, 94; architects, 46; the 
remainder going into various other pursuits. Of this entire number 
(1,732) only 69 were foreign born; and so it appears that the prophet 
of art is not without honor in his own country. 

The volume from which this brief account of the Royal Academy of 
Art has been abstracted is itself a work of art. It is embellished- with 
forty-five illustrations which represent the skill attained by students 
of the academy in the arts of lithography, wood eu graving, etc. 

The City Trade School was founded in 1875. Pupils are admitted to 
the day courses who have reached the second class of the VorfiSsehuJe. 
Only such as have attended the day school one year can enter upon 
the first course of the evening school, and only after one full year's at- 
tendance therein can they begin the second course of the evening 
school. 

The course of instruction in the d^j classes, as in each of the even- 
ing courses, lasts one year. The da.y course is in session 38 hours per 
week, and, with the 4 hours' instruction in modelling (on Wednesday 
and Saturday afternoons from 2 to 4 o'clock), 42 hours in all. The 
evening course occupies 12 hours -per week. 

In the day school the subjects taught are building construction, 
architectural, geometrical, and projection drawing, German, arithmetic, 
geometry, physics, chemistry, geography, history, modelling, and free- 
hand drawing. The evening course embraces the study of German, 
history, arithmetic, geometry, free-hand and projection drawing, ma- 
chinery, trade principles (Geiverhelmnde), commercial bookkeeping, tech- 
nical nature-knowledge, elements of building, and modelling. 

The attendance during the first year (1875-'76), in the day course, 
was 48; in l'889-'90, it was 211. In the evening course, during the first 
year, the attendance was 70; in 1889-'90, it was 591. In all, during 
1875-'76, 118; in 1889-'90, 802. 

As an adjunct to this school there was established by the city council 
of Leipsic, in 1886, a FacMurs for printers, that is, a special course in the 
printing art. ^one can take this course except apprentices whose em- 
ployers are members of the Leipsic Printers' Union. The course lasts 



360 KEPORT or THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

tliree years, and instruction is given in tlie evening from 6 to 8 o'clock, 
aggregating eight hours per week. At Easter, in the year 1889, the 
attendance was 185. 

The instruction is of the most practical character, including not 
only the technical and mechanical parts of the trade, but embracing, 
also, German, Latin, grammar, the preparation of manuscript for the 
press, proof-reading, i^unctnation, etc., all of which are of immediate 
nse to compositors and printers. 

A special course for painters was organized in 1886 as a dei)art- 
ment of this institution. The course extends through three consecutive 
half-yearly winter sessions (endiug with Easter), and includes tliree 
months' i)ractice in decorative painting during the months of Novem- 
ber, December, and January, throughout the entire three years. One 
hundred and thirty- nine pupils attended this course in 1889-'90. 

A special school for tailors was founded at Easter in 1887, in connec- 
tion with the -LeiiDsic Trade School. Apprentices of members of the 
Tailors' Gruild only are allowed to enter this school. 

A three years' course of instruction is given in the evenings from 7 to 
9 o'clock, eight hours per week in all. The instruction is both general 
and special. Geometry, drawing, trigonometry, etc., constitute the 
general studies ; while the technical side of the course consists of draw- 
ing — first, the minor parts of garments, the pockets, etc., for example, 
and afterwards other objects. The number of pui^ils in attendance on 
this instruction in 1889-'90 was 36. 

Prof. Meper is director of all departments of this trade school, as 
well as of the Leipsic Academy of Art to which allusion has been al- 
ready made. 

Tuition fees in the day school course amount to 40 marks ($9.52) per 
year: in the evening school, 20 marks ($4.76). 

Since the establishment of the trade school in 1875, 2,897 pupils have 
belonged to it. These pupils are groux)ed together in three principal 
classes, as follows : Architecture and mechanics -, painting and graphic 
trades; plastic arts. In detail — 58 have become architects j 339, ma- 
sons j 130, carpenters; 163, machinists; 107, mechanics; 52, draughts- 
men; 118, locksmiths; 85, cabinetmakers; 301, painters on glass and 
porcelain; 105, engravers; 246, lithographers; 121, wood engravers; 
and a smaller number were scattered through various trades, such as 
photography, bookbinding, tailoring, etc. 

GOTHA. 

The Eoyal Building School, etc. (Die Herzogliclie ScicTisische Bau- 
geivcrbeschide imd JIandiverJcerscliule) is a state institution, and is main- 
tained by the state ministerial office of Saxony. Its object is to train 
young artisans to become master builders, to fit them for positions as 
raihoad or municipal foremen, etc. Connected with it is a laborers' 
school, where instruction is given in the evenings and on Sundays. 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 361 

111 tlie winter lialf-year, 1890-'91j. 106 pupils attended this building 
scliool, and 182 the school for laborers. Daring the summer half-year 
of 1891, 216 pupils attended the laborers' school. 

Instrnction in the building school is given for fifty hours a week, 
during four half-years or semesters, each consisting of from nineteen 
to twenty weeks. In the building school, however, instruction is 
given only during the winter half-year ; in the laborers' school it con- 
tinues during both the winter and the summer half-years. 

Tuition for the winter half-year costs pu^nls from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 
75 marks ($17.85)5 others, 90 marks ($21.42). In the laborers' school 
the tuition fee per half-year is 10 marks ($2.38). 

Pupils may be admitted to the lowest class in the building school on 
proof of possessing a good common school education, and of having had 
at least six months' experience in a workshop or at the building trade. 
They must also be at least 16 years old. 

The plan of study in both departments of this school is well grounded 
in mathematics, physics, the principles of building construction, strength 
of materials, etc. 

HAMBURG. 

The Trade School System of Hamburg is the title of a work by Carl 
Melchior of Bonn (prepared for the benefit of the state seminary in the 
latter city), i)ublished in 1891, in which the author gives a comprehen- 
sive history of the origin and development of trade education in Ham- 
burg. 

The year 1765, he says, was the birth year of trade instruction in 
Hamburg. It was in that year that Sonnin, Biisch, Sieveking, and 
others founded the Patriotic Society which afterwards assumed the 
name of, Hamburg Association for the Promotion of the Arts and Trades. 
Classes were opened, and the new enterprise slowly but surely won 
public confidence and appreciation. 

The outcome of the movement then begun may be seen today in the 
General Trade School of Hamburg, and its several offshoots, all of them 
springing from the germ planted in the eighteenth century. There are 
three divisions of this school. The common trade school is preparatory 
in its scope, with classes in free-hand drawing, continuation, and special 
studies. The day school course embraces instruction in drawing (mainly 
technical), decorative painting, machine designing, etc., and is designed 
to fit master workmen for their special duties. The day school consists 
of two classes — an under and an ui)j)er class j the monthly tuition cost- 
ing 6 marks ($1.43) in the first class, and 12 marks ($2.86) in the last. 
The school for artisans, which is a department of this institution, was 
opened in 1865. 

The statistical summary of attendance in the three divisions of this 
school since 1865 indicates a steady, if not a rapid, growth. During 
the winter half-year in 1865-'66 the total number of i)ux)ils in all depart- 



362 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

ments was 428. Ten years later it T7as 1,655. At the close of the next 
decade it was 2,849. In the winter of 1890-^91 the number had increased 
to 4,406. Eor this number of pupils a strong teaching staff is requisite, 
and there are nine ordinary teachers connected with the school, and 
more than a hundred additional instructors are emi)loyed in the special 
dei)artments. 

The German^ French, and English languages, writing, bookkeeping, 
arithmetic and higher mathematics, optics, mechanics, electricity and 
magnetism, chemistry, free-hand drawing, etc., are the general studies 
of the evening school j while special courses in drawing are given, 
adapted to the needs of artisans, carpenters, tailors, locksmiths, 
carriage builders, ship builders, opticians, watchmakers, gardeners, 
lithographers, modellers in clay and wax, etc. 

In 1881-'82 provision was made for a girls' trade school under the 
same general management. In 1889 the attendance was 481 pupils. 

BREMEN. 

At the Industrial Museum special instruction is given in industrial 
art, both by means of lectures and by practical exercises in drawing, 
sketching, painting, modelling in wax and clay, etc. The fee for in- 
struction, payable in advance, is 30 marks ($7.14) for each half-yeai. 

Except on Sundays and holidays the museum is open to students all 
the year round in the daytime. 

Here is a permanent exhibition of collections of art and industrial 
products, at all times accessible to the student, consisting of works of 
plastic art, ornaments, models, etc., sketches, paintings, wall, window, 
and door decorations, all kinds of artistic wood work, metal work, 
paper, leatlier, and textile goods, stone, glass, and ceramics, together 
with numerous specimens of other sorts, all duly arranged and classi- 
fied. 

INDUSTEIAL TEADE SCHOOLS ANB CONTINUATION 
SCHOOLS IN BAYAEIA. 

MUNICH. 

The Eoyal Technical School (Kdnigliclien Industi-iescliule), of which 
Prof. Kleinfeller is the director, has a teaching staff of 18 members. 
In this school there are four special courses, each of two years' duration, 
as follows: A course in technical mechanics j a course in technical 
chemistry 5 a coarse in building construction; a commercial course. 

The following table will show the distribution of time in the various 
courses : 



^HAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 363 

COURSE OF STUDY IX THE EOYAX TECHXICAL SCHOOL, MUXICH. 





Hours per -week. 


Subject. 


Mechanical 
course. 


Chemical 

course. 


Building 
course. 


Commercial 
course. 




First 
year. 


Second 
year. 


First 
year. 


Second 
year. 


First j Second 
year. | year. 


First 
year. 


Second 
year. 


Ajcliitectfre . ....... 












17 








" 











4 


4 


Cheniiciil laboratory practice 








14 








Cbemistry 






5 






















' 


3 








i " " 




2 






3 


1 


3 




EleTients of builtliii*'" construction 




1 


6 
3 
2 






Eno-lish T 


3 
2 


3 
2 


3 ^ 


3 
2 


i 





Trencli 


2 


2 


5 




2 


Geometry 


i 


i 




5 
2 








German 

History 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 
2 


3 
3 


Macliine construction ........ . . 


10 


11 


i . 








!Matlie\notics 


5|...:;::: 


7 


i ' 1 




2 


! 






2 
2 


1 






I 










2 


1 









' 




1 


Mineralogy . . . . 






2 


2 

4 




i 












::::::::i:;:::::: 


Ornamental drawin"" . 




1 


\\ ^ 


1 






....................... 


2i. -. . 


Physics 


4 
6 


4 
6 


4 
12 


4 


4 4 


1 




! 


3?ractical physics 


2 
4 


; 








i 








3 i 






2 
2 






1 


Theory of machinery 


2 


_2| 2 








Total 


41 


39 


37 ! 3.=; 


39 ■ "fi 


32 ■ ■■^7 

















There are optional courses^ also^ eomx)rismg instruction in special 
clieniical technology, Italian, etc, adapted to the requirements of the 
particular specialty which a student is pursuing. 

For the school year 1S90-'91 there were 86 students in the first year 
classes of this school. Of this number 22 took the course in building 
construction, 13 the chemistry course, 40 the course in mechanics, and 
11 the commercial course. 

The number of students in the classes of the second year's course 
during the same period was 36. Of these 16 were in the building con- 
struction class, 15 in the mechanical, 4 in the commercial, and 1 in the 
chemical coiu-se. 

There were also 9 pupils- who took partial courses, and 31 who de- 
voted themselves wholly to workshop or laboratory practice. Several 
of this class were engaged in business as druggists, mechanics, lock- 
smiths, and the like. 

Connected with the Eoyal Technical School is a public continua- 
tion school (FortMldungsscliule) for builders. Its object is to instruct 
intelligent master builders, and give them the necessary knowledge 
and skill which they can not acquire at all, or only imi)erfectly, in 
the workshop. The school undertakes to train its pupils to a full under- 



364 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. - 

standing of the plan and construction of country as well as city dwell- 
ings, to follow the details of working drawings, etc. 

The school sessions are held in the winter months, from November to 
March inclusive, and thus do not interfere with the work of the pupils 
during the busy season. 

The x^lan of instruction requires four years' study. It is very thor- 
ough, and equally as well adapted as that of the technical school to the 
end in view. Fifty-four hours a week are devoted to studies and prac- 
tical work. Theoretical and practical instruction as to the various sj'S- 
tems and means of extinguishing fires is imparted to all students through- 
out the whole course 3 and they are carefully drilled in the use of the 
hose, the hydrant, the ladder, and life-saving apx)aratus. 

The number of instructors in this school is 18. The number of pupils 
during the winter session of 1890-'91 was 161, of whom 65 belonged to 
the class of the first year, 45 to the class of the second year, 31 to the 
class of the third year, and 20 to the class of the fourth year. 

The matriculation fee is 4 marks (95 cents), and each puxnl pays an 
annual tuition fee of 36 marks ($8.57). Extraordinary students — that 
is, such as take partial courses — pay half this fee for one subject, and 
the whole of it if two or more subjects are pursued. All candidates for 
admission must be 16 years old, and present certificates of having 
worked at some trade for two years. They must also pass the entrance 
examination. 

The eleventh annual report of th^ special division (Facliahteiliing) of 
the trade continuation school at Munich, for the school year 1890-^91, 
states that this department is ^' a purely trade FachscJmle^ devoted to 
the technical education which fits one for a special trade.'' 

The director and head teacher is Herr Graef, with whom are asso- 
ciated 25 assistants. The number of pupils enrolled in this department 
during the school year was 1,197. These pupils represented 84 difler- 
ent trades or callings, but more than one-half were cabinetmakers, 
painters, and locksmiths. Almost 25 per cent, of the whole number were 
over 25 years old. 

Tuition costs the Bavarian student 2 marks (48 cents) per month ; 
other German students, 4 marks (95 cents) ; foreign students, 6 marks 
($1.43). The general instruction in this institution seems to be judi- 
ciously arranged, while the special teaching is most thorough and 
minute in its details. 

NUREMBERG. 

The annual report (1889-'90) of the Nuremberg Building Trade School 
(with the special schools for locksmiths, etc., and the evening school 
associated therewith) shows that this institution is in a flourishing con- 
dition. The attendance for the school year 1889-'90 was as follows: 

In the day school, 330 against 291 in 1888-'89; in the winter evening 
school, 341 against 317 in 1888-'895 in the summer evening school, 239 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 365 

against 187 in 1888-'89; in the mecbanical worksliopj C against 3 in 
1888-'895 total, 916 against 798 in 1888-'89. 

The teaching force of this institution consists of the director and 24 
teachers in the several departments. The object of this school is an- 
nounced to be "to supplement, through regular instruction, the edu- 
cation of the following named technical workers for their business: 
Master builders (masons, carpenters, etc.),- district and city master 
builders 5 machinists, mechanics, etc. 5 locksmiths; joiners, cabinet- 
makers, etc.; coppersmiths, etc." 

It costs 3 marks (71 cents) to ma^trieulate in the day school, and 
the tuition i^er half-year is 36 marks ($8.57). In the evening school 
the tuition feels 4 marks (95 cents). 

In the special schools (day) instruction is given in the winter months 
from ISTovember 2 to March 31, but x)ractical instruction in the mechani- 
cal workshop is the only teaching carried on in the school of building 
construction during the summer half-year. 

In the evening school, both summer and winter, instruction is given 
in five departments, from 7 to 9 o'clock, to such trade workers as are 
busy in their workshops during the day, in order to make it possible 
for them to extend their knowledge of industrial drawing, machine con- 
struction, etc. 

Considerable attention is devoted to giving instruction in road and 
bridge building, and building construction in wood and iron. 

The Il^J'uremberg Women's Work School was founded in 1874 by Dr. von 
Gramer-Klett for the purpose of educating young women, not only for 
handiwork and household and trade life, but also for the purpose of fit- 
ting them thoroughly and systematically for the profession of teaching. 
From small beginnings, with one teacher and 30 girl pupils, this 
institution has prospered, until in the school year 1888-89 the number 
of pupils in attendance was 530. 

The school year consists of three divisions — two winter courses and 
one summer course. The first winter course begins September 1 and 
continues to the end of December; the second winter course opens Janu- 
ary 1 and lasts till March 31, with daily instruction from 8 a. m. to 
12 m. and from 2 to 4 p. m. Saturday p. m. there is no session. The 
summer course begins April 1 and ends with July, the daily teach- 
ing continuing from 8 a. m. to 12 m. and from 2 to 5 p. m. From the 
1st to the 30th of August is vacation. At the close of the school 
year a public exhibit of pui)ils' work is given in the school room. 

The matters taught are sewing, mending, knitting, machine sewing, 
tailoring, ironing, millinery, French conversation, water color and oil 
painting, religion, method of teaching, and pedagogics, with free-hand 
drawing. 

Tuition in courses 1, 2, and 3 is 7 maiks ($1.67) per month; in course 
4 it is 8 marks ($1.90) per month. These are all day classes, but some 
pupils attend only one half of each day, either forenoon or afternoon, 



366 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

and in these classes tlie fee varies from 3 to 6 marks (71 cents to $1.43) 
I^er montli. 

mDTJSTEIAL TBADE SCHOOLS AIS^D OONTnOJATIO]^ 
SCHOOLS IK WUETEMBERa. 

In no other portion of the German empire are schools of maunal 
training and of industrial and technical art so numerous as in the 
Uttle kingdom of Witrtemberg. The report from, which we quote 
[JalireshericMe der Sandels und Gewerhekammern in Wilrttemherg far 
1889) gives a brief account of the continuation (Forthildung) schools 
and schools for working women in the district. It is mentioned as an 
especially significant event that a farm school exhibition was held in 
the industrial hall at Stuttgart during the celebration of the twenty- 
fifth year of the reign of his majesty the king, from July 25 to August 
25, 1S89. The special significance of this event seems to have been 
that the exhibit lepresented the artistic skill or industrial work of 
more than 100,000 iiupils from 539 different schools. 

The continuation and other special schools of Germany undertake, 
as their name imT)lies, to carry forward the work of the lower grades 
(FoZA:5sc/iZf?e7i), with the addition of instruction in some branch of man- 
ual labor. Yet there is an unexpected obstacle in the way of the 
greatest success in this movement. 

In the Year Book it is said that experience shows that a con- 
tinuance of the studies of the primary school, even in the elemen- 
tary branches* of reading, writing, etc., is indispensably neces- 
sary for many of the pux)ils in the industrial schools. Many of the 
pupils who in special stTidies show much vjroficiency have but a super- 
ficial knowledge of these elementary things. An earnest protest is 
made against the defective practical education. 

The number attending the schools for working women in Witrtem- 
berg shows no falling off. The number of young women of the work- 
ing class, between the ages of 14 and 20, who attended the school at 
Eeutlingen during the year 1889, is reported to have been as follows : 
First quarter, 163; second quarter, 185; third quarter, 150; fourth 
quarter, 181. These pui^iis are taught hand and machine sewing, 
dressmaking, etc. 

In a similar school at Ulm there were in all 292 pupils during the 
year 1880. At Heilbronn the total number for the same year was 703. 
Many of the pupils receive instruction in bookkeeping, accounts, etc., 
as well as in the various branches of domestic economy. 

To show how universal is the demand for trade schools in 
Germany, and to indicate the extent to which they are supported by 
the people, it may be stated that according to the Wiirtemberg Year 
Book for 1888, 167 towns in this district rex^orted the enrolment of stu- 
dents in their trade schools. The total number of pux)ils accredited to 
the tovv^is in this list as belonging to special schools amounted in the 



CHAP. Y. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 367 

ao-gregate to 13,649. Tlie population of these 167 towns was given as 
740,987. 

Tlirongliont the entire empire great pains are taken to afford to the 
working peojile of both sexes opportunities for improvemeut in gen- 
eral knowledge as weU as in technical skill. The existence of continu- 
ation schools for women in all the larger towns is a sufficient proof of 
this fact. In the Tear Book for 1888 is given a list of fourteen 
cities in the district, in each of which a continuation school (of a 
general educational character) for women is maintained. Only 676 
women were enrolled in the fourteen schools, however, during the 
year; a fact which is somewhat disappointing, especially when it is 
taken into account that these 676 women represented a population of 
nearly 200,000. But the record of sixteen cities, in which an equal 
number of schools for working women were attended by a total of 1,594 
IDupils during the year, is more satisfactory j although this number was 
gathered from a i^opulation of 328,000. 

'' The origin of women's work schools is to be sought in the city of 
Eeutlingen", says the annalist of Wtirtemberg. ''The EeutliDgen 
women and girls have long been noted, for their industry and activity. 
Knitting, crochet work, embroidery, and the making of many kinds of 
garments and articles of luxury from wool, cotton, and silk furnishes 
employment in that city for the innumerable hands of an industrious 
and contented i)eople. Their products are everywhere known and 
valued under the name of 'Eeutlingen goods' and are given the prefer- 
ence by a large number of business houses.'' 

Hence it was that, in E'ovember 18G3, under the direction of the 
teacher of drawing in the weaving school at Eeutlingen, Herr Lach- 
enmayer, embroidery came to be introduced into the school over which 
he presided. Thus did Lachenmayer incorporate with ''the old Eeut- 
lingen manufacture a new, vital element." 

The number of female teachers for industrial schools and schools for 
women's work, graduated from the Eeutlingen scliool from 1870 to the 
end of March 1889, is 269. 

From the statistical report on the educational system of the king- 
dom of Wtirtemberg for the school year 1889-'90, published under 
authority of the royal ministry of the church and school system, we 
take the following figures : 

The number of agricultural continuation schools is 75, and the num- 
ber of pupils, 1,710 J the number of winter evening schools of agricul- 
ture is 679, and the number of pui)ils, 14,474; the number of Sunday 
schools of agriculture is 89, and the number of pupils, 1,994; the 
number of evening agricultural classes, 21, and the number of at- 
tendants, 688; the number of reading societies, 80, and the number of 
readers, 3,731. Connected witli these schools of agriculture are 1,213 
libraries containing 261,113 volumes. 

In the Tecbnical High School at Stuttgart tbere were in the school 



368 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

year^ lS89-'90, 26 head teachers, 17 special teachers and assistants, 8 
private docents, etc.j in all, 60 teachers in the six Facli schools of this 
institution. 

In these sx)ecial courses the students were classified as follows : Archi- 
tecture, 69 j building engineering, 32; machine engineering, 85; tech- 
nical chemistry, 88; mathematics, etc., 17; common educational special- 
ties, 37 ; a total of 328. Of this number 203 were residents of Wlirtem- 
berg, and 125 belonged elsewhere. Sixty-four of the 125 non-resident 
pupils came from other German states; 52 from other European coun- 
tries; and 9 from extra-European lands— 6 from the United States, and 
1 each from the Argentine Eepublic, Brazil, and Peru. 

The social position of the students is indicated by the occupations of 
the parents: 61 are sons of state officers; 32 are sons of other public 
servants; 179 are sons of tradesmen, etc.; 20 are sons of agricul- 
turists; 36 are sons of physicians, artists, advocates, etc. The average 
age of thex)upils October 1, 1889, was 22 years and 1 month. 

The previous education ( Vorhildung) of the 328 students is a matter 
of some significance. It is stated as follov/s : From Wiirtemberg real- 
schools, 65; from real- gymnasia, Stuttgart and Ulm, 40; from Wiirtem- 
berg gymnasia, 28 ; from Swiss cantonal schools, higher burgher schools, 
etc., 36; from other technical high schools and universities, 53; from 
lower technical schools, 34; from other preparatory and iDrivate schools, 
13; from practical occupations (architects, mechanics, pharmacists, 
teachers, officers, etc.), 53. Besides these 328 students the Technical 
High School of Stuttgart had in the winter half-year 206, and in the 
summer half-year 39 guests (persons who, though not belonging to the 
school, attended some of the lectures). 

The Koyal School of the Building Trades at Stuttgart has a faculty 
composed of 22 head teachers and 13 special and assistant teachers. 
In the winter course of 1889-'90 there were 503 pupils in attendance, 
of whom 370 were Wlirtembergers, and 133 from other parts of Ger- 
many and various foreign countries. 

Glassed according to occupations — 17 were master workmen, 225 were 
masons, 109 were carx)enters, 23 were land surveyors, 64 were metal 
workers, 17 were glaziers, tinmen, moulders, etc., and 48 were such as 
had learned no trade. 

Grouped as to their preparatory education — 164 were from the com- 
mon schools (VoUcsschulen) ', from the intermediate, burgher, and lower 
real-schools, 139; from the Latin schools and the lower divisions of 
real-|?ymnasia and gymnasia, 91; from the higher burgher and upper 
real-schools, 101; from the higher industrial schools and special trade 
schools, 8. The youngest was 14J years of age; the eldest, 36 J years; 
the average age, 19.55 years. 

In the summer course of 1890 the whole number of i)upils was 183. 
Of these 117 were from Wiirtemberg and. 66 from other states — 48 from 
other German states and 18 from foreign countries of whom 4 were from 
America. 



CHAP. V. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 369 . 

Classified by ocouiiatioiis, the i)upils were numerically distiugulshed 
as — master workmen, 4 ; masons, 36 j carpenters, 18 ; tliose of no trade, 
19; surveyors, etc., 17; meclianics, etc., 78; otlier trades and occupa- 
tions, 11. 

Thirty- six of these came from the common schools ; 57 from the middle, 
burgher, and lower real- schools; 42 from the Latin schools and the 
lower grades of real-gymnasia and gymnasia; 43 from the higher 
burgher schools and uj^per real-schools; and 5 from the higher indus- 
trial and special trade schools and from technical high schools. The 
lowest age reported was 14; the highest, 37; average age, 21.02 years. 

Durin'g the school year 1889-90 there were industrial continuation 
schools in existence iu 173 places ia the kingdom of Wlirtemberg, rej)- 
resenting a iDopulation of 755,531 souls. 

These 173 continuation schools may be classified, according to their 
special equii)iiient and i:)urx:)ose, as follows: 

(1) Continuation schools in which Sunday and evening instruction 
is given in industrial (esr)esially mercantile) specialties, and which 
have public drawing class rooms. Of this class of schools there are 26. 

(2) Continuation schools with industrial Sunday and evening instruc- 
tion, but without public drawing class rooms. These exist in 72 cities 
and 25 villages; in all, 97. 

(3) Continuation schools with industrial instruction, but without 
Sunday teaching. Of these 1 is in a city and 2 are in villages; in all 
there are 3. 

(4) Industrial dravving schools Avithout other instruction. Of these 
there are 47. 

The number of i^upils in these 173 continuation schools (together 
with those in 14 women's schools and 19 women's work- schools) aggre- 
gated, in 1889-'90, 20,219, namely, 14,988 males, and 720 females in the 
women's continuation schools and 4,511 in the women's work-schools. 
Of this number 16,435 were under, and 3,784 over, 17 years. The 
number of teachers was 978. 

The whole amount received from the state for the support of these 
schools Avas 166,407.76 marks (839,605.05). 

The numbers attending the several sx)ecialties of instruction were as 
follows : 



Subject. 



Atteml- 
ance. 



Industrial arithmetic, meutal 

Industrial arithmetic, Tvritten 

Free-liand drawing, elementary . . . 

Free-hand drawing, advanced 

German language, common idioms. 
German language, business usages. 

Special drawing, wood work 

Special drawing, metal work 

Special drawing, other specialties. 

Special drawing, industrial art 

Special drawing, lettering 

Geometrical drawing T 

Bookkeeping, industrial 

Bookkeeping, mercantile 

Ornamental WTiting 



5,499 
6,772 
7,947 
2,758 
2,370 
6,089 
1,627 

857 
3,410 

32G 

126 
4,531 
2,309 

626 
2,921 



S. Ex. 65 24 



370 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIOXER OF LABOR. 

The continuation scliools of Stuttgart include tlie following: Evening 
school, with 42 teachers and 586 male pupils ; elementary school, with 
22 teachers and 442 male pupils; Sunday school^ with 27 teachers and 
334 male pnpils: women's continuation school, with 17 teachers and 
209 female pupils; mercantile continuation school, with 28 teachers and 
448 male pupils; a total of 136 teachers and 2,019 pupils. 

The Industrial Art School of Stuttgart has 9 teachers. In the win- 
ter half-year 1889-'90 the pui)ils in the several classes of this school 
numbered — in the preparatory class, 32; modelling and wood carving, 
9; furniture, 13; decorative painting and textiles, 30; carving, 9; in 
the course for drawing teachers, 11; a total of 104. Of these 104 
pupils there were 93 from the kingdom of Wdrtemberg, and 11 from 
other states. As to age — there were under 16 years, 1 ; between 16 and 
17 years, 7; 17 and 19 years, 38; 19 and 21 years, 32; over 21 years, 26. 

With regard to the previous education of the pupils — 37 were from the 
common schools (VolJcsscliulcn)] 61 were from burgher, real and Latin 
schools, lyceums, and gymnasia; 2 were from technical institutions; 
4 from industrial art schools. 

In the summer half-year of 1890 there were in this school — in the pre- 
paratory class, 15; in the class of furniture, 7; in the class of model- 
ling and wood carving, 7; in the class of decorative i)ainting, 4; in 
the class of pattern drawing, 3; in the class of carving, 9; in the class 
for drawing teachers, 8; a total of 53. Of these 53 pupils 47 were from 
Wiirtemberg, and 6 from other states. Their ages were as follows: 
Between 17 and 19 years, 18; 19 and 21 years, 15; over 21 years, 20. 

They were received from the following schools : From the common 
schools, 16; from burgher, real and Latin schools, lyceums, and gym- 
nasia, 36; from technical institutions, 1. 

The Women's Work School at Stuttgart, which is patterned after 
the original institution of the class at Eeutlingen, is under royal pat- 
ronage and is managed by a ladies' committee. Its object is by system- 
atic instruction to give to girls a sound education in practical and 
artistic needlework, with the i)urpose of not only serving the needs of 
the family, but also of qualifying them to earn their living. 

Especial attention is given to the training of technical and industrial 
teachers. The course of study is arranged in six divisions, each of 
which lasts three months, as follows : Hand sewing and patternmaking; 
drawing for embroidery and i)atchwork; machine sewing; dress sewing 
and cutting out; embroidery of all kinds; framework knitting, crochet 
work, and netting. 

The systematic study of drawing is compulsory on all pux)ils. Other 
subjects are also taught, such as millinery, flower making, etching 
in metal and leather work. There is likewise a course of commercial 
training for women. Cookery instruction is about to be added. There 
are 160 xminls and 14 free scholars. 



CPAP. V. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 371 

ALSACE-LORRAINE. 

The lodiistrial Society of Mlilbausen is perhaps the most i^owerfiil 
voluutary association in existence for the advancement of i)ractical 
education. Organized in 1832 by the manufacturers of Alsace, it has 
ever since been a most beneficial agency for the promotion of the 
common interests of this community, where it originated. 

The only branch of the society^s work of which notice may be ap- 
X)ropriately taken here is the Continuation School for Artisans, 
opened in 1883. 

The annual report of this school for the year 1890-'91 announces 
the object of this institution to be, 'Ho give young artisans an oppor- 
tunity to improve and extend their school education," a statement 
which again illustrates by a fresh example the fact that there is very 
little of trade teaching, manual training, or technical education, as 
we understand such terms, in Euroi)ean ''industrial schools." l^Iost of 
these schools arc like the evening classes in American cities, designed 
merely to make up, in part, for the lack of early elementaj y education 
on the part of boys and girls who, by stress of ckcumstances, are 
forced prematurely to engage in some handicraft for self-support. 

The instruction in this school embraces German, French, arithmetic, 
and drawing and building construction for carpenters, masons, etc. 
Tlicre were 140 pupils in attendance at the opening of the school 
October 13, 1890. March 14, when the term closed, 93 iDux^ils were 
present. 



CHAPTER VI. 



PRESENT STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN 
GREAT BRITAIN. 



373 



CHAPTER VI. 
PRESENT STATUS OF INDUSTEIAL EBUCATION IN GEEAT BEITAIN. 

BEGm:N^mG of the moyemei^t. 

Commencing about tlie year 1882, wliat lias been termed a teclinical 
education scare swept over England, owing to tlie fear that Germany 
was competing with increasing success for the foreign trade of the 
world. This advantage was believed to be due to her system of tech- 
nical instruction. As a result of this apprehension concerning trade 
a great deal of attention was given to the subject during succeeding 
years. A royal commission was appointed by parliament to inquire 
into the various technical and trade schools on the continent with a 
si)ecial view of reporting ui)on the effect the instruction given in these 
schools had upon the industries of the various countries in which they 
were situated. 

While entertaining serious doubts as to the ax)prenticeship schools 
the commission, nevertheless^ strongly favored the introduction of 
technical instruction into the elementary schools, and also the forma- 
tion, in all industrial centres, of classes for affording instruction to 
artisans in the evening. Other recommendations were made with 
reference to scholarshii:)S, agricultural schools, etc. 

Preceding the above reports, very little in the direction indicated in 
the reports was in progress throughout the country. In London Fins- 
bury College was the only centre, apart from the Polytechnic Young 
Men's Christian Institute, that gave evening manual instruction, and 
even at Finsbury the number of real artisans in attendance was very 
small. In 1882, when the Polytechnic was opened, and the avowed aim 
of Mr. Quintin Hogg and his committee was to provide as far as possi-, 
ble for the educational requirements of the artisan classes, the AYhole 
movement received an impetus which, upon presentation of the com- 
missioners' report, was still further advanced. 

SloAvly but yet surely the movement spread throughout the country, 
and today is given effect to in various ways by many institutions 
throughout the provinces. An additional impulse has recently been 
given to the movement by the passage of the technical instruction acts 
of 1889 and 1890. During the past year an esx)ecially large number of 
schools have been opened. 

375 



376 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

TECHNICAL i:N^STiUjCTION ACTS. 

Under tlie teclinical instruction act of 1889 a new and powerful 
impulse was given to educational progress. By this act it is provided 
that ^' a local authority may from time to time out of the local rate 
supply or aid the supply of technical or manual instruction, to such 
extent and on such terms as the authority think expedient, subject to 
the following restrictions," etc. 

This confers, it Avould seem, sufficient discretionary power upon local 
authorities in appropriating the local taxes to the use of technical 
schools 5 but this provision is permissive, not mandatory. Local school 
boards have in many instances, however, promptly availed themselves of 
the provisions of this actj and on October 1, 1890, thirty districts were 
reported as utilizing the technical instruction act of 1889. It is esti- 
mated that the total amount which the counties in England and Wales 
will receive from the beer and spirits duties in aid of local taxation 
for educational purposes will aggregate £743^200 ($3,616,782 SO). 

In this act there is no ambiguity as to what the term technical means. 
Section 8 reads : 

The expression '^ technical instruction" shall mean instruction in the 
principles of science and art applicable to industries, and in the appli- 
cation of special branches of science and art to specific industries or 
employments. It shall not include teaching the practice of any trade 
or industry or employment. * * * 

The expression '• manual instruction" shall mean instruction in the use 
of tools, i)rocesses of agriculture, and modelling in clay, wood, or otiier 
material. 

It is clearly apparent that aid is not extended by this act to trade 
schools, but that what is in America commonly called manual traiut 
iiig has been recognized as a legitimate branch of instruction by the 
British i)arliament, and, as such, entitled to the benefits of the new 
provisions. Under what is known as the local taxation act of 1890 sup- 
plementary provisions are made for facilitating technical instruction; 
and soon in every county and district this imi)ortant educational reform 
will have made substantial progress. 

In this connection we may properly transcribe the principal rules 
jand regulations under which aid to science schools and art and tech- 
nical schools in Great Britain is administered in accordance with the 
technical instruction act of 1889. 

In the Science and Art Directory of 1890 the following rules are 
given as governing the administration of this aid : 

LIX. A fixed sum each year wiU be allocated for grants in aid of 
technical instruction given under the technical instruction act, 1889, or 
under the technical schools (Scotland) act, 1887. 

LX. The sum so allocated for the fiuancial year 1891-'93 will be 
£5,000 ($24,332.50). 

hXl. The grant in aid will not necessarily be equal to, and in no 
case will it exceed, the amount contributed by the local authority out 
of the rates. 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 377 

The couditious governing the allowance of grants for manual instruc- 
tion in elementary schools and in organized science schools are mainly 
these : 

3. The instruction must be (a) in the use of the ordinary tools used 
in handicrafts in wood and ironj (b) given out of school hours in a 
properly fitted workshop ; and (c) connected with the instruction in 
drawing, that is to say, the work must be from drawings to scale pre- 
viously made by the scholars. 

6. If it appears that the school is properly provided with a plant for 
instruction, and that the teaching is fairly good, a grant of 6s. ($1.46), 
or, if excellent, of 7s. ($1.70) will be made for eyery scholar instructed, 
provided {a) that he has passed the fourth standard; (&) that he has re- 
ceived manual instruction for at least two hours a week for 22 weeks 
during the school year: (c) that a special register of attendance is 
kept; and {d) that each scholar on whom payment is claimed is a 
scholar of the day school and has attended with reasonable regularity. 
The grant may be reduced or wholly withheld at the discretion of 
the department, if it appears that the i^lant is insufficient or that the 
instruction is not srood. 



to' 



8. If fhe instruction for which the grant is made be for a period 
other than a year, the grant will be increased or diminished by one- 
twelfth for each month more or less than a year. 

These regulations seem well calculated to secure proper and ade- 
quate instruction. Exception may possibly be taken to rule 3 (&), 
which requires that manual instruction must be given out of school 
hours, upon the ground that if manual instruction deserves to hold a 
place at all in the school exercises, it should be put on an equal plane 
with other regular and recognized branches of the curriculum. 

Certain privileges are accorded to teachers and students in English 
schools which merit the highest commendation. Free admission to 
the South Kensington and Bethnal Green museums — including the 
science and art libraries — and to the Edinburgh Museum of Science 
and Art is allowed to teachers of public elementary schools; to students 
of the Normal School of Science and Koyal School of Mines, jSTational 
Art Training School, or of the Eoyal Academy of Arts and National 
Gallery; also to students attending science and art schools and classes, 
or training colleges. 

MEANS OF SUPPORT OF INDTJSTEIAL EDUCATIOIS. 

With reference to the means of support the institutions for technical 
instruction may be primarily classified as : 

First. Those which exist by governmental support and authority alone. 

Second. Those which, though generally founded by private enter- 
l)rise or endeavor, usually prompted by philanthropic or religious inter- 
est, now receive more or less governmental suj^port, either with or vrith- 
out further aid from manufacturing or other guilds or organizations. 

Third. Those which have been created by associations or individuals, 



378 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

guilds, or otlier organizations, and are maintained by tliein, their own 
earyings, and friendly donations: 

Fonrtli. Those which have been established by institutions of learn- 
ing as part of their educational system, or by individuals or industrial 
associations to advance particular interests. 

Under the first of these classes it is surj)rising to note,- when the vast 
industrial interests of Great Britain and the i^aternal character of her 
government are considered, that the government itself is so little 
directly interested, especially in its educational department, in indus- 
trial and technical instruction. Beyond being responsible for the ele- 
mentary^ education in handicrafts and in technical braiiches included in 
the regular courses of study of the English national school system, the 
committee of council on education (constituting since 1872 the board of 
education for England and Wales) has no representation in the schools 
of industry or technology of the kingdom. 

A collateral department of education, also under the management of 
a committee of the British privy council, the department of science 
and art, is somewhat more appropriately, yet quite inadequately, rep- 
resented in the field of instruction seemingly so naturally its 6wn. Its 
operations extend to the whole of the' United Kingdom. It has been 
known by its present name since about 1853. 

In 1836 a sum of £1,500 ($7,299.75) was voted by parliament for the 
encouragement of art, with which trade and navigation became associ- 
ated. The first school of design was opened at Somerset House with 12 
pupils, in 1837. Subsequently a sum of £10,000 ($48,665) was voted in 
aid of fourteen schools, and by this means art education was provided for 
about 2,250 pupils. This sum became exhausted in 1840, and since that 
date the amount necessary for each school, or for providing new ones, has 
been included in the annual estimates. In 1845 the Eoyal College of 
Chemistry was estabhshed in Oxford street, London; and in 1851 the Jer- 
myn street Eoyal School of Mines was started. These institutions are 
nov/ united under the title of the ]f!^ormal School of Science and Eoyal 
School of Mines, at South Kensington. 

Museums were opened at Dublin in 1855, South Kensington in 1857, 
Edinburgh in 1866, and Bethnal Green in 1872. A considerable sum 
has been exi:)endedon the collections of objects of interest, some of which 
are lent to provincial museums. 

The Directory, containing regulations for establishing and conduct- 
ing science and art classes, was started in 1860, and is now published 
annually as a parliamentary jiaper, forming an appropriate medium of 
communicating official information relative to subjects of instruction, 
dates of the various examinations, and other details. The annual May 
examinations were instituted in 1861, on the results of which grants, 
certificates, x)rizes, and scholarships are awarded. 

The aim has been to supply more advanced instruction than is 
usually given in the public elementary schools, and to raise the Intel- 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 379 

lectual eliaracter of the community; but Ibe results ratlier i3oint to the 
couclusion that the science and art department was appointed before its 
time. 

The department has rendered valuable assistance to the cause oi 
public education, in so far as it has been the medium of inducing 
teachers to qualify themselves to impart instruction in a number of 
most necessary branches of education. Numerous scholarshii^s have 
been founded, and are awarded on the results of examinations held by 
the department. In 1868 the late Sir Joseph Whitworth offered the 
munificient sum of £100,000 ($480,650) for this purpose, which was 
accepted and supplemented with a like sum by the government. 

There are two teaching scholarships in chemistry of the value of 
£50 ($213.33); four royal Scholarships of the value of £15 ($73), and 
two of £25 ($121.66); two princess of Wales scholarships, value £25 
($121.6,6) and £11 ($53.53), respectively, etc. There are also rewards in 
money, books, medals, local exhibitions, assistance to teachers, and the 
like. 

A limited number of teachers and of students in science classes 
who intend to become science teachers are admitted free to the ses- 
sional course of instruction in the Normal School of Science and Eoyal 
School of Mines. They receive third-class railway fare and mainte- 
nance allowance of 21s. ($5.11) per week while in London. In certain 
cases the allowance may be increased to 30s. ($7.30). Teachers are also 
assisted, in certain cases, to take a course of instruction in some of the 
X^roviucial colleges. 

The two distinctively technical schools of the science and art depart- 
ment are: (a) The Normal School of Science and Koyal School of Mines, 
South Kensington, London, the appropriations for the maintenance of 
which school for 1889 were £15,879 ($77,275.15); and {h) the National 
Training Art School, South Kensington, London, the ai)propriations for 
which school for 1889 were £5,345 ($26,011.44). 

The local schools of science, nnder the direct supervision of the 
department, in various parts of the kingdom, though often existing as 
adjuncts of public institntions of learning, are so dependent upon the 
government for their existence and are so variously conditioned as to 
make them more properly enumerable in this than in the second class. 
They required for 1889 an appropriation of £89,500 ($435,551.75).^ 

The art schools and classes, national scholar shi^DS, etc., in local 
schools, received in 1889 £38,500 ($187,360,25). The same conditions 
exist as have been noted in regard to the schools of science. 

The total exx)enses incident to the conduct of these widely scattered 
schools of science and of art in all parts of the kingdom reached in 
1889 the sum approximately of £154,000 ($749,441). 

It is obvious that it would be both imi^racticable and of little utility 
to obtain a complete list of these hundreds of schools, which, as en- 
gaged in one branch or another of technical (and occasionally of Indus- 



380 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

trial) training, derive tlieir existence from the paternal functions of 
the government itself. These, together with the two government 
schools at South Kensington and the elementary instruction referred 
to of the national school sj^stem (except in so far as the wonderful col- 
lections of the British and other museums are most helpful collaterals), 
seem to exist as the only illustrations of the government's direct efforts 
in the diffusion of industrial and technical knowledge. The wide spread 
public interest in all that pertains to this subject, as already evidenced 
by numerous bills before parliament, will undoubtedly soon produce 
imj)ortant and characteristic results in a governmental way. 

Consideration of the second class of institutions brings us to an ex- 
amination of those which, though founded by private or associate en- 
terprise — generally from x)hilanthropic motives, now receive govern- 
mental aid, with sometimes that of other corporate bodies. 

By far the most active, effective, and important exponent of the gov- 
ernment's interest in schools of this class — singular as it may appear 
to those not conversant with all the facts — is the board of charity 
commissioners, a department whose ordinary functions would naturally 
be supiDosed to be quite outside the lines of educational work, except 
perhaps as they might, in the most elementary way, be incident to 
workhouse or charity schools, etc. 

Their connection with this work and the institutions of industrial 
and technical instruction is indeed unique, and the circumstances from 
which it arises would hardly exist apart from a centralized form of 
government, or a civilization as old and as marked by the appreciation 
of the humanities as that of England. Yet the relation sustained by 
the charity commissioners is as logical as it is beneficent. 

The charity commissioners were created by act of parliament in 1853 
to superintend the administration of charitable and educational en- 
dowments all over Great Britain. In 1853 Prof. James Bryce carried 
through parliament an act i^roviding for the consolidation of all the old 
parochial charities in London (the objects of many of which had totally 
ceased to exist), and the application of the income to the welfare of 
the poorer classes throughout the metropolis, nnder the management 
of the charity commissioners, by means of facilities for industrial and 
technical teaching, the support of museums and libraries, the crea- 
tion of recreation grounds, the establishment or aid of hospitals, asy- 
lums, and similiar provident institutions, and such other agencies as 
might approve themselves to the commissioners as promotive, in the 
language of the act, of ^' the physical, social, and moral condition of 
the poorer inhabitants." 

As the result of the careful inquiry made by the charity commission- 
ers, under the powers conferred by this act, into the great number of 
obsolete endowed charities, or those whose funds greatly exceeded the 



CHAP. VI.-^INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 381 

needs of tlieir objects, etc., funds and property were gathered to tlie 
amount of £3,000,000 ($14,599,500), affording an incomeof some £100,000 
($486,650) per annum, about one-third of which is available for the pur- 
poses named in the act. 

As the result of their investigations the board concluded to assist 
technical education by methods best adapted to aid the lower classes, 
and determined that they could best accomplish this by night schools 
for apprentices and young people engaged in daily workj by supple- 
menting rather than by supplanting the shop with the technical school; 
by confining their efforts to youths rather than including those of mixed 
ages; by improving the physical status of the workingman; and, lastly, 
by giving him these advantages at minimum cost rather than gratis, 
thereby developing in him the invaluable element of self help. 

It is through the agency of the charity commissioners alone that the 
government becomes a disburser (and, singularly enough, a disburser 
only) to the several institutions engaged in manual and technical train- 
ing approved by the board. For it is worthy of note that the means 
thus furnished are not a charge upon the government itself, but that, 
having taken into its possession (and very wisely) the funds originally 
bestowed by individuals upon other non-necessitous objects, it simply 
reassigns them, through its charity board, to newer, more virile, and 
more worthy recipients. 

This fact but emphasizes the point, already noted, that by itself the 
government of Great Britain has as yet done but little outside its 
science and art department to forward the acquisition of industrial and 
technical knowledge, and little in that department to meet the needs 
of those who require it most. 

The great impetus that has been given to improvement in the handi- 
crafts and in technical acquirement on the part of the masses was 
due primarily (and is chiefly maintained in Great Britain today) to 
the persistent and remarkably intelligent zeal of a comparatively few 
individuals for the welfare of their less fortunate neighbors. 

This has been excellently supplemented by the equally intelligent ac- 
tion of certain of the great manufacturing and commercial guilds for 
which London is especially famed, having, it is true, something of 
self interest to prompt them, yet actuated withal by much of the same 
broad purpose which stimulated •their forerunners. Yet, thanks to the 
happily available funds at the disposal of the charity commissioners and 
the good management and disposition of the latter, nearly all of the 
best schools of technology in Great Britain, particularly those of the 
metropolis, are now of our second class, being recipients of material 
aid from the government through the hands of the charity board, their 
efficiency being thus largely increased. 

Both the curricula and the arrangement of classes thereunder in not 



382 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

a few of tlie scliools of tlie second class are established with reference 
to the requiremcDts of two very important central organizations which 
grant snbsidies where certain conditions imposed by them are comi)lied 
with. These are the department of science and art and the City and 
Guilds of London Institute. The methods employed by the first of 
these have been noted and its aid, oftener in the forrn^ of scholarships, 
prizes, etc., than of large subsidies, is extended to many institutions 
not founded by it, nor under its control further than its determination 
of certain courses of instruction is concerned. 

It is probably true that the prizes, scholarshix)s, certificates, and 
conditional grants of the science and art department are greater aids 
and incentives than they would be in the United States. 

The City and Guilds of London Institute for the Advancement of 
Technical Education makes grants for successful instruction in tech- 
nical subjects. It also restricts classes which receive its encourage- 
ment to youug men actually engaged in cognate trades and requires 
evening instruction. Its scheme of technical study is well defined and 
its functions as an examining body are intelligently exercised. It is, 
however, as such, rather than as an instructive agent, that it is pre- 
eminent, though its great cor^Dorate powers, material wealth, and 
moral status have enabled it to accomplish great good throughout the 
kingdom. 

This organization (constituted 1878) comj) rises in its membership 
nea^rly, if not quite, all of the i)rincipal manufacturing and mercantile 
guilds (the Drapers' Company excepted) of the city of London, some 
of them, e. ^., the Steelyards Merchants, and the Saddlers, dating from 
the tenth century. Its original act emioowers it to promote the appli- 
cation of science and art to i)roductive industry; to found, establish, 
endow, maintain, and conduct a central institute, in or near the city of 
London, and trade schools in London or provincial towns, and by 
means of lectures, classes, and examinations held thereat, or by such 
other means as may be deemed i)roper, to train teachers, and provide 
for the technical instruction of persons of both sexes engaged in the in- 
dustries and manufactures in such sciences and arts as are auxiliary to 
those industries and manufactures, or any of them; to form, endow, 
and maintain such museums and collections of the products of science 
and art in their application to industries and manufactures, and to 
provide such libraries, laboratories, and workshops as may be deemed 
expedient; to accept gifts, endowments, and bequests of money for 
the purposes of the institute. Other bodies having similar objects may 
be affiliated. 

The third class of technical schools, viz., those which have been cre- 
ated and maintained by individual or associated guilds, or by other 
organizations, etc., does not include any considerable number. 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 383 

Like the department of scieuce and art the Gity and Guilds of London 
Institute, while giving support and assistance to a large number of 
technical institutions both in and beyond the metropolis, has estab- 
lished and itself maintained three suchschoolswhichit directly controls, 
and which, as representing the more advanced instruction and the 
training school element, may take iniority in their class. These schools 
are tlie South London School of Technical Art, the Central Institute, 
and the Finsbury Technical College. 

These are non-recipients of government aid, so far as appears, save 
possibly as candidates for prizes, etc. It is not to be understood, how- 
ever, that they may not be eligible to any such subsidies as either of 
the governmental departments concede. They were chiefly projected 
before the principal governmental aids were so available as now, and 
by those abundantly able to maintain them and assist others. 

It is noteworthy that the greater number of the institutions in Great 
Britain today (especially in London), which give industrial and tech- 
nical instruction, owe their existence to the elibrts made by philan- 
thropic individuals or associations to ameliorate the social condition 
of the humbler classes. 

Some of the schools established by institutions of learning as part 
of their educational system, or by individuals or industrial associations 
to advance i^articular interests, are as follows : 

Technical School, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Northumherland county; England. 
Durham College of Science, Newcastle-iii>on-Tyne, Northumberland county, 

England. 
Owens College, Manchester, Lancaster county, England. 
Yorhshire College, Leeds, York county, England. 
Mason Science College, Birmingham, Warwick county, England. 
University College, Bristol, Gloucester county, England. 
University College, Nottingham, Nottingham county, England. 
University College, Liverpool, Lancaster county, England. 
University College, Dundee, Forfar county, Scotland. 
Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, Glasgow, Lanark county, 

Scotland. 
University College, Cardiff, Glamorgan county, Wales. 
ShcfQcld Technical College, Saint George Square, Shcfifield, York county, 

England. 

Among schools established to advance local industries may be in- 
cluded the Manchester Technical School, Huddersfield Technical 
School, and Leicester Technical School. There are a large number of 
technical schools with social features, the Eegent street Polytechnic 
being the most notable example. There are several which are still in- 
complete, but which are doing excellent work. Among these latter 
are the Fiusbury Polytechnic Institute, the South Lambeth Institute, 
the Albert Youth's Institute, and the Woolwich Polytechnic. The last 
two are offshoots of the Eegent street Polytechnic, and aim to reach 



384 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

particular classes, the Woolwicli school recruiting its membership prin- 
cipally from the Woolwich arsenal and dockyard.. 

XATIOI^AL ASSOCIATION FOE THE PEOMOTION OF TECH- 
NICAL EDUCATION. 

Among the most active and efiacient agencies in furthering the cause 
of technical education is to be reckoned the National Association for 
the Promotion of Technical EducatioUj of which the Marquis of Hart- 
ington, M. P., is president; Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M. P., is treas- 
urer; whose secretaries are Sir Henry E. Eoscoe, M. P., and Mr. Ar- 
thur H. D. Acland, M. P.; and whose assistant secretary is Mr. H. 
Llewellyn Smith, B. A., B. Sc. 

The object of this association is not to interfere with the teaching of 
trades in workshops, or with iudustrial and commercial training in the 
manufactory and in the warehouse. It desires to develop increased 
general dexteritj^ of hand and eye among the young, which may be es- 
pecially useful to those who earn their own livelihood, and at the same 
time imi)rove rather than hinder their general education; to bring 
about more independent and thorough knowledge of those principles 
of art and science which underlie much of the industrial work of 
the nation; and to encourage better secondary instruction generally, 
which will include a more effective teaching of foreign languages and 
science, for those who have to guide commercial relations abroad, 
and to develop industries at home. 

Here are plainly defined the purx)oses and the limitations of the 
effort which the association proposes to itself. Some of the difficulties 
encountered in reducing to practical effect the provisions of the techni- 
cal instruction act, and some of the partial success achieved under it, 
are set forth in a report, made by the secretaries and assistant secre- 
tary of the National Association, and published in London in 1889, under 
the title. Technical Education in England and Wales. 

ELEMENTAET MANUAL INSTEUCTION. 

To begin with the elementary instruction in the lowest grade of 
schools we quote the remarks of the committee on this subject : 

The kindergarten exercises, object lessons, etc., for the infant schools 
and lower standards, that come under the general title of hand and 
eye training, form a very desirable introduction to more advanced 
technical instruction. * * * ]3^^^ above the infant school 
nothing of the kind is done, as a rule, in primary schools; and it is 
much to be regretted that no provision is introduced into the new code 
making object lessons a necessary subject at least in the lower stand- 
ards. 

It is no doubt easy to say that a special syllabus, comprising a series 
of graduated object lessons, may be drawn up for the approval of the 
inspector. But, as a matter of fact, object lessons will never generally 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 385 

become part of the curriculum until tliey are insisted on; and as tlieir 
educational value in briglitening and stimulating the intelligence of 
the children is admitted by all good teachers, it is most desirable that 
means should be taken to ensure their general adoption in elementary 
schools. 

There are several forms which hand and eye training may take in 
schools. It may be conveyed by means of drawing, modelling, work- 
shop instruction, or other manual exercises, such as sloid. 

The only one of these forms of manual training which receives a 
grant is drawing. 

Grants may now be proposed for manual instruction, modelling, wood 
work, etc., under the new technical instruction act. 

Concerning the plan of teaching by object lessons the report says: 

The London school board, 15 years or more ago, adopted a graduated 
series of object lessons to be used throughout its schools. '^This scheme 
of elementary science lessons," says Mr. Sharpe in his report for 1887, 
" framed with the most intelligent care, has remained almost a dead let- 
ter for 15 years to the i)resent time." 

In 1887 the Drapers' Company placed £1,000 ($4,860.50) at the disposal 
of the City and Guilds of London Institute for the promotion of manual 
training. Through the eftbrts of the guilds the school board established 
wood work training in six centres in various parts of London for se- 
lected children from the board schools. The training began in January 
1888. The pu^iils attended once a week for a whole morning or after- 
noon, thus giving up one school attendance i^er week for the manual 
training. The six centres thus provided for the instruction of 584 chil- 
dren. The classes are under the control of instructors and assistant 
instructors, the latter being practical joiners. 

The instruction is designed to give the i)upils an intelligent knowl- 
edge of the princii^les which underlie their work. Working drawings 
to scale are made for every exercise. All bench work is done to exact 
measurement, and every i^iece of wood is correctly lined before being 
cut or planed. 

The exjoeriment of the work has proved so successful that since 1890 
the government has carried on the work in board and lower grade schools- 
in London and the provinces. 

A small class for sloid was held as an experiment for three months 
in the autumn of 1887, but, to quote the report of the school board, " The 
decision of the local government board in regard to the surcharge for 
instruction in manual training i3re vented the board from incurring any 
expenditure in connection with the class." The class would, therefore, 
have been discontinued, had not a member of the board defrayed the 
cost of the instructor's salary. 

The report on this point concludes : 

Manual instruction is given in a few other elementary day schools in 
London. Twenty to thirty selected scholars from Saint Jude's National 
Scliool, Whitechapel, and as many more from the Castle Street Board 
School in the same district, receive instruction in wood work from work- 
men of the Guild of Handicraft in Commercial street. There are also 
S. Ex. 65 25 



386 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

carpenters' benclies ia two voluntary schools at Westminster and in a 
few other schools scattered over London. Some of the ex-7th standard 
boys are under instruction in carpentry in Eaine's Foundation Schools, 
Saint George-in-the-East. The instructions would be extended to chil- 
dren in the standards if attendance at the workshop were counted as at- 
tendance at school. IsTo doubt manual classes are also held in several 
other schools which have not come under our notice. 

There is encouragement and much of truth in the committee's re- 
mark, however, that — 

The requirements of the people are not to be measured by the actual 
existing demand. It is an invariable law of educational progress that 
the demand has to be created along with the supply, and it is most 
satisfactory to find that ^ this has actually been effected so far as -re- 
gards certain districts where technical schools have grown up through 
voluntary effort. It is as much the object of the promoters of techni- 
cal education to stimulate the demand as to increase the supi)ly. 



SEOOITDAEY AND HIGHEE K^^STITUTIOI^S. 

The report is much more satisfactory in that portion of it which deals 
with secondary and higher institutions. Among these the institution 
bearing the name of the Gity and Guilds of London Institute holds a 
prominent place. 

The i)resent oioerations of the institute include the Central Institute 
in Exliibition road, South Kensington, the Einsbury Technical College 
in Leonard street, and the South London School of Technical Art. 

CENTRAL INSTITUTE. 

Central Institute, Exhibition road, London, S. W., was opened in 1884. 
It is designed to give advanced instruction in that kind of knowledge 
which bears upon the different branches of industries, whether manu- 
factare or arts. The management is by a committee and board of stud- 
ies. It is understood that the building cost £75,000 ($3G4, 987. 50), 
and the furniture, fitting, and appliances, £25,000 ($121, 662. 50). The 
courses of instruction are arranged to suit the requirements of persons 
w^ho are training to become technical teachers, preparing to enter engi- 
neering or architects' of&ces, or desirous to acquaint themselves with 
the scientific principles underlying the particular branch of industry in 
wliich they are engaged. The comx)lete (three years) course involves 
instruction in four departments, and there are lecture courses embrac- 
ing mathematics and mechanics, engineering, mechanism, and the a>p- 
plication of dynamics to practical problems, strength of materials, etc.; 
hydraulics, practical physics, surveying, electrical technology, and 
chemistry. The elementary teachers' courses are carpentry and join- 
ery (elementary and advanced) and experimental pbysics. 

The summer course for teachers and others includes lectures and 
laboratory work as follows: Mechanics of construction; chemistry, 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 387 

witli si^ecial reference to tlie requirements of arcliitects, builders, and 
engineers; testing of dynamos and motors j graphical statics; methods 
of determining the fundamental standards of electrical measurements; 
gas manufacture; paper manufacture; lighting, warming, and ven- 
tilating; building. 

Candidates who desire to qualify for the diploma are required to 
pass an entrance or matriculation examination in mathematics and 
mechanics, "mechanical drawing, physics, chemistry, and French or 
German. On the results of this examination the scholarships are 
awarded. The entrance examination fee is £1 (|4.87); the fee for 
matriculated students (complete course), £25 ($121.66) a year. 

The lecture courses vary from £1 to £6 ($4.87 to $29.20) per term or 
session, according to the subject taken. Elementary teachers, 10s. or 
15s. ($2.43 or $3.65) for the course of twelve lessons. There are s^DCcial 
terms for laboratory work. The scholarshii^s comprise: One, value £60 
($291.99) a year for two years and free education the third year; three, 
value of students' fees for three years; two, of £30 ($146) a year for 
two years — one with and one without free education; one, of £50 
($243.33) for three years. The building is replete with scientific ap- 
I)aratus and appliances, laboratories, and workshoi3S. 

The following table shows the number of students attending the 
Central Institute in 1887-^88 : 



Course. 



Students. 



Full course 

Pai-tial courses 

Siuglc courses of lectures or sliort special courses 

Suiimier courses 

Carx>eutry class for elementary teachers 

Experimental physics , 

Total 



GG 
56 
15 
175 
90 
29 



^'It must be acknowledged," the committee remarks, ''that the sup- 
ply of students has hitherto been hardly equal to the expectations 
formed at the outset. Too much stress, however, must not be laid on 
this fact. The institution has been open for but five years, and it has 
certainly been at least as fortunate as the normal school in its earlier 
years. The fact is that the demand for very high class technical instruc- 
tion has to be created as well as the supply, and until technical classes 
are more widely diffused throughout the country than at present, there 
is little demand for the training of technical teachers. Both these 
defects will cure themselves in time." 

riNSBURY TECHNICAL COLLEG-E. 

Finsbury Technical College is situated in Leonard street, City road,Lon- 
don , E. C. The management, vested in the council of the City and G uilds 
of London Institute, is by committee. There are day and evening de- 



388 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

X)artmeiits. Day students must be not less tlian 14 years of age and 
X^ass an entrance examination. They are expected to take a course of 
two or three years. Tlie courses of instruction are arranged under 
five departments. Those for day students being — mechanical engineer- 
ing and applied mathematics ; electrical engineering and applied physics j 
industrial and technical chemistry j applied artj and the building 
trades. The evening classes are arranged in groups of trades: Me- 
chanical engineering; electrical engineering and instrument making j 
mannfacturing chemistry, and industries involving the application of 
chemistry; the art industries, including cabinetmaking and decoration 
in color and in relief; and the building trades. All these dcjiart- 
ments are admirably divided into groups of two, three, or four divisions, 
each with subdivisions of detail occui^ying many pages in the calen- 
dar. This wide range of subjects of most useful instruction places the 
college in the very front rank of technical institutions ; and a large 
number of students avail themselves of the exceptional advantages to 
be derived from attending the evening classes. The fee for day 
students (complete course) is £15 ($73) per session (a year): for 
evening classes (according to subjects), 6s. to 15s. ($1.46 to $3.65) for 
the session of about eight months ; for art classes, 17s. to 25s. ($4.14 
to $6.08). There are four studentships (two annually open to public 
elementary boys) of £30 ($146) a year for two years; one of £20 
($97.33) and free education at the college; there are also open scholar- 
ships. The total attendance in day and evening classes in 1888-'89 
was 1,181 students. 

In the applied art section of the college drawing, design, and painting 
are taught in relation to their application to various industries, besides 
art metal work, modelling, carving, etching, etc. The coUege course is 
regarded as a real preparation for entering the factory or workshop, 
where, to quote the language of the principal, they ''complete a modi- 
fied form of apprenticeship." 

The course, except in the case of the chemistry department, lasts 
for two years. The results of this scheme of instruction are briefly 
this : That the students who have followed out their course enter indus- 
trial life under much more favorable conditions than otherwise they 
could have done. They pick np in the shops in two or three years 
more than they Avould have done in five or six years under the old 
apprenticeship system. 

The college is well supplied with teaching appliances, laboratories, 
and workshops. Perhaps this college may be said to be the best ex- 
ponent In Great Britain today of advanced technical training. It is 
not, however, equal in either its methods, morale, or facilities to the 
first- class institutions of its character in the United States, though, 
doubtless, in some respects, better adapted to the i)resent require- 
ments and status of technical teaching in that country. 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 389 

SOUTH LONDON SCHOOL OP TECHNICAL ART. 

The tliird school of the City and Guilds of Loudon Institute is the 
South London School of Technical Art, situated in the Kennington Park 
road. It is now attended by about 150 students. Most of the classes, 
which include modelling, design, house decoration, china painting, wood 
engraving, etc., are held in the evening, but there are also a few day 
classes. In the school art is studied especiallj^ in its bearings on in- 
dustries, and the school is said to have had considerable influence 
on the decorative trades of the neighborhood, and its prosperity 
varies with their prosperity. It is clear that a great deal of good 
work has been done in the school with very limited resources, and the 
list of x)ast students who have made a mark in artistic handicraft is 
one of which any school might be proud. 

LOWER MOSELEY STREET SCHOOLS, MANCHESTER. 

The Lower Moseley Street Schools of Manchester, from the date of 
their institution in 183(3, seem to have prospered in an unusual degree, 
and to have won their way to popular favor. Connected with these 
schools are societies whose various names imply a great diversity of 
objects to be attained, though all of them have the same ultimate 
tendency. Among these are a singing class j a mutual improvement 
society; a girls' club; cricket, football, swimming, and chesfe clubs; a 
natural history society; and a maternal association. Instruction in 
secular subjects is given to evening classes. 

The object in establishing these classes is to stimulate the desire for 
knowledge amongst young men and women, to afford pleasant and 
profitable occupation for their leisure time, and to give, as far as possi- 
ble, sound instruction in the various subjects taught. Many of the 
classes are, moreover, of real practical value to the working man, and 
are aided by the government, with a view of increasing his skill as an 
artisan by the diffusion of scientific and artistic knowledge. 

The courses of study take a wide range, including, in the elementary 
classes, reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, history, and shorthand. 
The commercial classes take bookkeeping, typewriting, and shorthand, 
together with French, German, Italian, Spanish, and Latin, grammar, 
and commercial arithmetic. The science classes receive instruction in 
physiology, botany, chemistry, mechanics, magnetism and electricity, 
mathematics, etc. ; while in the art classes free-hand, model, perspec- 
tive, and geometrical drawing and designing are taught. 

MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOL, MANCHESTER. 

The Boys' Commercial and Manual Training School, in connection 
with the Manchester Technical School, is designed to develop harmoni- 
ously all the faculties by means of a systematic and progressive course 
of intellectual and manual training, which has for its express object the 
cultivation of the power of observation and the forming of the judgment. 



390 EEPORT OF THE COiiMISSIOXER OF LABOR. 

It is not intended to teacli a trade^ but simply to provide for each boy 
a comi)lete education for both head and hand, etc. 

The first year's course embraces langaage and literature, geography 
and history, four hours per week ; the higher rules of arithmetic and 
mathematics, five liours per week; writing (including bookkeeping and 
phonography), free-hand, model, geometrical, and persijective drawing, 
eleven hours per week ; elementary science, five hours per week ,• tool 
instruction in carpentry and wood turuiug, six liours pei week. 

The second year's course includes advanced studies in all the fore- 
going subjects. The course of instruction forms an excellent introduc- 
tion to the mechanical, electrical, and sanitary engineering, chemical, 
dyeing, and textile departments of the school. 

According to the seventh annual report of this school (1890) the 
total number of pupils enrolled in this dex3artment was 75. 

This report contains the following interesting comments : 

]N"ow that manual training is receiving that i)ublic appreciation and 
attention which it so much deserves, and for which, it has hitherto so 
vainly struggled, it is of some importance to recognize the fact that this 
is tlie first school in the kingdom to embrace it as an organic part of a 
boy's education, to be carried on side by side and in close coordination 
with other more x)urely literary studies. Its success is not to be meas- 
ured by the comparatively small number of boys Avho have been en- 
rolled, but by the stimulus and example it has afforded and the con- 
clusive proof it has given that not only can manual training be readily 
arranged so as to form part of a boy's instruction, but that it is abso- 
lutely essential to a full development of his faculties. * * * 

The results bave fully justified its maintenance and continuance. It 
has, in numerous instances, helped to determine the pui^ils' aptitudes 
and fix their careers. Many who, under ordinary circumstances, would 
have simi)ly swelled the overstocked ra-nks of clerks and warehouse- 
men, have, under the stimulus and training they have received, en- 
tered upon some business where manual skill and dexterity are essen- 
tial conditions of success. * * * it is a matter worthy of note that 
had these boys, during their previous school career, had some such Imnd 
and eye training as is imj)lied by a carefully graduated kindergarten 
course, they would have been in a much better position to profit by the 
subsequent training of this department. 

Such commendations and strictures deserve attention, since they are 
not the words of mere theorists, but of men that have had iiractical 
exi)erience of the value of manual training as an intellectual discipline. 
They serve, also, to emphasize the importance of organizing the pri- 
mary, secondary, and intermediate grades of instruction in such a man- 
ner as to make each successive step in the x>rocess of education a dis- 
tinct and well timed preparation for advancement to the next higher 
grade. 

SHEFFIELD TECHNICAL SCHOOL. 

In connection with the technical school at ShefBield there is a junior 
day department whose object is to provide a course of instruction 
in science for boys, wkich shall have reference to their future require- 



CHAP. YI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 391 

meiits in trade and mauufiictiire. The instruction is largely supple- 
mented by work in the laboratories, where principles are illustrated by 
experiments performed by the student himself, and in the workshops, 
where manual exercises are x>erformed at the bench and lathe. The 
subjects taught in this department include arithmetic, algebra, geome- 
try, mechanics, heat, chemistry, geometrical and mechanical drawing, 
lectuxes on local industries, use of tools in the workshops, French, 
German, typewriting, and shorthand. 

The wood and iron workshoi)S are supplied with all the necessary 
tools and appliances for a useful course of manual training, but no at- 
tempt is made to teach special trades. The work performed by the 
• students is executed from working drawings i)reviously made by them- 
selves. In the testing room experiments are conducted on the strength 
of materials and simple structures by actual breaking with deadweights, 
and on the elementary principles of construction. 

The hours of attendance daily, except Saturday, when there is no 
school session, are from 9.30 a. m. to 12.30 p. m., and from 2 to 4.30 p. m. 

Each student pays a tuition fee of 10s. ($2.43) per month of actual 
school work; but six free scholarships are available in this department, 
entitling the holders to instruction in all the subjects taught. These 
scholarships are awarded on the result of a competitive examination, 
and are tenable for one year. 

STOCKPORT. 

At Stockport there is a day school for boys and girls, the main ob- 
ject of which is said to be to continue the education of boys and girls, 
beyond the public elementary schools, in such a manner as to give 
them a thorough grounding in science and art, and by a judicious com- 
bination of practical and theoretical instruction to develop manual 
dexterity side by side with the mental faculties. The students will be 
placed in the best possible position for subsequently acquiring a prac- 
tical knowledge of a trade or profession, and will be enabled with ad- 
vantage to take up the study of more "purely technical subjects. 

Here is a clear and explicit avowal of a purpose to conduct the school 
instruction in such a way as to bring manual training into close and 
vital relations with the secondary education in the schools of lower 
grade. At the same time the limitations of manual training are dis- 
tinctly defined. Xot to teach special trades, nor to supercede api^ren- 
ticeship, is the aim in this school; but so to develoi^ the faculties and 
educate the hand as to equip the pupil for the duties of life, whatever 
they may be. 

Drawing,building construction, mathematics, chemistry, sound, light, 
heat, theoretical mechanics, French, shorthand, bookkeeping, English 
composition, manual training in the use of tools, cookery, needlework, 
sick nursing, dressmaking, millinery, and starching and ironing, are 
the subjects taught. 



392 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Tlie sessions of this scliool cover about forty weeks per year. The 
school hours are 9.30 a. m. to 12.30 j). in., and 2 to 4.30 p. m. on five days 
per week, there being no classes on Saturdays. The fee for attendance 
is Is. (24 cents) per week, including stationery. 

The teaching staff consists of the principal and 19 assistant teachers; 
but no record of the number of students in attendance in any of the 
departments is accessible. 

ROBERT GORDON'S COLLEGE, ABERDEEN. 

At Aberdeen, Scotland, an institution known as Eobert Gordon's 
College is in operation, with day and evening classes, to which both 
sexes are admitted. Connected with it is a day department called the 
trade and engineering school, though the title is hardly exact. It is 
properly a manual training school, and its aim is to put boys in a posi- 
tion to profit to the full by the apiirenticeshij) they are about to enter, 
at the age of 15 or 16 years, thoroughly equix)ped as to preliminary 
knowledge. It is by no means intended that a boy should learn his 
trade in the college, but only that he should lay the foundation of that 
scientific and technical knowledge which has become an essential con- 
comitant of trade experience and manual dexterity. This explanation 
determines the status of the day school, for the completion of whose 
course an attendance of two years' duration is necessary. In the even- 
ing classes instruction is given to apx^rentices in several technical" 
branches throughout a four years' course. 

The registration of pupil apprentices in each of the technological 
classes for the year 1S90-'91 is reported as follows : 

Telegraphy 18 

Plumbers' work (theoretical) 23 

Plumbers' work (i)ractical) 9 

Watcli and clock making 10 

Metal working tools 23 

Mechanical engineering 12 

Carriage building ^ 12 

Carpentry and joinery 9 

Total IIG 

BIRMINGHAM TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. 

The Birmingham Municix)al Technical School is to be rated as a 
manual training school of high gi-ade. This school was established for 
the purpose of carrying out a liberal scheme of technical education, 
which was rendered possible by the technical education act of 1890. 
It does not undertake to teach the practice of trades in the class room. 
This can be properly learned only in the workshop. But, in the school, 
the student learns the scientific princiiiles on which the various local 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 393 

industries are based. The BirmiDgliam Seventh Standard Technical 
School is under the control of the Birmingham school board. Instruc- 
tion i^ given in the school in those sciences and arts upon whicli the 
trades and manufactures of the town are based. It is contended 
that the result of such, instruction in the board school is that a boy 
instead of having possibly to spend two or three years as an errand 
boy before being initiated into some handicraft with which, he is 
entirely ignorant is, after si)ending a couj)le of years at such a school, 
enabled to enter a manufactory already instructed in the use of tools 
of the craft he is about to follow j as a consequence of intelligent train- 
ing in the elementary i)rinciples, he is enabled at once to command 
higher wages, and is a more thouglitful and original worker. It is also 
argued tliat in consequence of the decline in the apprenticesh.ii) system 
some such, preliminary training is requisite in order that a lad may 
learn more than just one pa^rticular branch, of Ms trade. 

As a result of the introduction of machinery in every brancli and 
detail of manufacture a workman is frequently kept upon one special 
description of work. If the demand for tlie article, ui3on which per- 
hai)s he has for years been at work, declines he is i^laced at a great 
disadvantage in regaining employment as he has had no general 
training. The result, therefore, of the system adopted by tbe school 
board is felt to be that employment will not only be more constant, 
but that the work of the skilled mechanic will be of more value, and 
consequently it will be accompanied by an increase in wages. 

Parents entering their boys in the Birmingham Seventh Standard 
Technical School have to sign a declaration that they will keep the boys 
at school for a period of at least two years. This is done to insure 
their receiving an adequate and proper course of instruction, and also 
to enable them to earn the government grants in the science subjects 
for the two years. 

In this school the subjects taught are arithmetic, drawing, theoretical 
and practical mechanics, chemistry, electricity, model and machine 
drawing, geometry, and principles of machinery, with laboratory and 
workshop practice. 

The school board believes it necessary to provide for the technical 
training of artisans, and states the case as follows : 

Competition with the better trained workmen of the continent and 
America is becoming more and more severe every day, and is actually 
taking some of the means of livelihood away from the English work- 
man. A more thorough and more scientific training of the artisans of 
Birmingham will greatly improve the articles manufactured here, in 
style, design, and delicacy of workmanship, and will also lead to a les- 
sened cost of production ; the trade of the town, where it now languishes, 
will revive; new developments of mechanical skill will open out new 
trades; employment will be more constant; and the wages of the skilled 
workman will rise. 

In the report of the Birmingham school board for the year ending 



394 KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

l!^ovember 28, 1889, regret is expressed tliat scliool boards liave no 
power to introduce tecliuical or manual instruction in schools under 
tlieir control 5 but it is understood that tlie act of August 19, 1890, re- 
moves tliis cause of complaint. The provisions of the law are, however, 
somewhat obscure, and have given rise to considerable controversy. 

BIRIMINGHAM SCHOOL OP ART. 

Birmingham has a municipal school of art, whose influence on local 
industries is incalculably beneficial. In this school and its eight 
branches there were enrolled at the date of the latest report to which 
we have access, namely, in the autumn of 1886, 1,307 art students. 
Many of these were artisan students j and the committee state, that it 
is their x)urpose to facilitate as much as possible the art instruction of 
tliose eu gaged in the trades of the town. Consequently, in the branch 
schools, where the attendance is chiefly comi)osed of artisans the fees 
have been fixed at the low rate of 3^. (73 cents) j)er term. 

The course of instruction includes elementary drawing, drawing from 
models, elementary design, perspective, practical, plane, and solid 
geometry, outline and shading from nature, casts, and objects, machine 
construction and drawing, and building construction. In five of the 
branch schools instruction in elementary modelling is also given. 

REGENT STREET POLYTECHNIC DAY SCHOOL. 

Another class of day school is represented by the Polytechnic day 
school. At this school the committee realize the importance of spe- 
cializing the course of instruction a boy receives, so as to fit him to fill 
with greater advantage the special vocation he is afterward to follow. 
Accordingly at the age of 13 (or before, i)rovided the boy can pass a 
qualifying examination) the future stuidies of the i:)upil are specialized. 
Should it be the intention of the parent to x)lace the boy in some pro- 
fession he is placed in the i)rofessional division. If to enter the civil 
service is desired then the boy is placed in that division which pre- 
pares specially for the examinations. In the commercial division a 
boy receives a special course of training for the oflice and for commer- 
cial x)ursuits. 

In the technical division the curriculum is altogether different and 
includes instruction in science and technical subjects, also a complete 
and systematic course of manual instruction in the workshop. The 
latter instruction is virtually a continuation of that given in the lecture 
room, every example having to be constructed from working drawings 
I)roduced in a workmanlike manner in the drawing office. For con- 
venience and regularity of instruction a regular text book has been pre- 
l^ared for the workshop, and not until the examples contained therein 
have been made by the pupil is he permitted to engage in more difficult 
pieces of work. 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATIOX IN GREAT BRITAIN. 395 

Tlie advantage of siicli a scliool Las been most apparent from tlie num- 
ber of applications for boys tliat Lave been made by employers. Many 
of tLe firms wLicL Lave taken tLe lads are among tlie best in London, 
and many of tlie appointments tLat Lave been obtained are tLose for 
wLicL asmucL as £200 ($973.30) premium Las been paid by apprentices 
entering tLe firms. It is, Lowever, to tLe advantage of an employer to 
take a well trained lad as an apprentice, and, even witLoiit a i)reaiium, 
i:)ay wages to commence witL, for witLont question siicL a boy will get 
tLrongli Lis work quicker, will waste less material by" trial and error, 
and will require less attention bestowed upon Lim tLan a poorly edu- 
cated lad. 

TLe number of boys in tLe scLool exceeds 500. TLere is, Lowever, 
an upper department or engineering scLool, wliere even a LigLer grade 
of instruction is given to tLose preparing for colonial engineering 
appointments, or for special positions in mecLanical, civil, or electrical 
engineering firms. In tLis division, termed tLe engineering scLool, 
LigLer brancLes of tLe sciences are taugLt, special attention is given 
to mecLanical draugLtsmansLij) and designing, and every x)ossible effort 
is made and facility afforded to develop originality. Lads usually 
remain in tliis department for at least two years after leaving tLe 
lower scLool, and many of tLe old scLolars now Lold most impor- 
tant and lucrative appointments in different parts of tLe country. TLe 
average cost of instruction for eacL boy amounts to about £S ($38.93) 
per annum, or, after deducting an average government grant of £3 10s. 
(817.03), a net cost per boy of about £1 10s. ($21.90). TLis LigL aver- 
age is due to tLe exi)ensiveness of manual instruction, wLicL involves 
not only costly tools and macLinery tLat constantlj^ need rei)lenisLing, 
but also tLe employment of skilled and efficient manual instructors 
wLo command a LigL salary. It is necessary to obtain tLe sanction of 
parents to keep tLe boys at tLeir specialized studies for a period of at 
least two years in order to obtain a tLorougL course of instruction. 

PEOPLE S PALACE DAY SCHOOL. 

A scLool upon tLe model of tLe tecLnical division of tLePolytecLnic 
was founded in connection witL tLe People's Palace for East London. 
TLis scLool Las now been taken over, togetLer witL all tLe evening 
classes conducted at tLat institution, by tLe "VYorsLipfiil Companj^ of 
Drapers, one of tLe wealtLiest of tLe guikls of tLe city of London. 
TLere are at tLe present time some 350 boys in tLe scliool, about 300 
of wLom obtain tLeir instruction free of cost. 

Examinations are Leld eacL year, wLen about 150 free scLolarsLiiis 
are granted. By tLis means tLe very best boys are secured for tlie 
course of training given, and tLe results are consequently of a satis- 
factory cLaracter. TLe net cost i>er boy at tLe People's Palace scLool, 
witLout taking rent of building into consideration, amounts to about 
£5 10s. ($20.77) per Lead. To maintain tLe educational department 



396 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

of the scliool tlie Drapers' Company grants the sum of £6,000 ($29,199) 
per annum, the schools having been built by them at a cost of £40,000 
($194,060). 

It is proposed to organize similar schools in connection with each of 
the proposed polytechnics that are at the present time in course of 
erection. The greater part of the funds have akeady been subscribed, 
and it is confidently anticipated that within the next two or three 
years every district of London will have its own polytechnic. 

TECHOTOAL SCHOOLS. 

The executive committee of the national association, in the report 
already quoted, speaking of the class of schools of which the Poly- 
technic, the People's Palace, the Bradford, and the Huddersfield schools 
are exami)les, pertinently observe : 

The materials do not exist for the construction of a table giving a 
comx)lete account of the technological classes of these institutions. The 
imi)ortance attached to various technological subjects varies with the 
character of the staple industries of the district in which the particular 
technical schools are situated. Thus, textile instruction forms a special 
feature of the schools at Bradford, Huddersfi^eld, Keighley, and Mac- 
clesfi^eld; at Sheffield the iron and engineering industries are more 
especially considered j while at Bristol and Leicester (both centres of 
the boot trade) classes are held in boot and shoe making. Classes 
bearing on lace making and designing are held atiSottinghamj watch- 
making is specially studied at Coventry. 

It is not easy to know what institutions to include in the list of science 
and technical schools and what to exclude. 
And again, in a general survey of the situation, it is stated: 

The chief thing that strikes us in reviewing the educational posi- 
tion of London [the observation would hold good if applied to the 
whole kingdom, apparently] is the entire want of system and of all 
attemj)ts at coordination among the numberless educational institu- 
tions intermediate between the elementary school and the university. 
At the bottom of the scale stands the well organized system of ele- 
mentary education; -* * * at the top stand two institutions of 
university college rank; * * * but the intermediate educational 
system of London x>resents the spectacle of a number of overlapping 
and competing institutions with no attempt at harmony of action, and 
leaving gai)S of the most disastrous kind unfilled. 

Finally, suggestions for the reform of the whole educational system 
of England are made in the closing words of the report; and as these 
suggestions are possibly as applicable to our own school system as to 
that of Great Britain we transfer the bulk of them to our own pages: 

There is little need nowadays to speak at length on the need for a 
wider diffusion of technical instruction. It is a want which at last 
seems to be recognized, and is being gradually met in an irregular and 
X)iecemeal fashion by voluntary effort. Voluntary effort, however, will 
be quite inadequate to cover the whole ground, and now that some 
progress has been made towards legislative action in the matter it is 
to be hoped that something more systematic can be effected. 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 397 

The necessity for improvemeut in the quality of teclmical instruction 
is insisted npon. 

If the present movement for technical education is to end in the mere 
multiplication of science and art classes^ formed by incompetent teach- 
ers dependent on grants for their livelihood, it may be that the result- 
ing evil will outweigh the good. If the technical school of the future 
is to consist of an ill assorted collection of such classes as are found by 
exiDcriment to be the most paying — from the point of view not of the 
education of the boy, but of the remuneration of the teacher, omitting 
all those humanizing studies which are merely educational, and not 
grant-earning — the cause of secondarj^ education will not be advanced^ 
but rather thrown back by the change. 

To this end, it is contended, the secondary education should be re- 
organized, so that there may be, in the words of the late Mr. Matthew 
Arnold, '' a correlation between popular instruction and the instruction 
above it." 

REGENT STREET POLYTECHNIC. 

The efforts to improve the technical education of apprentices and 
young mechanics in evening classes has nowhere been more successful 
during the last eight years than at the Polytechnic Young Men's Chris- 
tian Institute in Eegent street. This institution was the first of its 
kind to receive the adhesion and sui)port of all sections of the work- 
ing classes, and has, without question, done more to popularize tech- 
nical instruction than any other effort in the kingdom. The work was 
first started by Mr. Quintin Hogg, in the form of a social effort among 
working boys, and carried on in a small building near Drury Lane in 
1873. Mr. Hogg secured a room and made it a meeting place and 
club room for about 20 boys, who enrolled themselves as members. 
The spirit and enthusiasm that were put into the work soon resulted in 
the numbers increasing. Mr. Hogg accordingly increased the number 
of rooms until very soon the whole house was requisitioned, by which 
time there was an active membership of over 200 youths. 

In 1878 Mr. Hogg, being greatly encouraged by the result of his 
efforts, secured considerably larger premises in Long Acre, capable of 
accommodating 500 members, and so numerous were the applications 
for admission that this number was at once obtained. The organiza- 
tion of the institution was at this time considerably altered, and that 
which was originally started only as a social club on Christian princi- 
ples now added a considerable number of agencies to its citrriculum. 
Various clubs and societies, physical, athletic, literary, and religious 
in character, were started, and, at the same time, what was in those 
days considered a spirited programme of evening classes was arranged 
and opened to young men, both members of the institution and 
others. Membership of the institute was limited to young men between 
the ages of 16 and 25, and these limits have remained in force until the 
present time. This decision was arrived at after a full consideration, 
as it was felt that to successfully influence the members for good they 
must be more or less of the same age. 



398 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Does this restriction iu aoy way reduce tlie menibersliip that "would 
be obtained Tvere there no such restriction? 

It is believed that just the contraiy is the case, and, as an evidence of 
this, the fact may be mentioned that for the last ten years the school 
has always reached its full limit of membership, which, at the pres- 
ent time, exceeds 5,000, and not only so, but alwaj^s has some applicants 
waiting for admission as vacancies occur, candidates haying to wait 
months before being admitted. While this is the case at the Polytech- 
nic, we do not know of a single other institution of a similar character 
where the membership exceeds 2,000, and where the demand is such 
that candidates have to wait at all for admission. This fact alone 
would f ally justify the authorities in making such restriction, but the 
work of catering for the social requirements of members has thereby 
been rendered more easy, and the direct results, v^^here the institution 
has exercised a moral, intellectual, or si)iritual effect, are far more 
numerous than they would have been had no such restriction been 
adopted. 

While this rule applied to membership of the institution, it was felt 
to be quite unnecessary to apply the same to students of the classes; 
for a student, whether old or j'oung, while he attend_ed. an 3^ course of 
instruction, had to follow put the regulations for study as laid down by 
the instructor, and was equally subject to the discipline of the class. 
It was also inadvisable to imjoose the restriction in the classes, for the 
grants made by the government to successful students in science and 
art subjects would thereby have been sacrificed, as the government 
sanctions no limitation of age. Moreover, if the institution had not 
competed in these examinations, it would have lost all those students, 
and they were many, to whom the certificates granted by the govern- 
ment were necessary in order to enable them to qualify for certain ap- 
pointments. The educational effort met with such appreciation that 
this dei3artment soon received considerable attention from Mr. Quiiitin 
Hogg. At that time scarcely any institute in London made special 
efforts to meet the requirements of the working classes; consequently 
the educational work became an iD3i3ortant item in the programme of 
the institution. 

Prosperity continued to attend the vrork, and the cry for more room 
was continually being heard. In 1882 the building occupied by the 
authorities of the Eoyal Polytechnic Institution came into the m.arket, 
and the lease was iDurchasedby Mr. Hogg. As the premises were not 
altogether adapted for the purpose required considerable alteration was 
necessary, and Mr. Hogg has spent altogether over £GO,000 (1291,990) 
in the purchase of lease, extension, and adai)tatian of the present build- 
ing. The acquisition of such extensive premises enabled the educa- 
tional work to be expanded in such a manner as to attract more or 
less the whole of London by the practical, comprehensive, and at tbe 
same time novel scheme adopted. Workshop classes in several trades 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRrAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 399 

were for the first time oijeiied to apprentices and young meclianics, 
and popular courses of instruction based upon the syllabus laid down 
by the City and Guilds of London Institute were given, but where such 
syllabus was defective of i)ractical application, as in many instances it 
was, such defects were supplied. The instructors themselves were the 
most skilled and capable meclianics that could be obtained, instead of 
mere theoretical and scientific instructors. 

This was in itself a great innovation, and a step which, although pre- 
viously ignored, has since received the unqualified approval of education- 
ists. The class rooms were thoroughly fitted up as workshops, not in any 
fantastic or superficial manner, but witli tools and api)liances that 
gave all the advantages and avoided all the disadvantages of ordinary 
workshops. The instruction being given by skilled workmen, the lan- 
guage used was such as to be thoroughly understood by all the stu- 
dents j ordinary, every day worksliop diificulties were exi^lained, and 
the special needs of each student attended to in such a manner as to 
enable him to OA^ercome all difficulties. In order to make the place as 
attractive as possible, and to meet the requirements of those who 
would be unable to go home and dress before attending, students were 
encouraged to come straight from the workshop in their ordinary work- 
ing clothes. Lavatories with hot and cold water, accommodations for 
boot cleaning, etc., were provided in order that those so coming could 
have the convenience of a wash and brush up free of charge. 

A comfortable refreshment room was provided, so that those who 
required it could obtain tea or light refreshments at the lowest rates. 
Intoxicating liquors and smoking have never been permitted in the in- 
stitute, and their absence lias undoubtedly helped materially in the 
success achieved. In order to get hold of the real working classes 
workshops were visited fi^r some considerable distance, and the advan- 
tages of the instruction advocated, the cooperation of employers was 
also sought and obtained, the result being that at the very commence- 
ment nearly every class was filled. With such an admirable start the 
movement received an immense stimulus, and the press chronicled at 
frequent intervals the doings of the institute. The Trades Council or 
London, which is composed of representatives of all the trade unions, 
visited the classes officially on two occasions, and on each visit they gave 
so favorable a report that at the conventions of the trade unions resolu- 
tions in the highest degree favorable to the classes were adopted. At 
one meeting of delegates, representing all the trade unions in London, 
a resolution recommending the polytechnic classes to the London work- 
men was unanimonsly adopted. 

The royal commissioners ai^pointed by parliament to inquire into the 
in^ogress of technical education on the continent visited the institute 
soon after it was opened, and, although the work had only just been 
launched, Mr. Woodall, M, P., one of the commissioners, stated that 
the instruction was of a far more practical character than he had seen at 



40l) REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

ail 5' other iiistitiition tlie commissioners liad A'isitecl. From tlie very 
first tlie iiistriictioiL in tlie trade classes was limited to those wlio 
were ai)preiitices, or others already engaged in the trade, the object 
rightly heing not to create a number of amateurs, or third-rate work- 
men, but rather to make those who had already joined the craft more 
intelligent, thoughtful, and skilled mechanics. Another feature of the 
institution Avhich helped greatly to make it a rendezvous of so many 
young men must not be omitted. The large central hall, 100 by 40 feet, 
was converted into the finest gymnasium in London. At the time of 
the opening of the Polytechnic very little was done to jiromote physi- 
cal recreation in London, and this proved an immense attraction. 

It drew hundreds of young men who, being interested in gymnas- 
tics, joined the institution, and in most instances some of the classes 
also. The success of the gymnasium had also a remarkable effect in 
London, and whereas ten years ago gymnasiums were virtually unknown 
in connection with clubs and institutes for young men, , now there is 
scarcely an institution without one. Besides the gymnasium a very 
handsome swimming bath 75 by 35 feet was built, and this was as well 
patronized as the gymnasium. The athletic club, which is now the 
largest of its kind in the kingdom, also proved a valuable method oi 
drawing young men to the place. A reading room, the formation of so- 
cieties connected with some of the trades, and other social agencies 
vrere all used to attract and help young men. There was also another 
agency — the religious work — the power of which has over and over again 
been acknowledged as contributing in a great measure to the success 
of the whole effort. ^ 

It will thus be seen that the secret of success has been in the com- 
bination of the efforts put forward for the welfare of young men, and 
by this combination the work of the institute soon became familiar in 
all i3arts of London. Each year the number of classes and students on 
the list has increased until last year the total class entries during 
the year exceeded the almost incredible number of 10,000, exclusive 
of those attending the day school. Additions and extensions have from 
time to time been made to the main buildings, and last year the West 
London School of Art, which was about to be closed by its committee in 
consequence of the small number of students attending, was taken over 
by the Polytechnic. The result of their enterprising effort was that 
within twelve months the school was attended by a larger number of 
students than any other school of art in the metropolis, and at the pres- 
ent time there are nearly 600 art students attending the various classes 
every week. 

Mr. Hogg soon extended his interest to young women as well as to 
young men, and ojiened the young women's branch of the Polytechnic 
in Langham place. At first accommodation was-iirovided for a mem- 
bership of over 500. The demand, however, grew so rapidly that as 
far as iiossible the adjoining i)remises were secured, and at the present 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 401 

time tliere are over 1,200 active members of tliis most useful and flour- 
ishing brancli. It is open every evening from 6 to 10 o'clock (Sundays 
and bank holidays excepted). The age limit is from 16 to 25 years. 
The subscrii3tion is Is. 6d. (37 cents) per quarter, oros. ($1.22) per annum, 
payable in advance. A large number of suitable classes are lield for 
young women only. These include instruction in ambulance cor^^s 
work, arithraetic, commercial correspondence, bookkeeping, modern 
languages, stenography, typewriting, dressmaking, mantle making, 
millinery, i)lain and art needlework, cooking, music, and the elementary 
branches. The tuition fees are exceedingly low for each course, an 
average difference of Is. 6t7. (37 cents) more being charged young 
women not members of the institute. 

The following list of the numbers of young women who joined the 
classes during the present session is an evidence of the manner in which 
the classes are attended: 

ATTEXDANCE OE THE POLYTECHNIC (WOMEN'S BRANCH). 



Subject. 



Pupils. 



Bookkeeping; arithmetic, and other commercial subjects. 

Frencli, German, and typewriting and shorthand 

Ambulance work and nursing 

Chemistry and other science subjects 

Civil service classes 

Singing 

Instrumental music 

Dressmaking 

Cookery 

Elocution 

Total 



108 

16a 

104 

115 

66 

146 

196 

87 

73 

124 



1,182 



Membership entitles to the use of the reading, writing, sewing rooms, 
and parlors, and covers the right to attend concei;ts, lectures, and enter- 
tainments in the great hall of the Polytechnic at members' rates. The 
swimming bath is reserved for their use on several evenings j they have 
instruction in physical culture, and admission, at membership rates, to 
all ordinary Polytechnic classes. The moral and religious atmosphere 
is the same. 

The membership of the institute is recruited principally from the 
various houses of business and workshops in the district, while many 
of the members are the sisters and sweethearts of the young men 
attending the Polytechnic. To provide for the social and recreative 
requirements of the members the committee has provided a gymna- 
sium, one of the first of its kind, which is largely attended. The ex- 
ercises are performed to musical accomx)animent^ they form a very 
pleasant and beneficial pastime to those yrho take part in the exercises, 
and are very pleasing and entertaining to those girls who prefer to 
remain spectators. Lawn tenuis and other out door recreation is provided 
as far' as possible, and during the summer on Saturday afternoons short 
excursions are organized, in which many participate to the general 
8. Ex. 65 26 



402 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

advantage of tlieir health. Entertainments and lectures of an inter- 
esting character are given every week, and prove most successful in 
drawing large numbers to tlie place. Working i)arties are also organ- 
ized, the work accomplished being sold for the benefit of the institute, 
for assisting poorer members, for foreign mission work, etc. At the 
present time a working i)arty is meeting and working for a bazaar, the 
proceeds of which are to be divided equally between mission work 
amongst women in China and assisting i)oorer members to obtain a 
week's or fortnight's holiday in the country during the summer, or after 
l)eriods of sickness. 

The number of members contributing in one vvay or another amounts 
to nearly 40i). The success of this branch of the Polj^technic has en- 
couraged the formation of many similar efforts, and the numbers of 
young women who join is an evidence of the need that exists for such 
work. Eighty per cent, of the girls who join as members are engaged 
either in workrooms or the business houses of the western district of 
London. It will thus be seen that provision is made for a very ueedy 
class of girls, and they respond in such numbers that there are always 
large numbers waiting for vacancies. Difficult as it is to provide suf- 
ficient attractions to keep the girls constantly in attendance the 
committee has overcome this difficulty and the institute is very 
largely attended each evening. Among the most successful agencies 
lately adopted in the social work of the Polytechnic are the arrange- 
ments made for excursions during the summer. In this matter the 
committee struck upon another quite original vein. In organizing these 
excursions the committee makes provision for members and others 
in various stations of life and endeavors to sup|)ly the wants of each 
section of the little community that gathers together at the institution. 

Thus, for instance, a large number are quite unable to pay anything 
at all, and if it were not for the arrangements of the Polytechnic would 
have no holiday at all; for such a special subscription list is ojDened 
and donations are solicited by members, and this year over 500 by 
these means obtained a holiday and a rest at the seaside, who other- 
wise would have been utterly unable to pay the necessary expenses 
connected with such an excursion. Then some are able to pay only a 
limited amount. For such a large house on the sea front at Hastings 
was taken for the young women, and a similar residence at Clacton- 
on-Sea for j^oung men, the latter having a fine cricivet and tennis ground 
attached. The young women by paying I05. ($3.65), and the young- 
men 18s. ($4.38), were entitled to a week's board and lodging free. 
Each house accommodated from 30 to 40 visitors each week^ and during 
the whole season every bed was occupied. 

Another excursion for those able to afford a little more was organized 
to Scotland, and this proved one of the most unique efforts of the com- 
mittee in this direction. Special terms were ihade vrith the railway 
company' whereby the fare, which is £'6 5s. ($15.82), was reduced to 



CHAP. yi. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IX C4REAT BRITAIN. 403 

25s. ($6.08). A large building situated in grounds of its own near 
Edinburgh, was secured and parties were taken each week. The total 
amount charged for return journey, board, and lodging was only £2 
7s. 6d. (8 11. 5o), or considerably below the ordinary railway fare alone. 
Special excursions to the Highlands and different parts of Scotland 
were organized, a programme being arranged for each. day. Por these 
a special train was placed at the disposal of the party, and the various 
excursions were thus made at less than half the ordinary fares and 
with a great sa^i-Ug of time in travelling. So great was the demand 
by members and others to take part in these excursions that the com- 
mittee was not able to accommodate one-half the number, though in all 
about 2,500 iiersons availed themselves of the special facilities. 

A continental excursion was arranged for those members able to 
obtain a fortnight or three weeks' holiday. The tour comprised visits 
to Belgium, Germany, and Switzerland, and included some interesting 
Alpine climbing. The total charge for the whole journey, including 
hotel expenses for the three weeks, did not exceed what usually has to 
be paid for the railway fare alone. Each party that went was under 
the guidance of one of the teachers on the staff, who had previously 
taken the journey, and who helped to make the tour alike iDStructive 
and interesting, with a result altogether satisfactory. 

Another and more elaborate excursion arranged was that to Ma^deira, 
via Lisbon, a sea voyage of about 1,700 miles each way by the mag- 
nificent vessels belonging to the Castle and Union lines. The-e 
excursions were most unique, and, like the preceding ones, the first 
of their kind. In all five parties went. The voyage occupied going 
and returning about 22 days, including a stay of nine days on the island 
of Madeira, where most admirable accommodations had been secured 
at one of the best hotels, from whence parties made daily excursions to 
the various places of interest. 

The result of these holiday arrangements has been to draw into touch 
with the work of the Polytechnic a very large number of the very class of 
men that it desires to influence. The magnitude of the effort may be 
somewhat gauged when we mention that nearly 4,000 i)ersons availed 
themselves of these holiday arrangements. These and other social efforts 
are the means adopted with such success to attract the young people 
of both sexes. 

The educational effort has considerablj' expanded since the period of 
its commencement. The educational departments are mainly intended 
for those w^ho labor during the day and desire to acquire farther 
knowledge, general or special, in their evening hours. There are, how- 
ever, school facilities during the daytime, for boys of the middle classes 
from w^hose tuition fees a considerable revenue is derived contributory 
to the maintencnce of the institution. 

Special courses and lectures during the day are also open at low 
prices to the general public. Membershii) is restricted to young men 



404 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

from IG to 25, none being admitted over tlie greater age, tliougli none 
are debarred from the general educational advantages. The i^resent 
number of active members is S^SOO. The annual membership fee is 12s. 
($3.92) if paid quarterly and lOJs. ($2.56) if i)aid in advance. Besides the 
widest possible range of recreative features, both indoor and out, a 
sui)erior gymnasium with competent instruction in physical culture, 
swimming bath facilities, musical instruction of every kind and grade, 
military drill, and society affiliations for both edification and amuse- 
ment, as well as in relation to the various crafts, trades, and professional 
occupations, are maintained, and on grand scales. 

The system of instruction comprises six i)rincipal lines under which 
classes are formed, viz., science, technology, practical workshoj) instruc- 
tion, general and commercial instruction, art and design, and music. 

The courses are purely elective. The science classes include chem- 
istry, geometry, general mathematics, general mechanics, building con- 
struction, machinery construction, geology, botany, iDhysiology, miner- 
alogy, steam, electricity, etc. ; there being constantly as many as four or 
five different classes in some of these subjects. 

The technical classes cover subjects that are comi)rised in the educa- 
tional schedule of the city and guilds institute (w^hich grants subsidies 
thereon under certain conditions) and include among those in which 
advanced and theoretical instruction is given carpentry, cabinetmak- 
ing, carriage building, brick and mason work, plumbing, boot making, 
metal plate work, tool making, engraving, mechanical engineering, elec- 
trical work, printing, photography, lithography, watchmaking, chem- 
ical manufacture, surveying, etc. 

The practical workshop classes, nearly all of which are restricted to 
young men already engaged in the trades (in deference to the tenets 
of the trade unions and the regulations of the city and guilds insti- 
tute), embrace carpentry and cabinet work, staircase building, brick- 
work and masonry, machine and lathe work, wood carving, pattern- 
making, painting and gilding, plumbing, watchmaking, brass finishing, 
upholstery, boot making, tailoring, etc. A large part of the plant in 
use, including some of the principal machinery, has been made in the 
workshops. 

The general and commercial classes extend to all such subjects as 
arithmetic, bookkeeping, grammar, penmanship, stenography, type- 
writing, elocution, and the modern languages, with special classes for 
civil service, naval, pharmaceutical, and other exaininations. 

The art and design classes include instruction in free-hand and model 
drawing 5 perspective and geometrical drawing from the antique j mod- 
elling from copy or original designs, in clay, wax, and plaster j archi- 
tecture, and the principles and practice of design, with their tech- 
nical ax)plications to carving in wood and stone ^ etching, chasing,- and 
repousse for workers in gold, silver, steel, brass, and pottery, and in 
patterning for textile fabrics, wall papers, etc. -, and all other decora- 
tive and illuminative art. 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 405 

The classes in music cover the entire range of vocal and instrumental 
instrnction. The members of the classes being in large part those who 
are engaged in full daily occupations, the hours and evenings are regu- 
ulated in recognition of this fact, that overstrain may be avoided. 
The instructors in all classes are men and women of thoroughly prac- 
tical as well as theoretical knowledge. 

The day school is designed to meet the needs of younger x)upils of 
the middle rather than the working class (the distinction being some- 
what shari)ly defined in Great Britain) and comiDrises both elementary 
and advanced departments. It imi^arts instruction in technical and 
commercial lines, as well as prei:)aration for collegiate or iDrofessional 
courses, or civil service examinations. 

The evening class fees are about 4s. (97 cents) i)er session for each 
study to members and about 6s. ($1.46) to others. 

The instruction is regulated with the purpose of educating rather 
than that of grant earning, and, in order to do this, the system of 
manual instruction has been extended to as many trades as x)ossible. 
The engineers' shoi) is fitted for the accommodation of about 30 stu- 
dents at one time. The week's instruction is divided among three 
sets of students, each coming for two evenings; consequently each 
Student has about 6 hours' workshop instruction every week. Work of 
a very advanced character is done in the classes, one of the best pieces 
being a 10-horse power marine engine, with which the Polytechnic ob- 
tained the first prize and gold inedal at the technical schools' exhibi- 
tion. Djmamos, lathes, and nearly all the machinery required in the 
shop, including a x)laning and shaping machine, are now made by the 
students. In the car|)enters' sliox^ window sashes of a complicated char- 
acter, circular headed doors, and handrail and staircase work are what 
the students principally apply themselves to. Here as ^a the Engi- 
neers' shop every branch is taken, and the highest eulogiums have been 
passed upon the character of the Avork produced, which is certainly far 
in advance of that done in any other class either in England or on the 
continent. The watchmakers' shop is fitted as an ordinary shop with 
all the trade appliances and apparatus, and the work done in this 
department is of a character as satisfactory as that in other manual 
sections. The first iirize silver medal of the cooperative exhibition 
was awarded to this class for its exhibits. 

The x>lumbing class, which was the very first of its character, is full 
every season. At the present time there are over 150 students attend- 
ing. The class meets three times each week; on two evenings lectures 
are given, and, although a syllabus for the session, which lasts seven 
months, is drawn up and followed out as far as possible, nevertheless 
every opportunity is taken of instructing i)upils in the very latest 
developments of sanitary engineering. There are three instructors for 
this class, two of whom are foremen in one of the largest and best 
sanitary firms in London, and the third is an old student of the class, 
now a master i^lumbev 



406 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Practical workshop instruction is also given in connection with the 
classes in bricklaying, tailor's cutting, metal plate work, wood carving, 
electrical work, and cabin etmaking. 

As previously stated no effort is made in these classes merely to 
teach a trade, every endeavor being directed to supj)lement an ordinary 
workshop training. This practical work, beingmoreorless of an elab- 
orate and experimental character, is by far the most expensive sec- 
tion of the teaching departments. For instance, arithmetic, bookkeep- 
ing, and such subiects are taught at the rate of about Id. (2 cents) per 
hour per student 5 shorthand and French, 2^cl. (5 cents) per hour; Ger- 
man, ojr?. (7 cents); Spanish Ad. (Scents); but workshop instruction 
at tlie Polytechnic averages about ls.6d. (37 cents) per hour per student, 
counting cost of materials, annual outlay in tools, apparatus, machinery, 
etc. This rate is considerably below that of the Finsbury Technical 
College, where far less manual instruction is given. The total cost of 
the Polytechnic work,including the school of art, the girls' branch, the 
day schools, and the religious, social, and educational work at the main 
institution, amounts to about £25,000 (8121,062.50) per annum. Of 
this amount about £17,000 ($82,730.50) is contributed by students and 
members themselves in class fees, subscrix)tions, etc., while the balance 
has liitherto been i)aid annually by Mr. Quintin Hogg. The work has, 
however, so commended itself to the charity commissioners that they 
have drawn up a scheme in which they are seeking the sanction of .par- 
liament to grant an endowment of £3,500 ($17,032.75) i)er annum to the 
Pohvtechnic. An additional endowment of £1,000 ($4,866.50) per annum 
is also secured iii)on certain funds that have been contributed by the 
X)ublic to the work. It is hoped that within the next six months the com- 
missioners' scheme will be adopted, and thus a total endowment of £4,500 
($21,899.25) will be insured. An effort is also being made to obtain a 
grant from the London connty council to make uj) the balance required. 

The moral and religious atmosphere which pervades the institution, 
while nowhere obtrusive or intrusive, is felt, and even the athletics are 
conducted in a way to promote ''muscular Christianity" rather than 
any love for pugilism or mere brute force. 

By careful regard to the needs of the apprentices and laboring- 
young men of the various handicrafts, by evening teaching, worksho}) 
facilities, and sux)erior instruction, short hours and convenient ar- 
rangement of classes, restriction of ages and membership to those en- 
gaged in the trades, the Polytechnic has secured the cordial coopera- 
tion and silpj)ort of both the trade unions and the guilds, and its 
hold upon the class it especially desires to benefit is thereby greatly 
strengthened. At the same time, by making a fair, though a very low, 
charge for the instruction imi^arted and advantages given, the self-de- 
pendence and manliness of the individual are encouraged and a greater 
interest in the work is stimulated. The restrictions imposed by the 
science and art department, the charity commissioners, and the city 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 407 

and guilds institute, covering schedules of instruction and successflil 
attainments, age of members, nigbt classes, trade relations, and fees, 
are all believed to be essential and beneficent, at least for tkis particu- 
lar class of the British population. TJie Polytechnic is the accepted 
model of all new institutions of its character in Great Britain, and 
most of its features might seemingly be wisely adox)ted in any similar 
undertaking in any part of the world. 

THE PEOPLE'S PALACE. 

Beaumont Institute, or the People's Palace, Mile End road, London, E., 
was founded by John B. Beaumont about 1840, and was reestablished 
in 18S7. The management is vested in trustees. There is accommoda- 
tion for 500 day and^ 5,000 evening students, 4,360 (3()0 day and 4,000 
evening students) being in attendance. The age of admission is 12 years 
and upward. There are classes for instruction in a variety of educa- 
tional and technical subjects, including i^ractical trades, tailor's cutting, 
upholstery, cabinetmaking, iDlumbing, carpentry, wood carving, pho- 
tography, etching, etc., boot and shoe making, mechanical and electri- 
cal engineering, masonry, and kindred subjects. There are also edu- 
cational, science, art, design, and music classes, and special classes 
for females in i)lain needlework, garment making, dressmaking, milli- 
nery, and cookery. Other subjects, such as watchmaking, bricklay- 
ing, and the like, are in contemplation. The fees are moderate ; the day 
students pay Qd. (12 cents) a week, evening students from Is. to 15^. 
(24 cents to $3.65) per quarter or session, according to the subjects 
taken. The work receives encouragement by means of prizes, certifi- 
cates, etc., from the science and art department, the society of arts, city 
guilds, and the trustees. There are 325 scholarships in the day school, 
giving free education to public elementary school boys whose parents 
are in receipt of less than £200 (8973.30) a year. For instruction in 
scientific and technical subjects there are well appointed laboratories 
and workshops. The premises and appliances cost about £25,000 
($121,662.50), the gift of the Drapers' Comj)any. There are endowments 
of £350 ($1,703.28) from the Beaumont trust fund, £4,000 ($19,466) 
(for ten years) from the Drapers' Company, of which £2,000 ($9,733) is 
funded, and this is SLipx^lemented by £2,500 ($12,163.25) a year from the 
charity commissioners. 

The instruction given in the school workshops is not intended to 
take the place of a regular apprenticeship in an ordinary workshop. 
The object of the school workshops is to do what is often not done in 
the workshops of the manufacturer. In the latter the progress of the 
apprentice is generally very slow at the beginning, for the reason that 
there is no one whose special business it is to teach him and also be- 
cause, the apprentice not being able to use his tools, his employer does 
not care to give him material to work upon lor fear of having it sp ailed. 



408 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Consequently the apprentice is often made an errand boy or a com- 
mon laborer nntilj after the lapse of a considerable time and the 
surmounting of many difficulties, he is able to handle his tools Tritli 
some profit to his emjjloyer^ he is then entrusted with work upon 
which, he can really learn his trade. 

]^ow, in the school workshop, the pupil goes through^ a systematic 
course of instruction. The tools to be used are described, and the 
principles of their action fully exx)lained. The nature and iiroperties of 
the materials upon which he is to work are also pointed out. The 
pux)il then works out a graduated set of exercises, being always under 
a skilled instructor wlio describes how each exercise is to be done, and 
how the tools are to be held and used, so as to get the best result. 
Obviously, the pujjil taught in this systematic fashion in a school shop 
possesses immense advantages over an ordinary apprentice. 

It is deserving of mention that the x>upils in the workshop of this 
school are required to make all articles, however sim^^le or common, to 
definite and exact dimensions, from working drawings, which are gen- 
erally executed by the pupils themselves. jSTo shpshod methods or 
hap-hazard results are tolerated 5 and the shop exercises, therefore, be- 
come an excellent means of discipline. 

The work of this very remarkable institution, while dealing largely 
with a less active and perhaps somewhat less intelligent membership, 
is excellent, and ranks only second to that of its model, the Polytechnic 
in Eegent street. What Mr. Hogg and his associates have been doing 
for the Polytechnic, Sir Edmund Hay Currie and his coadjutors have 
done for the East End of London. The building and its contemplated 
facilities are still incomplete. 

ROYAL VICTORIA HALL SCIENCE CLASSES. 

The Eoyal Victoria Hall science classes, Waterloo road, London, 
S. E., were established in 1885. The purpose is to sui)ply, by means 
of evening classes at fees within reach of workingmen, more detailed 
and systematic instruction than is furnished by the loopular lectures 
of the institution, especially in such branches of science as are likely 
to have useful technical application. The number of students last 
session increased to 192. The science and technical classes are open 
to artisans and practical men. The entrance fee is Is. (24 cents) ; 
the class fee, Is. 6d. (37 cents). 

The Tuesday penny science lectures have become very popular, 
the average attendance being over 500. The programme of the past 
session was singularly varied and apx)ropriate, while the takings at 
the door amounted to £1,825 15s. Id. ($8,885.15). This institution is 
now to be absorbed by and continued as an annex to the Elex)hant and 
Castle Institute at South London. 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. -L09 



LAMBETH POLYTECHNIC. 

Lambeth Polytechnic, Westminster Bridge roadj London, S., was es- 
tablished by Eev. Freeman Wills, and was opened in June 1888 by 
Princess Louise. The building had been famous as a great vswimmiug 
bath establishment, and was afterwards converted into a vast lecture 
and concert room, equally famous for its temi^erance meetings, social 
assemblies, etc. Erected at a cost of £28,000 ($136,262), it proved a 
financial failure. It opened as a polytechnic with a membership of 
3,000 boys. Its primary features were rather social and recreative than 
educational. Later its classes in science and art have made it the re- 
cipient of certain concessions from the government on those lines. It 
was opened with the hope on the part of its founders that it would be 
accepted as one of the three great institutions of technical education 
which the charity commissioners i)roposed to considerably endow 
in South London, if further equal endowments were provided by 
friends of such institutions. It is not probable that it will be so ac- 
cepted. It has labored under the disadvantage of lack of funds. 
Without any permanent endowment, and in the presence of three 
other strongly endowed institutes of like character in the same part of 
London, it has an apparently uncertain future unless it shall find able 
and devoted friends. It has been conducted largely on the lines of the 
People^s Palace, and its membership and tuition fees are i)ractically 
the same. 

Under the proposals made in 1888 by the charity commissioners to 
endow three polytechnic institutes oh the south side of the Thames, 
one for Southwest London on the north side of the river, and four in 
North London, on condition that equal sums to those offered, viz., 
£150,000 ($729,975) for South London, £50,000 ($213,325) for South- 
west London, and £200,000 (.$973,300) for North London, shall be 
raised to the same end, great activity has been stimulated and it appears 
well nigh certain that all of the proposals will be met. 

The first of these is likely to be the — 

GOLDSMITHS' COMPANY INSTITUTE. 

This institute, otherwise known as the New Cross Institute, is loca- 
ted at New Cross, Beptford, London, S. E., and is the most eastern of 
the South London polytechnics. Deptford is bounded by the parishes 
of Greenwich, Lewisham, Peckham, and Eotherhithe, and this sec- 
tion has a population of nearly a quarter of a million. 

The Goldsmiths' Company have purchased the site (7 acres), until 
recently occupied by the Eoyal Naval School, and will establish and 
maintain the institute at a first cost of about £15,000 ($218,992.50) and 
•a subsequent annual expenditure of £5,000 ($21,332.50) out of their 
corporate funds. Tlie work of x>reparing the buildings and organizing 



410 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

the institute has been in progress during the past year, and the build- 
ings will soon be opened to the public. 

The charity commissioners at once duplicated the company's gift, and 
the company will no doubt stand sponsor for its future. It will be 
conducted on the lines of the Eegent street institute. 

ELEPHANT AND CASTLE INSTITUTE. 

The central x)olytechnic of the South London grourj will be known 
as the Elephant and Castle Institute^ Borough road, London, S. 
It will have as an annex, as already mentioned, the great Eoyal 
Victoria Hall, at Waterloo road, S. E., purchased in August 1888, by 
a citizens' association, for the purpose of a people's palace, as a tribute 
to the memory of the late Samuel Morley, M. P., and will carry on the 
work hitherto performed by that institution, including its science 
classes. 

The main portion of the funds for this institute have already been 
raised by the council of the South London Polytechnic Institute, 
though funds to complete it are stiU. required. The Borough Eoad 
Training College has been secured, and the necessary alterations and 
suitable fittings will be supplied at a cost of about £15,000 ($72,997.50), 
as nearly as practicable. Toward this sum the coiincil still require 
£10,000 ($48,065). Subject to the sanction of parliament the charity 
commissioners have agreed to provide an endowment of £2,500 
($12,1G(>.25) a year, and it is hoped that an additional endowment of 
£1,800 (88,759.70) a year will be secured from other sources. The in- 
stitute will follow the lines of the Eegent street Polytechnic. 

BATTERSEA ir^STITUTB. 

The Albert Palace and grounds at Battersea i:>ark, Loiidon, S. W., is 
the probable site of Battersea .Institute, and was long known as a 
I)leasure resort of Southwest London. Being in the hands of a receiver 
and capable of easy adaptation for the desired ends this site has appar- 
ently been chosen, in preference to the Lambeth Polytechnic of Mr. 
Wills, as the location of the third school in the list, at least in so far 
that it appears that the charity commissioners have promised £2,500 
(-^12,166.25) a jenv as an endowment, on the condition that the council 
raise £C0,000 ($291,990). Toward this the following sums have been 
promised: £20,000 ($97,330) anonymously, £10,000 ($48,665) anony- 
mously, £10,000 (848,665) by Mr. Frank Morrison, £1,000 ($4,866.50) 
by Mr. F. l^ettleford, and £6,000 ($29,199) in smaUer sums, leaving 
£13,000 ($63,264.50) still to be collected to comidete the amount required. 

The understanding is that the x>roposed institute will be upon the 
same plan as the Eegent street and People's Palace institutes. 

BIRKBECK LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTION. 

Birkbeck Literary and Scientific Institution, Breams Buildings, 
Chancery lane, London, E. C, was founded by the late Dr. Birkbeck, 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 411 

and was the first of its kind in London. Since its foundation in 1823 
about 100,000 i)ersons have availed themselves of its advantages, and 
nianj'^of its former students have distinguished themselves in art, science, 
and literature. The management is by committee, and there is accom- 
modation for 6,000 students who must not be less than 15 j^ears of age. 
The instruction is of very wide range, and includes mathematics, 
natural, applied, and mental science, ancient and modern languages, 
literature, grammar, elocution, hiscory, geography, law, bookkeeping, 
shorthand, art, and music. The tuition fees vary from 2s. to £2 5s. 
(49 cents to -$10.95) per term, there bein^' four terms in each year. There 
is no endowment. The present income is about £6,000 ($19,199) per 
annum. The institution was specially founded for the purpose of pro- 
viding evening education for those engaged in occupations during the 
day ; but there is a school of art ojyen both day and evening, in connection 
with which a sketching club has been formed. The lecture hall seats 
1,200 persons, and lectures are delivered each Wednesday evening 
throughout the year. There is a library containing over 11,000 
volumes, and the reading room is supplied with the principal daily and 
weekly newspapers. The science and art department holds examina- 
tions in twent^^-five subjects j and the prizes, exhibitions, and scholar- 
ships offered for competitions are numerous and valuable. There are 
gymnastic societies and a cycling club. The subscriptions to the insti- 
tution are, for men, 18s. ($4.38) 5 for women, 12s. (82.92) per annum, with 
a reduction after two consecutive years. 

KING'S COLLS G-B. 

King's College, London, has a department of engineering and ai)plied 
science in which courses are given in natural i)hilosor)hy, chemistry, 
mineralogy, geology, paleontology, mining, building construction and 
architecture, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, metallurgy, 
geometrical, architectural, engineering, mechanical, and free-liand draw- 
ing, surveying and civil engineering, and photographj^ Practical 
instruction in wood and iron work is given, esx)ecially adapted to the 
needs of pupils in engineers' offices. 

There are summer and winter sessions of classes for evening instruc- 
tion, from April to June and from October to March. The cuTriculum 
embraces a very wide range, no less than 45 subjects, or divisions of 
subjects, being thoroughly taught. There are theological, Avorkshop, 
and ci^al service (three divisions) departments. The fees vary from 1 
guinea ($5.11) and upward, according to subjects, to 5 guineas ($25.55) 
for four classes, and there are a few extras. Lads are admitted from 
9 to 16 years of age. The science and art department contributes to 
its classes. 

LONDON COLLEGE FOR MEN AND WOMEN. 

London College for Men and AVopien, 29 Queen square, Bloomsbury, 
W. C, was established in 1853, but is now incorporated with the Work- 



412 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

ing Women's College, to supx)ly to men and women, wlio are occui^ied 
diiriDg tlie day, witli a liiglier education than lias generally been within 
their reach. Masters and mistresses for all special subjects teach gTa- 
tuitously. There is accommodation for about 350 students. The 
curriculum includes arithmetic, algebra, geometry, bookkeeping, bot- 
any, English subjects, French, German, Latin, geography, geology, 
l)hysiology, precis, Trritiug, drawing, political economy, and singing. 
Examinations are held in July. Fees for membership are 2s. (49 cents) 
a term for one class, or 5s. ($1.22) a year; j)er class per term. Is. to 4s. 
(24 to 97 cents). These united instructions are aided by the science 
and art department. 

COLLEGE FOR WORKING WOMEN. 

The College for Working Women, 7 Fitzroy street, London, W., was 
established in 1874, and incorx3orated in 1880. The management is by 
council. The aim of the college is, by s^ stematic teaching given in even- 
ing classes, to supi)ly to women occupied during the day a higher ed- 
ucation than has been generally within their reach. The council also 
desire to i)romote mutual help and fellowship among teachers, stu- 
dents, and all members of the college. The curriculum includes Latin, 
modern languages, science, wood carving, domestic economy, botany, 
musical drill, and English subjects. The fees vary from Gd. to 4s. (12 to 
97 cents) per term for each subject; for membership. Is. (24 cents) per 
term: for high class cookery, 18s. ($4.38), and for plain cookery, 3s. Gd. 
(85 cents) per course; for scientific dressmaking (six lessons), £1 ($4.87) ; 
and for. afternoon class for ladies, £2 ($9.73). There are lending and 
reference libraries, holiday guild, benefit club, penny bank, coffee and 
reading rooms, and social meetings. The college teachers are unxoaid. 
There are nearly 300 students. 

CITY OP LONDON COLLEGE. 

City of London College, White street, Moorfields, E. C, was estab- 
lished in 1848 as the Metroj)olis Evening Classes for Young Men. The 
management is by a council. The i^uriDose is to afford, by means of 
evening classes, instruction in various branches of literature, science, 
and art. There are 132 classes and 2,500 students, controlled by a staff 
of 40 professors. Examinations are held annually, and numerous prizes 
and studentships are awarded by the council, the Mitchell trustees, the 
Saddlers' Company and others, and there is a Lubbock scholarship of 
£10 ($48.07). Lectures and entertainments are given in the large hall 
of the college every Thursday evening, to which students are admitted 
free. The new building, recently erected at a cost of £16,000 ($77,864), 
affords accommodations for 4,000 students. There are art and cast 
rooms, reading and coffee rooms, a library, and an excellent labor- 
atory. The range of subjects taught is very wide (usually from ele- 



CEIAP. YI. IXDUSTRTAL EDUCATION IN GKEAT BRITAIN. 413 

meutary to advauced) and well calculated to assist those wlio liave 
opportuuities and desire to improve tliemselves by evening study. The 
fees vary much, ranging from 25. 6d. to 9s. (61 cents to $2.19) per term, 
and from Is. 6d. to £2 2s. ($1.83 to $10.22) for a course. The college 
receives government recognition through the science and art department. 

CHELSEA INSTITUTE. 

The polytechnic proi)osed for Southwest London (north of the 
Thames) is made practically secure by the acceptance of the commis- 
sioners of the site offered by Earl Cadogan, valued at £10,000 ($48,665), 
and the j)robability of the absorption of the technical school, known as 
Onslow College, upon which negotiations are pending. Considerable 
X)rogress is understood to have been made toward raising the sum of 
£50,000 ($213,325), which the charity board agrees to duplicate. While 
not yet established entities, there is no doubt that these, like the others 
in progress in South London, will soon be efficient technical schools. 

NORTH LONDON INSTITUTES. 

Mr. Albert Shaw states that the arrangements for Xorth London 
have not progressed so far ( Janiiary 1890) as those for South London, 
but committees composed of influential members of parliament, and 
influential citizens of the boroughs of Hackney, Finsbury, Islington, 
and Saint Pancras, are earnestly working for the attainment of these 
very desirable institutions. 

It is stated on later authority that representations have been made 
by an influential committee, to the charity commissioners, for aid in 
support of the establishment of institutes in the above mentioned bor- 
oughs. It is estimated that a sum of £100,000 ($1,946,600) will be re- 
quired for the completion of this i^roposal. Endeavors are being made 
to raise £200,000 ($973,300) in subscriptions. As yet no formal applica- 
tion has been made to the charity commissioners, but the friends of the 
northern institutes have effected an organization as the IS'orthern Tech- 
nical and Eecreative Institute for Islington, Hornsey, and Highgate, 
with a highly influential board of management, including both the 
prince of Wales and the lord mayor of London. 

CLERKBNWELL POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE. 

The Marquis of Northampton has likewise offered a site in Clerken- 
well for the purposes of Clerkenwell Polytechnic Institute, provided 
arrangements can be carried out to his satisfaction j and in sui^port of 
this movement the charity commissioners have exi^ressed their willing- 
ness to grant aid in the establishment of an institution of the first 
rank and importance in this iiopulous centre of one of the most skilled 
industries of the metropolis. 



414 EEPORT OF THE COIVIMISSIONER OF LABOS. 

HUDDERSPIELD TBCHNICAL SCHOOL. 

One of tlie oldest establislied teclinical scliools in England is tli'at at 
Huddersfield, wliicli was fonuded as a meclianics' institute in 1841. 
The present buildings were oi^ened in 1884. There are four depart- 
ments — a teclinical scliool^ a science school, a scliool of ,art, and a me- 
clianics' institute. 

Huddersfield being one of the centres of the woollen industry a 
specialty is made of the textile department, where practical and theo- 
retical instruction is given in weaving and j)attern designing, cotton 
spinning, cloth manufacture, and dyeing. 

it appears that this school api)roximates pretty closely to the Fach- 
schiilen of Germany, though there is no evidence that the English school 
teaches trades with Teutonic thoroughness. 

BRADFORD TECHNICAL COLLEGE. 

Another very imj)ortant technical school is the Bradford Technical 
College, which consists of a day school, and a set of day and evening 
classes in various branches of science, art, and technology. Special at- 
tention is paid to the textile and dyeing departments, and there is a me- 
chanical workshop, the aim of which appears to be more like that of tlie 
well known foreign apprenticeship) schools than is usually the case in 
English institutions of the kind. The object of the school is said to 
be to produce skilled draughtsmen and mechanics, and it is stated that 
sever.d students have obtained situations with railway and steamship 
companies immediately on leaving the college and without any subse- 
quent training. 

The yearly cost of maintenance is £7,000 ($34,065.50). The income 
from fees is £2,000 ($9,733), from grants, £1,600 ($7,786.40), from 
subscriptions, £2,200 ($10,706.30), and from other sources, £1,200 
($5,839.80). The number of day students is 314 • the number of evenin g 
students, 1,337. 

The technical training for mechanical engineers and machine makers 
in the diiferent technical schools is of various degrees of thoroughness, 
ranging from a fairly complete theoretical and practical instruction, to 
mere attendance on evening classes in machine construction, theoreti 
cal and applied mechanics, etc. School officials and emj^loyers unite 
in disavowing any intention to organize a course of instruction hav- 
ing for its object to substitute such training for the present training 
acquired during apprenticeshix). In no case do they attempt to graduate 
a fully trained, skilled workman. Their efforts seem to be direcj:ed 
toward supplementing the apprenticeshix) training. For this pur- 
pose the system of evening classes is more widely developed, and 
the day schools are correspondingly less developed. Evening classes, 
in short, are more favored, and it is safe to say that from three- 
fifths to four-fifths of technical instruction in the trade is given in 
this way, and iu every case the majority of the students are appren- 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 415 

tices already in the trade. The opinion seems to be almost universal 
that the trade can only be learned in the shops; that the school train- 
ing makes little differeuce in regard to manual dexterity in the use of 
tools, but is, however, of decided benefit in the way of general train- 
ing. In view of the foregoing objections to school shop training espe- 
cial attention should l)e directed to a unique feature of the training ex. 
isting at the Bradford Technical College, where these objections seem 
likely to be overcome. 

In addition to the regular class of students the school receives a 
number of student apprentices. These student workmen are received 
for a term of years, are given a wage somewhat less than they would 
receive in a regular shop, work the entire day in the shops connected 
with the school, are employed in the manufiicture of machines and 
engines to be afterwards sold, and devote somewhat less time than 
the regular students to the theory classes. Good returns have been 
received from tlie sale of their work, and the system seems to be meet- 
ing with success. 

We subjoin some details of the instruction given in the building, 
construction, and textile departments of the college for the purpose of 
coQi])arison with our own schools of the same kind, such as the 
'N(i\Y York Trade Schools and the weaving school of Philadelphia. 

Lectures are given on the following subjects pertaining to building 
construction : 

Materials — the nature, characteristics, qualities, and defects of the 
materials in general use by builders; bricks, tiles, terra cotta, pipes, 
and miscellaneous clay wares; granite, sandstone, limestone, and 
slates; limes, cements, mortars, concrete, plaster; varieties and market 
forms of timber; cast and wrought iron, steel, lead, zinc, and copper. 

Strength of materials — resistance to tension and compression, safe 
working stress, limit of elasticity, dead and live loads, stresses in 
simple frames, etc. 

Scaffolding — tlie various kinds of tackle and scanolding used in 
ordinary construction, appliances for hoisting materials, Lewis nippers, 
blocks and falls, snatch blocks, sheer legs, derricks, etc. 

Constructive details — surface digging and general excavations, 
digging trenches for foundations, drains, etc., planking and strutting 
to sides of excavation, brick drains and sewers, method of laying 
drain pipes; foundations and footings for walls under different con- 
ditions, concrete for foundations, damp proof arrangements, hollow 
walls, comx)ound walls, flues and chimney shafts, various kinds of 
arches; formation of floors in wood, wood and iron, and concrete and 
iron; roofs of various forms in wood and iron ; roof coverings; different 
forms of cast and wrought iron and built-up girders; preparation by 
joiner for ] dumber and plasterer; plasterer's work; plumbing, rain 
drainage of buildings, sanitary arrangements of dwelling houses, dis- 
connections, trapping and ventilation of soil pipes and drains; internal 



416 KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIOIs'ER OF LABOR. 

fittings and furuisliings of buil dings, doors, wiudo^^s, stairs, handrails, 
etc. 

General specifications of the labor and material required in the 
various branches of the building trade j measurement of materials 
and labor. 

Three years are required for the completion of this course. But Mr. 
G. F. Oharnock, head master in the department, complains that shop 
apprentices remain on an average about two years, at the end of which 
time, finding they can readily earn wages at least double that of those 
instructed in the ordinary way, they are in many cases tempted to 
leave, without availing themselves to the full extent of the benefits to 
be derived from a comi)lete course of training. The committee have 
therefore decided that in future apprentices must enter into an agree- 
ment to remain three years. 

The writer says, however, that gratifying reports of the progress of 
old students continue to be received. In more than one instance 
they have been placed in charge of important works, and are obtaining 
remarkably good salaries by reason of the special knowledge acquired 
in this department. He adds: 

There can be no doubt that the prejudice which may have existed in 
the minds of those totally unacquainted with the excellent way in 
which the department is equipped, and of the practical nature of the 
training, is rapidly breaking down, although it is much to be regretted 
that even in the toT^Ti itself the greatest ignorance on those poiuts 
still x)revails. 

In the masters' reports for the year ending ^NTovember 2G, 1890, the 
same writer states : 

A record has been kept of the situations obtained by students on 
leaving, and, as far as could be ascertained, of their subsequent i)rog- 
less. Since the opening of the college in 1883 over 90 regular stu- 
dents have passed through the department, and it is a matter for sin- 
cere congratulation that many of them occupy positions of resx)onsi- 
bility, not only in this country, but in the United States, South Amer- 
ica, and even in France and Germany, where technical instruction is 
generally considered to be so far advanced. 

In the textile department lectures and class work of two hours' du- 
ration occupy the mornings of every Tuesday and Friday, and two 
hours are devoted to practical work in i^Q shox3 on the same days of 
each week. Evening classes are also held. 

The first course of instruction in this department includes a full 
examination of all the parts of the loom, of the different classes of 
looms, and their suitability for weaving different fabrics. Then fol- 
lows instruction in the principles of weaving and in the arrangement 
of simiile patterns, such as twills, stripes, etc., upon design paper; the 
draughting, or manner of drawing the warp threads through the healds, 
ii'nd the actuating the healds to weave such patterns; the production 
of patterns by combination; applying the patterns to fabrics suitable 
for them, etc.; calculations for yarns and fabrics; systems of indicat- 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 417 

ing the counts of yarns in worsted, cotton, woollen, silk, etc. ; tlie weiglit 
of folded yarn to produce a required weighty finding weight and cost 
of wari:) and weft in a fabric, etc. 

The second course relates to the production and arrangement of de- 
signs for fancy goods and requiring dobbies or wytches to weave them j 
practical weaving at the loom of the designs produced j the Jacquard 
machine, double lift machines, compound harness, etc.; card cutting, 
weaving, and all calculations connected with the machine, and the ap- 
plication of the design to the fabric; doul3le weft-faced and double 
warp-faced cloths, reversible ribbons, etc.; figured double cloths, etc.; 
triple or multiple cloths generally. 

The third course includes designing for elaborate fancy goods; the 
production of new floral and other designs, suitable for dress goods, 
damasks, etc.; gauze fabrics; figured gauze; velvet and pile fabrics, 
plushes, corduroys, etc.; figured velvets. 

A special class studies the analysis of fabrics, etc. ; testing yarns 
for counts, strength, elasticity, twist, etc.; microscopic examination 
for determining structure, etc. 

There are special classes also for the study of color composition, 
decomposition, and combination of colors; and special art classes. 

In the Bradford masters' reports for 1890 the head master of the 
textile department, Mr. Thomas E. Ashenhurst, protests against the 
neglect of art study by too many of the technical students in these 
words : 

I must again call attention to the fact that the students neglect the 
art and color studies too much, and that it is a great drawback to their 
progress. Applications are constantly being made for students to fill 
positions as assistant designers, and the great difficulty in recommend- 
ing them is that so very few possess even the most elementary knowl- 
edge of art. Students should not forget, as they unfortunately appear 
to do, that technical without art knowledge is not sufficient. 

It is almost impossible to decide impartially as to the relative merits 
of two schools so different in general plan and purpose as the Bradford 
Technical College and the ^New York Trade Schools. As soon as one 
institutes a comparison between them he begins at once to appreciate 
the fact that there are no terms by which they can be compared. Each 
is excellent in its own way, and one is compelled to decline to pro- 
nounce either superior to the other. At Bradford, for example, the 
course of instruction in the building construction department occupies 
three years; in the New York school, five months. On the other hand 
in the New York school the pupil devotes his whole time, every day, to 
class room and shop work; at Bradford four hours a week are spent in 
the lecture room and shop practice. 

Whether the first system is better than the other is a question of 
fact which can not be settled off-hand. But conceding that the longer 
continued technological training of the English school is more exten- 
sive and more thorough than our own, it is yet an open question 
S. Ex. 65 27 



418 REPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

wlietlier a fall three years' course would or could be pursued by young 
artisans in this couutry. If made obligatory would not many be ex- 
cluded from the benefits of a protracted course of training who now 
proiit greatly by the more limited advantages at their comiiiaud"? 

In the textile department of the Philadelphia School of Industrial 
Art we have a school very similar in design and comprehensiveness to 
that of the Bradford Technical College. From the descrii)tion of the 
Philadelphia instiiutiouj given elsewhere, it is safe to assume that no 
British technical school is better equipped, or able to impart a higher 
grade of instruction. The students can not be charged with neglect of 
color and art studies, for these branches are made specially prominent 
in the Philadelphia school. 

MANCHESTER TECHNICAL SCHOOL. 

The impetus given to technical education by the report of the British 
royal commissionecs in 18S4 was felt nowhere in England more power- 
fully than at Manchester, the great industrial centre of the United 
Kingdom. 

The Manchester Technical School — soon to be merged in the Man- 
chester Whitworth Institute — ^ranks among the foremost of its class 
in the number of students in attendance and in the wide^ range of its 
instruction. The number of individual students, according to the 
report of 1890, was 3,532, a large proportion of whom were enrolled in 
more than one class. 

The work of the school is divided into day and evening schools. 
The day school is for boys and affords instruction of a similar char- 
acter to that given at the Bradford school. 

In the evening a very comT>rehensive course of technical classes are 
conducted, and the number of students who are presented for the 
annual examinations, lieldby the City and Guilds of London Institute for 
the advancement of technical education, exceeds that of any other pro- 
vincial school or college. The school is managed upon very i)opular 
lines, and in the evening large numbers of young artisans are attracted 
to the various courses o:f lectures, many of the courses being accom- 
panied by x>ractical instruction. Although the school has been at work 
for only seven 3^ ears a new era is about to open for it. The Whitworth 
legatees have devoted the sum of £43,000 ($209,259.50) toward extend- 
ing the movement, and a further £13,000 (|G3,264.50) has been granted 
for the same object from the profits of the Manchester exhibition; con- 
sequently, as in many other provincial towns, the work is making great 
progress, and in the course of another two years will be considerably 
in advance of its present position. 

The students' fees for the year ending July 31, 1890, amounted to 
£4,300 17s. (.$20,930.09); grants to the school, £1,363 2s. ($6,633.53); 
total receipts, donations, etc., £8,199 3«. 11^. ($39,901.39^; total dis- 
bursements, £11,790 55. M. ($57,377.35). So that, prosperous as the 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 419 

scliool was in otlier respects, it had, at the end of its fiscal year, a 
deficit of £3,591 Is. 6d. ($17,475.06). 

The success of this school has been chronicled with sufficient par- 
ticularity and minuteness. It is of equal importance to note what 
experience shows to be an element of weakness in the conduct of its 
educational scheDie. And yet the faults to which we refer are not 
inherent in the system of technical education itself j they are charge- 
able rather to deficiencies in J)rehminary training on the part of the 
students, and to the absence of coordination between the curricula of 
the lower and higher grades of schools. 

" At the opening of the session of the Manchester Technical School, in 
September 1890, Mr. J. E. Barlow made an address to the students 
in the department of spinning and weaving, in the course of which ho 
found occasion to say : 

In our new found zeal for technical instruction we mUvSt not forget 
the immense importance of a good, all-round education as a foundation 
for the later sujier structure of specialized study. The students in our 
technical schools are constantly handicapped by the deficiencies in 
their earlier training. 

More emphatic and more specific is the language used by Mr. 
Ivan Levinstein, before the classes of the chemistry, dyeing, and 
printing departments of the same institution, on September 19, 1890: 

There is no gra^ver error, in my opinion, than to specialize at too early 
an age, and before the mind and mental faculties have been generally 
developed. My experience as a rule has been that the best and fore- 
most specialists, in any scientific and technical subject, have always 
been those who, in their earlier years, have had a liberal and sound 
education, and who only commenced the study of special subjects at a 
more mature age. Just as the man, who has acquired ^a knowledge of 
the scientific principles underlying a certain art or manufacture, will 
more readily and easily master his art than the one who is not pos- 
sessed of this prior knowledge, almost as much will the youth, with a 
sound preparatory mental training, have the advantage in acquiring 
special scientific and technical knowledge over the one who is deficient 
in that respect. 

It is, however, a regrettable fact that a number of students entering 
our technical schools are insufficiently prepared for taking up the study 
of special technical subjects. 

Further on, Mr. Levinstein is outspoken in his opposition to the 
plan of crowding a great variety of studies into a technical course. 
He says: 

It can not possibly serve any good purpose that promoters and man- 
agers of technical schools should follow the unfortunate plan of com- 
prising Y>ithin their scheme of teaching almost as many technical and 
scientific subjects as one can find names for in a comj)reliensive diction- 
ary. Instruction of the very best kind in a few leading subjects, bearing 
specially on the industries largely represented in the locality in which 
the school is established, will be a thousand times more useful and 
valuable than the cramming of multifarious subjects into the heads of 
students, probably for the sole purpose of catching the public lavor, 



420 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

and getting grants from tlie science and art de]3artment, or otliei 
available sources. 

Tliere can be no doubt, liowever, that the Manchester Technical School 
is well equipped for its special work. Its students have access to a 
scientific and technical library for reference and home study, as well as 
to a collection of raw and manufactured products, apparatus, and mod- 
els illustrative of the subjects taught in the school. The laboratories 
are suitably furnished for the practical study of chemistry, metallurgy, 
calico printing, dyeing, and bleaching j the engineering workshops are 
well sux)plied with all needful tools and appliances connected with 
mechanical engineering and building construction. 

The textile industries department is supplied with a complete range 
of spinning and preparation machinery, and with uij wards of forty 
hand and power looms for weaving the chief varieties of cotton, silk 
and woollen goods. It also includes a library of reference books, and 
a museum, in which is displayed a series of models illustrative of the 
development of the loom, and of the various api)liances used in the 
manufacture of cotton goods, as well as specimens of the chief textile 
fibres, showing the processes of their conversion into yarn and cloth. 
The students may thus gain, in the workshops and laboratories, a 
practical knovfledge of the i}rocesses connected with the chief indus- 
tries which are the subject of the theoretical instruction imparted in 
the class rooms. 

TECHNICAL SCHOOL OP MESSRS. MATHER & PLATT.^ 

An unpretending but very useful science and technical school was 
established in 1873 by the Messrs. Mather and Piatt, proprietors of the 
Salford iron works, for the purpose of enabling their apprentices to 
^^study sciences allied to their trade/^ as the prospectus for the session 
of 1890-^91 briefly puts it. The firm requires all the apprentices to 
attend the classes as a condition of their employment in the works, so 
that each handicraft may be acquired at the same time as the technical 
knowledge necessary to it. 

The subjects taught are apj)lied mechanics, steam and the steam 
engine, engineering, metal working, mathematics, electric lighting, ma- 
chine drawing, machine construction and drawing, building construc- 
tion, plane and solid geometry. Certificates are awarded by the firm 
to meritorious students, and prizes for systematic industry, punctuality, 
and excellence of work are also ofiered. 

Dr. W. T. Barnard, in his work on Technical Education, writing in 
1886 alludes to this school as follows : 

I know of but one English school where any consistent efforts are 
made to apply school instruction in the shops — that of Mather and 
Piatt, Manchester, whose teachers are employed in the shops, and per- 
sonally direct the theoretical instruction of their x)upiis to shop work. 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 421 

LIVERPOOL SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TBCHNOLOG-Y. 

The LiveriDOol School of Science and Technology was instituted in 
1861 for the purpose of promoting a knowledge of science and art and 
the application thereof to the various industries. 

At present the courses of instruction in this school apply to the fol- 
lowing trades or industries: Mechanical engineering 5 electrical engi- 
neering; industries involving applications of chemistry; the buildiug 
trades; carpentry and joinery; plumbing; brickwork and masonry; 
lithography; quantities; land surveying. Classes in these studies are 
intended for persons of either sex who wish to receive a scientific and 
practical preparatory knowledge for intermediate posts in industrial 
Avorks. It is designed also for apprenticeSj foremen, journeymen, and 
otliers, who desire to receive instruction in the theory and princii)les 
of science connected with their occupation during the daytime; and 
for iiupils from middle class and other schools who are preparing for 
the higher scientific and technical courses of instruction pursued at 
university and technical colleges. 

The school is supported in part by government grants, which are 
paid on behalf of students who fulfil certain conditions prescribed by 
law. Students' fees vary in amount according to the nature of the 
studies pursued and the number of classes attended. The school is in 
connection with the science and art department of South Kensington. 

MERCHANT VENTURERS' SCHOOL, BRISTOL. 

At Bristol, one of the chief centres of the. English boot and shoe 
industry, there has been established a trade school under the name of 
the Merchant Venturers' School, in Avhich classes in machine drawing, 
metal working, plumbing, carpentry and joinery, and boot and shoe 
making are taught. Specimens of the work done in each department 
of the school were exhibited in the hall of the school in the autumn of 
1890, and, judging from the descriptive catalogue of these specimens, 
the display was highly creditable to both teachers and pupils. While 
this school is constructed on a smaller scale than the technical schools 
of Bradford and Manchester, it is apparently successful in stimulating 
and sustaining an interest in industrial education among the working 
people of the city. Under its present management this school has 
absorbed the old trade and mining school founded at Bristol by Ganon 
Moseley. 

MASON SCIENCE COLLEGE, BIRMINGHAM. 

One of the most notable of the science colleges is the Mason Science 
College, which Birmingham owes to the munificence of Sir Josiah 
Mason. This college was opened in October 1880. It was established 
to provide instruction in theoretical and applied science. The building 
is said to be the most complete in its arrangements and fittings of any 



422 REPORT OF THE COISOIISSIONER OF LABOR. 

scientific institution either in England or on the continent. The build- 
ing itself cost £60,000 ($291,990), and in addition to this sum the founder 
gave £110,000 ($535,315) towards the endowment fund. 

SHEFFIELD TECHNICAL SCHOOL. 

In the technical school at Sheffield special prominence is given to 
instruction m metallurgy and engineering. Although the chief indus- 
try of the district occupies the central position in the course of instruc- 
tion other branches of local manufactures are not neglected^ but are 
specialized into separate courses, dealing with metals (other than iron 
and steel) used in the arts. Students are thus enabled to select and at 
once enter upon a course of scientific metallurgical training of immedi- 
ate practical utility. There are both day and evening classes. The 
subjects of study in the department of metallurgy include niiathe- 
matics, physics, chemistry, geology and mineralogy, machine drawing, 
metallurgical laboratory work, applied mechanics, etc. Fees for the 
full coui^se amount to 18 guineas ($91.98) per year for each of the three 
years over which the pupilage extends. But any student may elect to 
take a partial course at pleasure, though certificates are granted only to 
such as follow the prescribed courses and loass the regular examinations. 

The equipment of this department is excellent. A small steel works 
plant has been erected, including melting holes, pot house, and pot 
making tools, malleable iron furnace, etc. An iron foundery and a 
25-cwt. open hearth furnace, complete with three systems of gas i^ro- 
ducing (viz., ordinary, oil, and water gases), are now being built. The 
laboratory has been equipx^ed with the most modern apparatus for 
metallurgical analysis, more especially with appliances for the rapid 
and accurate chemical examination of iron, steel, fuel, and refractory 
materials. A 50-ton testing machine (the most perfect yet constructed), 
complete with tensile, torsion-, crushing, and transverse gearing, has 
also been purchased. These additions render the school the most com- 
plete in existence for teaching the practical manufacture, the chemical 
constitution, and the phj^sical properties of steel. 

In the engineering department the course of study also extends over 
three years. Students attend classes and lectures, and perform experi- 
mental work in the laboratories and practical work in the drawing 
office and workshops. The subjects embraced in the course are 
mathematics, physics, mechanics, strength of materials, principles of 
construction, design of structures in wood and iron, steam and gas 
engines, steam boilers, machine and engine design, mill work, workshoj) 
tools and appliances, hydraulics and hydrauUc machinery, pneumatics, 
and comx)ressed air machinery. The laboratory is fitted up with engines, 
dynamometers, pyrometers, draught gauges, etc., and the machine, 
wood work, and smithes shops are sui)plied with all necessary tools for 
rendering complete and thorough the instruction given. 

The lectures on mathematics, physics, and chemistry are given at 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITxilN. 423 

Firth College for tlie benefit of students in this department, as well as 
those in the department of metallurgy 5 the remaining subjects are 
taken at the school. 

A fee of 10s. ($2.43) admits the student to ail the evening lectures for 
the session 5 or half of that sum for one subject, and 2s. Gd. (61 cents) 
for each additional subject. 

Glasses are held for the study of mathematics, drawing, sound, light 
and heat, electricity and magnetism, chemistry, engineering, applied 
mechanics, plumbing, carpentry and joinery, photograi^hy, typewriting, 
shorthand, etc. 

YORKSHIR3 COLLEGE; LEEDS. 

The Yorkshire College at Leeds was founded in 1874 nnder the name 
of the Yorkshire College of Science. In 1887 it became one of the 
three constituent colleges of the Yictoria University, the other two 
being Owens College, Manchester, and University College, Liverpool. 

The Yorkshire College offers the usual courses of academical study 5 
but it has, in addition, a department of science, technology, and arts, 
one object of the college being in particular to provide instruction in 
such sciences and arts as are applicable or ancillary to the manufactur- 
ing, mining, engineering, and agricultural industries of the county of 
York, Accordingly we find that si)ecial attention is given to the 
chemistry and geology of coal mining, and that mining engineering, 
colliery management, and underground surveying hold imi3ortant places 
in the technological curriculum. 

The course of instruction in the theory and practice of coal mining 
indicates the i^ains which are taken at this institution to give students 
a careful and complete prei)aration for pursuing the principal industry 
of the district. The course includes the discovery and preliminary 
explorations of a coal field, boring by hand, levels, inclines, shafts, 
shaft sinking, how to lay out a pit,* tunnels, cross-measure drifts, etc. ; 
ventilation, principles and practice; ventilation by furnace and by 
machines; fire-damp, black-damp; fresh, salt, and acid water; tem- 
perature, spontaneous combustion; rules for the safety and economy 
of mines; safety lamps; surface works; screens, pit frames, safety 
hooks, cages, etc.; shaft sinking by machinery; methods of workiug 
coal — modifications of pillar and stall and longwall, midland counties, 
northern counties, Lancashire, Korth and South Wales, France, Ger- 
many, and America. 

Class work in the department of textile industries is equally im- 
I)ortant, and of like thoroughness. From the report of this depart- 
ment for the year 1889-'90 it appears that the number of students tak- 
ing the course of textile instruction during the session was 131. It is 
unnecessary to give a statement in detail of the scheme of study, since 
it is substantially the same as that pursued in all weaving and spin- 
ning schools of high grade. As one result of the technical teaching in 
this department the re]3ort states that '^during recent years there has 



424 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

been establislied in Leeds^ and tlie immediate locality, a trade in figured 
mantlings, wliicli undoubtedly owes its origin, and, in some measure, its 
development, to tlie operations of tlie college textile classes." 

In tlie dyeing classes tbe number of students for the year was 44. 
The course of teaching in this specialty is of a scientific character, con- 
joined with practice in the art. 

Prof. J. J. Hummell, who has charge of this department, says in the 
report that great attention has been paid to cotton dyeing, in conse- 
quence of the largely increased number of the so-called Congo colors 
derived from coal tar, a class of coloring matter specially applicable 
to cotton and rapidly growing in importance. During the progress of 
the work new facts have been discovered, which are of practical im- 
portance in connection with the application of these as well as of the 
older basic coloring matters. 

The value of investigations of this kind, from a commercial point of 
view, can hardly be overestimated, since it is only by means of origi- 
nal researches, conducted by those who are acquainted with what has 
already been achieved in the comi^lex art of dyeing, that further im- 
provements can be made. 

The professor takes pride in referring to the success of students who 
have been under his instruction. He says: 

It is pleasing to learn that our students continue to gain appoint- 
ments. Indeed, I have now more api3lications than I can meet for 
young men to assume the management of dyeing operations in manu- 
factories of various kinds. * * * Since the issue of the last report 
one student has undertaken the direction of the dyeing department in 
an imiDortant hosiery manufactory in Leicester j another occupies a 
similar position in one of the Perth dye-works j a third (an evening stu- 
dent) has been appointed to a like position in a Bombay works 5 and a 
fourth is engaged in one of the carpet works of Kidderminster. 

The departments of dyeing and of textile industries in Yorkshire Col- 
lege are inaintained by the Worshipful Company of Clothworkers of the 
city of London, at an annual cost of £1,800 ($8,759.70). This company 
also made the original grant of £30,000 ($145,995) for the building and 
equipment of the department which it now supports. 

DURHAM COLLEGE OP SCIENCE. 

The Durham College of Science at ]^ewcastle-upon-Tyne has a tech- 
nical department in which provision is made for courses of instruction 
in technical chemistry, mining, mechanical, marine, and electrical en- 
gineering, naval architecture, metallurgy, and chemical manufacture. 

Lectures, and recitations from text books, constitute the chief means 
of imjoarting instruction. Indeed, the authorities of the college explic- 
itlj^ disclaim anyinirpose of trade teaching, and say that opportunities 
will be afforded for carrying on exiierimental work in connection with 
all these departments, but no attempt will be made to supersede work- 
shop training in the use of tools. 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 425 

Au apparent exception is made in tlie plumbing department, con- 
cerning which it is said that '4n the workshox)S instruction will be 
given in all the branches of the trade, and those who attend the classes 
regularly will have the opportunity of competing in the practical exam- 
ination conducted by the City and Guilds of London Institute." 

It would seem, too, that the teaching in this case is designed to qual- 
ify the student to become an operative plumber; since attendance at 
the complete course of instruction, to the satisfaction of the teachers 
and lecturers, will be recognized by the district council for the regis- 
tration of plumbers. But the workshops are open only to apprentices 
whose employers subscribe to the Plumbers' Technical Class Associa- 
tion. 

It may be said here in regard to technical education as applied to 
plumbing, that though of comparatively recent existence in Great 
Britain, it seems at present to be making Tdipid progress, and results 
as far as obtainable are very favorable. The effort is being made all 
over the kingdom to raise the practice of plumbing to the rank of a 
profession^ and most of the master plumbers are assuming the title 
of sanitary engineer. For this x)urpose the Worshijoful Company of 
Plumbers, London, is i)roviding liberally and cooperating with district 
associations to organize courses of instruction in connection with 
technical schools wherever they exist. The instruction is too recent 
to allow of numerous returns. 

Yirtually, however, there is no practical trade teaching at this col- 
lege, mere lectures on electric lighting, carriage building, and kin- 
dred subjects amounting to but very little in the absence of shop 
work practice. 

SOUTH SHIELDS PUBLIC LIBRARY CLASSES. 

In the South Shields public library classes, near Newcastle, for the 
session of 1890-'91, there were enrolled 805 students. Of this number 
226 were women whose occupations were not stated j but the trades and 
professions of the 570 men were as follows: 

Engineers 258 

Joiners 90 

Teachers 89 

Architects 27 

Clerks 22 

Chemists 15 

Patternmakers 13 

Masons 12 

Miners 9 

Naval architects 8 

Blacksmiths 4 

Monlders 3 

Platers 3 

Barmen, boileriiiakers, bnilders, engravers, grocers, house agents, pluinbers, and 

tailors," each 2 



426 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Agricultural implement maker, baker, brass finisker, glass mould maker, glass 
silverer, medical student, millwright, painter, x>hotograpk6r, tallow chand- 
ler, each 1 

Tliese classes are conducted in connection witli tlie South. Kensing- 
ton science and art department. Instruction is given in geometry, 
machine construction, mechanics, naval architect are, the principles 
of sound, light, heat, magnetism, electricity, chemistry, steam, draw- 
ing, painting, design, and modelling. Typewriting and shorthand are 
also taught, and at a small tuition fee. * 

A department is open to boys going to sea, in which navigation, 
nautical astronomy, applied mech.anics, machine construction, etc., are 
taught. 

LEEDS MECHANICS' INSTITUTION. 

This institution has under its supervision and control two schools — 
one of art and the other of science and technology — both of which are in 
connection with the science and art department of South Kensington. 

The school of science and technology had enrolled, in IsTovember 
1889, 692 students, as against 573 in May of the same year. In this 
department there are various courses of instruction, including acous- 
tics, light and heat, physiology, botany, building construction, carpen- 
try and joinery, chemistry (organic and inorganic), engineering, gas 
manufactare, geology, iron and steel manufacture, machine construc- 
tion and drawing, magnetism and electricity, mathematics, mechanics, 
physics, metallurgy, plumbing, i)ractical, plane, and solid geometry, 
and steam. 

The subjects of plumbing and of gas manufacture were added to the 
syllabus of this school during the year 1889-'90 ; and the report of the 
committee indicates that they are awake to the demands of the times 
and the requirements of local business. In this report they say : 

A knowledge of the sciences which underlie the trades of the dis- 
trict is now essential to every skilled workman, and the committee 
have endeavored to establish classes tending to this result. 

Women are admitted to all the classes, and the teaching staff consists 
of thirteen specially qualified instructors. 

In addition to the classes above enumerated there were also classes 
in French and German, in shorthand, and in dressmaking, under the 
same general sux)erintendence, during the year. 

HERIOT-'WATT COLLEGE, EDINBURGH, 

This is one of the best equipped technical schools in the United 
Kingdom. In the teaching staff or faculty of the technical depart- 
ments of this college there are 35 professors and instructors, many of 
whom are distinguished for scientific attainments. 

The history of this institution is fall of interest and instruction. 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 427 

Mr. Leonard Horner, F. E. S., a native of Eclinburf^li, was the founder 
of tlie Scliool of Arts, as the institution Tvas originally called. In 
March 1821 this gentleman hax)X)ened to inquire of a ^vatchmaker 
with whom he was conversing whether young men brought up to the 
trade of watchmaking received any mathematical education. The 
reply was to the effect that this was seldom the case, because of the ex- 
pense of such instruction, and on account of the fact that the usual 
hours of teaching mathematical classes made attendance impossible. 
Mr. Horner immediately suggested a plan by which such branches as 
would be useful to mechanics might be taught at convenient hours 
and at small expense; and, with the cooperation of Dr. Brewster, after- 
wards Sir David Brewster, and others, the scheme was carried out. 

The result was the opening of the school in October 1821. In 1824^ 
when a movement was started to erect a suitable memorial of James 
Watt at Edinburgh, it was proposed to amalgamate the funds raised 
for this xmrpose with those of the School of Arts. It was not until 
1851, however, that the joint committee of the school and the sub- 
scribers to the Watt fund purchased the building long occupied by the 
school. The name of the school then became the Watt Institution and 
School of Arts, under which designation it continued until 1885, when 
its endoAvment was united with that of George Heriot's hospital, and 
placed under the management of a new governing body. Since then 
the institution has borne its present title of Heriofc -Watt College. 

It is claimed that the original School of Arts at Edinburgh was 
the first institution in Great Britain founded for the express purpose 
of giving education in the principles of science to the industrial 
classes. 

The summary of attendance of students in the various classes of 
the technical department of the Heriot-Watt College for the session of 
1889-'90 shows that the whole number of class tickets issued was 2,754. 
In the literary and commercial department for the same year 1,735 
tickets were held. The total number of individual students in both 
departments, however, was only 2,861, of whom 420 were females and 
2,441 males. Young women were first admitted to the college classes 
in 1869. 

There are both day and evening classes in each department of the col- 
lege. The college jjossesses in its lectures, theaters, laboratories, and 
workshops every facility for preparing young men for work as mer- 
chants, manufacturers, or engineers, and for supplying in the evening 
such instruction as is required by those already emi)loyed in such oc- 
cupations. 

The college has physical, electrical, mechanical, and chemical labo- 
ratories, with all necessary apparatus for experimental work in engineer- 
ing science, chemical m'anipulation, and analysis, as well as for prac- 
tice with wood and metal working tools and in the use of electrical 
instruments, dynamo, motor, storage cells, etc. 



428 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

The Industrial Museum of Science and Art is immediately opposite 
the Heriot-Watt Cpliege. It contains splendid collections of raw prod- 
ucts and manufactured articles, with models illustrating macliinery 
and manufacturing processes. The study of these is of great value in 
supplementing the instruction given at the college. 

In the technical department the courses of study comprise physics 
and electrical engineering, theoretical mechanics, mathematics, chem- 
istry, machine construction and drawing, civil engineering, building 
construction, carpentry and joinery, masonry and brickwork, plumb- 
ing, carriage building, photography, watch and clock making, typog- 
raphy, metal work, and wood work. 

In the art department of the college, modelling, perspective, ornament, 
and decoration are taught. 

Even in the commercial and literary department the principal atten- 
tion is given to practical subjects. The full course includes history and 
English literature, Englishlanguage and composition, French, German, 
Spanish, Latin and Greek, economics, commercial geography, practice 
of commerce, office work, bookkeeping and writing, shorthand, vocal 
physiology and elocution, theory of music and harmonium. 

In the department of science the studies pursued are natural history, 
physiology, hygiene, botany, geology, X)hysiography, and agriculture. 

To illustrate the direct bearing which these various subjects have 
upon business and commerce we may instance the teaching of indus- 
trial geography in this institution. Lectures are given, illustrated by 
maps and diagrams, on the natural conditions of the earth, mineral, 
vegetable, and animal commodities (with specimens) and their geo- 
graphical distribution. Then the means of transportation are consid- 
ered — ^roads, railroads, canals, and ocean steamers. Trade routes and 
lines of telegraph of the world come in for a share of attention. 
The geography of the four chief trading nations — Great Britain, the 
United States, France, and Germany — is thoroughly taught. The re- 
gions of production, the manufacturing districts, and the trade centres 
of the leading commodities in the British market receive careful con- 
sideration. 

For example, during the session of 1890-'91, three specific commod- 
ities were selected upon which lectures were given, viz., cotton, 
on the manufacture and trade in which the value of British iron and 
coal deposits mainly depend; tea, the changes in the producing re- 
gions of which are some of the most striking in modern commercial 
geography; and meat, a commodity of recent introduction from abroad 
which has greatly changed the position of British farming. 

Attendance in the technical department increased to 3,031 during the 
session of 1890-'91. 

In the heart of a populous city it is impossible, of course, to give 
instruction in practical farming; but at the Heriot-Watt College the 
principles of agriculture api3ear to be set forth with great amplification 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 429 

and with considerable minuteness. Tbe lectures are supplemented, also, 
by excursions on Saturdays to tlie very best farms in. the Lotbians — an- 
otlier custom prevailing in this institution wbicli miglit be imitated with 
profit in similarly situated colleges at home. 
The fee for tuition in most of the classes is 5 s. ($1.22) per session. 

TECHNICAL INSTITUTE, DUNDEE. 

The Technical Institute at Dundee was established in 1887 under the 
terms of Sir David Baxter's bequest, setting apart £20,000 ($97,330) 
for the foundation and endowment of an institution for the education 
of boys or young men in those branches of learning necessary or useful 
for working mechanics and other craftsmen. 

The teaching staff includes fifteen instructors. The subjects taught 
in the different classes comj)rise mathematics, theoretical mechanics, 
sound, light, heat, magnetism and electricity, chemistry, applied me- 
chanics, steam, mechanical engineering, electric lighting, plumbers' 
work, wood carving, modelling, plane and solid geometry, machine 
construction and drawing, carpentry and joinery, decorative art, and 
textile arts. 

The institute has not been in operation long enough to be perfect 
in all its appointments ; but in due time it will undoubtedly take a 
good rank among technical schools. The newness of the enterprise is 
apparent in statements like the following under the head of jute and 
linen manufacture: 

The weaving shed is being fitted up with a complete system of sj)in- 
ning and weaving machinery, and it is expected that the equipment 
will be in order for the session of 1890-'91. 

The work of the institute, how^ever, is already well organized in most 
of the departments. 

There are day and evening classes in nearly all of the subjects taught 
in the school j and most of the classes are conducted so as to conform 
with the requirements of the science and art department and of the 
City and Guilds of London Institute. That is, the students are required 
to pass the annual examination instituted by the science and art de- 
partment in order to earn the government grants which are bestowed 
only on compliance with this condition. 

As the Heriot-Watt College derives great advantages from its prox- 
imity to the University of Edinburgh, so does the Technical Institute 
at Dundee, from its close association with Dundee University College, 
afford to its students unusual facilities for a liberal education j since 
they may avail themselves of the x>rivilege of attending many of the 
college classes without charge. 

In University College the technical courses comprise classes in engi- 
neering and in the chemistry of textile fabrics. The equipment of the 
dyeing laboratory is ample and each student is required to avail him- 



430 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

self of the facilities it affords for practical T^ork in tlie dye house. At- 
teudance for two years is requisite for the completion of the course. 

Students have free access to the technical museum of the college in 
which there is a collection of over 8,000 specimens. The object of this 
museum is to exhibit such characteristic and typical specimens as will 
illustrate the various stages and processes in bleaching, dyeing, and 
other operations connected with the textile manufactures, as vreli as 
those of other local industries, and which will at the same time be of 
real practical interest to those engaged in the trade of the district. 

This museum, it is hoped, may in time become the nucleus of a large 
techincal museum of the local industries, similar to the museums 
which, at Crefeld and other places on the continent, have rendered 
such signal service to the trade and manufactures of those districts in 
which they are situated. 

The engineering course recjuires three years' study and practice, and 
leads to the degree of bachelor of science in the department of engi- 
neering. It is the ordinary technical course. 

GLASGOW T^SAVING SCHOOL. 

Connected with the Technical College at Glasgow there is a weaving 
branch, whose fourteenth annual report (18S9-'90) shows the school to 
be in a prosperous condition. The weaving department is under the 
mauagement of a board of trustees. Mr. Thomas Brown is' the in- 
structor. 

Classes are held day and evening. During the year 1889-'90 fifty 
students attended the evening classes. The number of day pupils is 
not given. The work of the classes commences with practical working 
on the various looms, numbering in all 43, of which 26 are hand and 
17 are power looms. On the hand looms a great variety of cloths are 
woven, from plain goods to the most complicated Jacquard designs. 
Draughting, cording, and the rearrangement and combination of twills, 
forming different patterns from the same cordiDg, have been gone into 
thoroughly at the looms. Many of the students have made collections 
of the designs and patterns they have worked out at the looms, pre- 
serving these collections in their design books. Most of the students 
also have taken their turn at weaving on each of the looms before 
changing any original pattern, making full particulars of the make and 
plans for the reproduction of the cloth: 

On the power looms a great variety of cloths have also been made, 
viz., tweeds, tapestry, leno, skirtings, shirtings, silk handkerchiefs, 
etc. 

At the annual examination in Ai)ril 1890, 26 students presented them- 
selves; and of this number 17 succeeded in reaching the standard 
requisite for a diploma. The scope of the examinations in this depart- 
ment may be estimated from a single question (out of the whole num- 



CHx\P. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 431 

ber of 15 questions) submitted to the class on that occasion. Question 
No. 8 reads : 

Give^ the time that it would take to weave a piece of cloth. 60 yards 
long, with 14 shots on glass, with a drum on line shaft 14 inches in 
diameter, revolving at 1^0 revolutions per minute j loom pully 9 inches 
in diameter, allowing 20 per cent, for stoppages 1 

At Glasgow evening classes in science and technology have been 
opened for the benefit of workmen in various trades. Machine con- 
struction and drawing, mechanical engineering, and naval architecture, 
together with mathematics and other related branches, are taught for 
moderate fees to those engaged in the practical work of engineering, 
ship building, etc. 

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, NOTTINGHAM. 

At University College there are several technical courses, including 
the chemisfcry of dyeing and bleaching. This specialty embraces ele- 
mentary and advanced courses of lectures (together with exi)erimental 
work) on the dyeing x>roperties of drug^ with wool, cotton, silk, etc. 
The syllabus relates to the properties and uses of acids, alkalies, soaps, 
etc., the properties of fibres, the mordants of tin, antimony, cox)per, 
iron, etc., and their uses and preparation. 

The methods of dyeing with various classes of wood and aniline 
dyes, of obtaining colors fast to light and soap, and, in short, the 
whole art of dyeing may here be learned by means of lectures and 
laboratory i)ractice. 

Courses have been institut-ed in mechanical and electrical engineer- 
ing, in joinery and patternmaking, plumbing, lace and hosiery manu- 
facture, and in printing. Most of these courses require two years^ 
tuition. 

BELFAST TECHNICAL SCHOOL. 

Since the year 1883 the technical school at Belfast, Ireland, has, as Mr. 
Duffin, president of the chamber of commerce, well puts it, been carry- 
ing on very admirable work with very inadequate resources. Under 
the provisions of the technical instruction act of 1889, however, 
greater efficiency will be secured in the near future, since the Belfast 
corporation strongly favors an increase of appropriations for technical 
education. The trade specialties taught in this school, with the enrol- 
ment in each class during the year 1889-^90, were: Spinning and weav- 
ing, 86 pupils j dyeing and bleaching, 19 pupils j drawing and pattern 
designing, 34 pupils; plumbing — a most important factor in the pro- 
gress of sanitation — 26 pupils ; a total of 165. 

COVENTRY TECHNICAL INSTITUTE. 

Coventry Technical Institute, established in 1887, has for its main 
'object the promotion of the kind of instruction which will improve the 



432 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

capacity, in a broad sense, of all those upon whom the industries 
depend. 

The horological and textile departments of this institution naturally 
occupy the foremost place. This is the only school in Great Britain 
where the entire theoretical and practical instruction in watchmaking 
is given, though a school in London and another in Edinburgh give 
instruction for the purpose of educating repairers and jobbers. The 
watchmaking classes have had an average attendance of from 18 to 25. 
The workshops are fitted up with the latest and most improved 
machines. The institute is the nearest approach to a regular trade 
school of any visited. Coventry is the centre of the watchmaking trade 
in Great Britain. In the shops of one of the oldest and largest manu- 
facturers of watches in the kingdom the results have been such that 
the firm now makes it obligatory upon all apprentices to attend the 
school, allows them time to do so, and pays their expenses. It has also 
sent a number of its adult workmen to the classes for instruction in 
special branches. Five other firms have followed its example. Any 
man applying for employment who has had a technical training is 
immediately accepted. 

All branches of watch and clock ihaking and repairing are systemat- 
ically taught as well as the theory and practice of the art of weaving. 
In the textile school the entire course of manufacturing, from the paper 
design to a completed fabric, is followed under the eyes of the pupils. 

LANCASHIRE AND YORKSHIRE RAILWAY COMPANY'S SCHOOL. 

The. Lancashire and Yorkshire Eailway Company maintain a mechan- 
ics' technical institute at Horwich in which workmen receive instruction 
in mechanics, machine construction and drawing, metallurgy, sound, 
light, heat, etc. During the winter session of 1891-'92 classes in cook- 
ing and dressmaking were also organized. These classes were open 
to the general public, and at fees which are the same to all persons, 
whether employed by the railway company or not, or whether members 
or non-members of the institute. 

TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS. 

Much is left to the discretion of local authorities in England as re- 
gards the administration of their trust under the technical instruction 
act. Accordingly we find that county councils exercise considerable 
liberty in organizing their various schemes of instruction under the 
law which lays down the conditions for obtaining government grants. 

In the urban districts of Staffordshire, for example, classes have been 
started for teaching modelling, cookery, chemistry, shorthand, book- 
keeping, electricity, mechanics, etc. In the rural districts of the same 
county have been instituted lectureships on agriculture, mining, etc., 
together with demonstrations in butter making, cooking, etc., in classes^ 
conducted at many convenient centres. 



CHAP. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 433 

111 Cambridgesliire for tlie purj)oses of teclmical education the 
county was divided into nine districts. It was determined to provide 
three of them with university extension lectures on scientific subjects 
bearing upon agriculture. Three others were to be visited by women 
lecturers from the National Health Society to give information upon the 
subjects of health and cookery. Two of the remaining three were to 
receive courses of dairy instruction from the Eastern Counties Dairy 
Institute J and one was to have the services of a competent teacher of 
fruit culture. 

The committee determined that each group of three districts shall 
receive in turn the university extension lectures with the accompany- 
ing class work, paper work, and examinations, so that, in three years, 
the whole county will have participated in the advantages to be de- 
rived therefrom. 

Lecturers on these subjects were supplied by the Fniversity of 
Cambridge. The courses for the year 1891-'92 are on the following 
subjects: Injurious Insects, Mr. Cecil Warbuxton, M. A. 5 Agricul- 
tural Botany, Mr. W. G. P. ElLLs, M. A. 5 Agricultural Chemistry, Mr. 
A. P. Laurie, M. A. and Mr. R. M. Lewis, >M. A.; Healthy Bodies and 
Healthy Homes, Miss A. Kenealy. 

Arrangements are in progress for the opening of courses in dairy- 
ing, in cookery, and in fruit culture. A misapprehension to the effect 
that the lecutres are paid for out of money derived from taxation is 
corrected by the reporter for this county. He says : 

The technical education fund is handed over by the treasury to 
county councils, and is obtained by the government of the country 
from the spirit duties. The county council can not levy nor remit these 
duties. What it can do is to spend its share of the grant received 
fr'om them in the provision of technical instruction for the people of 
the county. No one pays a penny more in rates because this instruc- 
tion is sent into his neighborhood. If a village declines to receive the 
teachers its inhabitants will pay just the same taxes as they paid be- 
fore, and will go without a return in the shape of valuable education. 

Substantially the same method of utilizing the grant from the gov- 
ernment obtains in the other counties. In Kent the fund is used to 
pay for university extension lectures, for scholarships at the Horticul- 
tural College, Swanley, for instructing elementary school teachers in 
agriculture, for teaching cookery, for providing dairy instruction by 
means of a migratory dairy school, for the conduct of wood carving 
and bee keeping classes, etc. 

The county schemes of instruction present a marked diversity of 
features. Each is planned to meet the requirements of local conditions 
as to trade or production. The new machinery of technical education 
in Great Britain is not yet in perfect running order, but it is made of 
the best materials, and only needs skilful management to insure satis- 
factory results. 

In east Suffolk county classes are organized for the study of agri- 
S. Ex. 65 28 



434 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

cultural chemistry, ambulance work, bookkeeping, cookery, dairying, 
drawing, farriery, fisli curing, horticulture, laundry work, electricity, 
mathematics, mechanics, mensuration, modern languages, navigation, 
shorthand, wood carving, etc. 

In Berkshire county it is proposed to extend the benefits of the 
technical instruction act to girls as well as boys in the rural districts. 
The committee recommend, therefore, the establishment of a laundry 
school, in which girls may be practically trained to become efficient 
laundresses. The committee ask for a grant of £400 ($1,946.60) for 
such a school. 

In the same county, during the year 1892, there were held 27 courses 
of instruction in cookery, with 2,403 pupils, and 27 courses in cottage 
sick nursery and domestic economy, with 4,491 puj)ils. 

EESULTS OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION. 

The existence of technical education to any extent in Great Britain 
is of so recent a date that in the cases of the great majority of schools 
a definite knowledge of results from the work of ex- students was 
almost unobtainable. Though nearly every technical school in the 
country was visited, less than five had had an active existence of five 
years. In no case did a school keep a record of its students, showing 
where they were employed. 

With one or two exceptions the schools are not trade schools properly 
so called. They are, however, more of the nature of trade schools than 
of manual training schools, inasmuch as their courses prepare specially 
for particular trades. In the majority of cases the schools maintain 
both day and evening courses. -The attendance on the latter is vastly 
greater than that on the former, and consists almost entirely of young 
men then engaged in the shops in trades to which their courses of 
instruction relate. The day scholars are few in number, and consist 
largely of the sons of employes who desire a knowledge of the business 
preparatory to going into the ofQce or becoming salesmen. 

OPINIONS OP ENGLISH EMPLOYERS. 

In England the utility of trade school training is generally conceded 
to be considerable, though many employers hold the opinion that the 
superiority of a technically educated apprentice in any mechanical 
occupation is manifest, not in greater manual dexterity, but in the 
ability to comprehend general principles and in the power of reducing 
theoretical knowledge to tangible results. 

For example, Mr. L. A. Edwards, mechanical engineer, London agent 
of the Electrical Construction Company (limited), of London, himself 
an engineer of 23 years' experience and educated at King's College, 
says : 

Technical schools, although fulfilling a useful j)urpose, do not come 



CHAP, yi, INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 435 

up to tlie practical requirements of the api)rentice wlio lias decided to 
adopt tlie engineering profession. * * * 

Technical schools are mostly useful in imparting a theoretical knowl- 
edge, a subject often entirely neglected in the training of an engineer. 

In another connection Mr. Edwards observes that the education of an 
engineer should be as general as possible to start with, and the special- 
izing should be postponed to a later i)eriod. 

Of like tenor is the letter received from a member of the firm of Burt, 
Boulton, and Haywood, manufacturing chemists, of 64 Cannon street, 
London. While not disparaging thorough scientific chemical training, 
but insisting upon its possession as a condition precedent to employ- 
ment in the business of the firm, the writer states that then it is possi- 
ble to teach men, so prepared for instruction, the technical part of their 
business in the laboratories and manufactories. He adds : 

A school professor can only teach that which he knows, and the 
technical training in a particular manufacture, whose processes are 
constantly changing and developing, can only be adequately taught in 
the manufacture itself. 

As to the direct effect of technical instruction upon the artisan Mr. H. 
W. Morley, secretary of the firm of Cole, Marchant, and Morley, machin- 
ists, Bradford, writes as follows concerning an employe who had com- 
pleted the full course of study at the Bradford Technical College: 

He was able to work out designs and drawings of machines which 
he had never seen by mathematical calculations and the principles 
learned at college. 

Mr. George N. Hooper, senior member of the firm of Hooper and Co., 
carriage manufacturers, London, writes : 

As a proof of the value attached to training in technical classes it 
may be mentioned that attendance at these classes is an essential con- 
dition to the emx)loyment of all lads engaged by this firm. The school 
fees are invariably paid by the firm, the prize fund is subsidized by it, 
and special encouragement is given to lads for regular attendance, ap- 
plication, and good progress. 

In reference to the general subject of technical education in England 
Mr. J. C. Peachy, manager of theFerry works, Thames Ditton, Surrey, 
speaking as a mechanical engineer, says : 

We have in England no such institution as we understand you to 
refer to by ^Hrade school." Our nearest approach to this is the 
mechanics' institution, where instruction on technical subjects is 
given to apprentices and others after their usual hours of work, and 
technical colleges which young men attend for a course of two or 
three years, either before or after apprenticeship to some branch of 
engineering, and preparatory to searching for employment in some 
capacity other than that of a workman. 

The watchmakers of Coventry are unanimous and emphatic in their 
expression of ai:)X)roval of trade school training and in their apprecia- 



436 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

tion of its beneficial effect upon apprentices and of its value to em- 
ployers. 

The shoe manufacturers of Bristol differ widely in opinion as to the 
usefulness of trade school instruction for their apprentices. Messrs. 
Church and McPherson think the schools valuable and Mr. H. A. Carter 
declares that "what is taught at the schools is far better than 
our secrets," that is, the trade secrets which many manufacturers 
jealously guard. J. W. Ashley and Co. dissent from this view and de- 
clare that, according to their experience, apprentices, "instead of being 
improved, were rather spoiled by the little information which they did 
obtain." In their opinion, "the trade can not be learned better at 
schools than in the work room, but can probablj^ be learned much more 
quickly; but the employers get but little benefit." 

Master plumbers at Bristol, and at Aberdeen and Glasgow, prefer 
boys educated at trade schools as apprentices and deem them more 
valuable. 

Mr. John Sharp probably expresses the prevailing opinion when, in 
referring to his trade school instruction, he says that he was benefited 
by it "not in the line of becoming a more skilful user of tools, but in the 
theory and science information which I could not have obtained in 
the shops." 

Brock and Son, master builders of Bristol, consider the knowledge of 
tools acquired in the trade school to be of but little account, while they 
hold that the mastery of general mechanical principles is of great ad- 
vantage to the apprentice. 

Managers of locomotive works say that technical instruction greatly 
aids the apprentice in his business, inasmuch as it enables him to read 
drawings and work from a plan. Of 22 employes of the Great Eastern 
Bail way works, 10 received technical instruction at the Great Eastern 
Eailway Mechanics' Institute, 2 at King's College, 3 at Finsbury Tech- 
nical College, 1 at Sheffield Technical School, 1 at the Regent street 
Polytechnic, 2 at the Crystal Palace School, and 1 each at University 
College, Birkbeck Institute, and at the City and Guilds of London 
Central Institute. 

Concerning the value of technical training to electrical engineers, 
Mr. Charles Meredith, who obtained his education at the Merchant 
Venturers' School and Bristol College, writes as follows : 

I know that my training, acquired at the Merchant Yenturers' 
School and in the laboratory of Bristol College, has been of the greatest 
benefit to me in my trade and has enabled me to win advancement 
to my present position of chief foreman of the shops. 

A veneering of technical knowledge will not suffice to hide the de- 
fects of elementary education, says an intelligent surveyor; or, in his 
own words, "]!^o amount of technical education can fit a man for this 
business^ if he lacks education in the rudiments." 



CHAP. VI.— INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 437 
CONCLUSION. 

The general comment that seems warranted, where personal exami- 
nation of the institutions themselves, or their lines and methods of 
study has been made, is that there appears to be a lack of that exact- 
ness and critical fidelity to a high standard in the requirements from 
pupils which is so marked a feature of the technical training of the 
United States, certainly in its best schools. 

This is perhai)s due to the fact that so large a percentage of the 
pupils in the industrial and technical schools of Great Britain are of the 
night classes and of the working, rather than of the student class. 

It is, of course, manifestly imi)ossible that a tired young workman, 
adding two hours of hard work to his day's labor in the work of an 
evening class, can be held to the precision and exactness of detail 
which should be required of the day student following the lines of study 
only. It is significant as proof of how hopeless this is considered that 
there are no check markings of each evening's work, but that final or 
stated examinations are all that are attempted. 

Even in the higher technical colleg'es the exactions of nicety and pre- 
cision do not equal those of the leading technical colleges in the United 
States. On the other hand it may well be doubted whether the rec- 
reative and social features which are the seemingly inseparable con- 
comitants in the British mind of all study, industrial especially, do not 
include an advantage, not obtained in American schools, that fairly 
offsets the lack mentioned. 

Class distinctions and the sx)ecial requirements for the British peo- 
ple that arise from them must also be considered as having an impor- 
tant bearing on any measures or methods adopted there. These and 
the power of the trade unions are factors that require consideration 
in all these and similar institutions on that side of the Atlantic. 

SCHOOLS OF AGEICULTUEE. 

The number of institutions engaged exclusively in this work or hav- 
ing departments so engaged is not large, and they only are enumer- 
ated. There is no college of agriculture maintained and conducted 
wholly by the government, but grants are made to existing schools 
and agricultural and dairy societies by the committee of council for 
agriculture. 

The testimony of the educational and agricultural press is seem- 
ingly concurrent as to the present absence and the recognized need of 
more and better schools for the i)romotion of hand skill and technical 
knowledge in this department. 

Present reliance for the diffusion of practical and scientific informa- 
tion upon agricultural subjects throughout the kingdom seems to be 
rather upon lectures and didactic instruction than by systematic and 
illustrative teaching, the dairy and agricultural societies usually being 
the i)rime movers. 



438 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 

The Eoyal Agricultural College, Cirencester, Tras incorporated by- 
royal charter in 1845. In 1870 a supplemental charter, with new 
powers, was obtained, and in March 1880 the college, by command of 
the queen, was styled the Eoyal Agricultural College. In-students pay 
£135 (1656.98) and out-students £75 (1364.99) per annum. There are 
also a few extras. The objects of the institution, in the words of its 
charter, are "to teach the science of agriculture, and the various 
sciences connected therewith j the practical application in the cultiva- 
tion of the soilj and the rearing and management of stock." There is 
a chapel, library, museum, botanic garden, lecture theatre, laborator- 
ies, veterinary hospital, meteorological station, and workshops. The 
farm, which is of a mixed character, consists of about oOO acres, of 
which 450 are arable, so variable as to admit of experimental treatment. 
There are six residentiary professorial chairs, and -the college grants 
certificates of proficiency and a diploma of membership or associa- 
tion. The course of instruction embraces practical agriculture and 
rural economy- estate management j bookkeeping^ chemistry j natural 
history; physics and mechanics j mensuration; land surveying and 
estate engineering; veterinary science and practice; architectural and 
mechanical farm drawing; lathe, carpentry and wheelwright work, 
smith work, and saddlery; and garden work. 

There are several scholarships open to the students, viz., one entrance 
scholarship of £20 ($97.33) per annum for two and one-half years; 
three of £25 ($121.66) each and 6 of £10 ($48.67) each annually; and 6 
of £200 ($973.30) a year each (2 annually) bythcgovernment of Bengal- 
tenable two and one-half years. Class and practical work prizes, cer- 
tificates of honor, and gold medals are also awarded. 

DOWNTON COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. 

The Downton College of Agriculture (near Salisbury) was established 
in 1880, with the object of supplying sound and practical instruction in 
agricultural subjects, to qualify students to be land agents, farmers, or 
surveyors. The method of instruction consists of field classes, practical 
work, and catechetical lectures. Weekly examinations are conducted 
on the farm, in the laboratories, and by printed papers. Each student 
keeps a farm journal, which is inspected and reiJorted upon at regular 
intervals. The subjects of instruction include agriculture and dairy 
and pastoral farming, estate management, land agency, forestry, men- 
suration, land surveyiug, architectural drawing, bookkeeping, chem- 
istry, geology, botany, veterinary surgery, etc. A complete two years' 
course prepares for the examinations of the Royal Agricultural Soci- 
ety and of the Institution of Surveyors. There is a farm of about 600 
acres, and students are expected to take part in field operations and 
to assist with live stock when required. Gentlemen over 21 years of 



CHAP. VI. ^INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN. 439 

age are received as out- students. The fee for in-students, includiug 
board, lodgiugj tuition, and laundry, is £126 (|G13.18)^ out-students, 
£60 ($291.99) per annum. There are some extras for private rooms, 
etc. A scholarship of £10 ($48.67) is offered for competition among the 
students who have completed their first year, and prizes are awarded 
for proficiency. 

TAMWORTH AGRICULTXJRAIi COLLEGE AND TRAINING FARM. 

Tamworth Agricultural College and Training Farm was established 
in 1886. The management is in private hands. There is accommoda- 
tion for 40 students from 15 to 20 years of age. The instruction in- 
cludes scientific and practical home and colonial farming. The fees for 
board and tuition vary from £18 to £26 ($87.60 to $126.53) a term, 
there being three terms a year. The training farm, 1,000 acres, is 
managed by the college masters and studejits. There is a corn mill 
attached to the college. 

There are several other schools of a similar character. Among these 
the Aspatria Agricultural College, near Carlisle, the Cheshire county 
dairy school, the department of agriculture of Edinburgh University, 
and the department of agriculture of the Glasgow and West of Scot- 
laud Technical College are awarded grants by the committee of council 
for agriculture. 

DAIRY SCHOOLS. 

The Suffolk Dairy Institute, Forfarshire and Kincardine Dairy School, 
and Kilmarnock Dairy School are all engaged in giving special instruc- 
tion in their relative lines, and are applicants for grants from the com- 
mittee of council for agriculture. 

The direct influence of the instruction given in the English agricul- 
tural schools is shown by the results at the Munster Dairy School. 
These are described by Mr. Jenkins, one of the royal commissioners of 
Great Britain, who says : 

The great agricultural trade of the south of Ireland is butter making. 
In former times the butter of the Cork market was esteemed very 
highly throughout the United Kingdom. In recent times the Cork 
brand declined considerably in public favor. 

An effort was, therefore, made to revive the reputation of the Cork 
butter. Tliis movement took shape in making the farm at Munster a 
training establishment for the education of dairymaids. Mr. Jenkins 
adds : 

The butter which was made at the school almost immediately obtained 
a high reputation and commanded the best price. At the Birmingham 
dairy show in 1881 the success of the school produced quite a sensation 
in the agricultural world. Th e prizes which it ob tained at the show were 
first, second, and third in the fresh butter class. Subsequently, at 
Islington, other important i)rizes were awarded to the school, viz., first 
and second prizes in the fresh butter classes, sx)ecial prize for salt but- 



440 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

ter, special prizes given by the judges for excellency of entries, and 
also the champion cup presented by the lord mayor of London and the 
city corporation for the best butter exhibited. 

The young women who are educated as dairymaids in the school are 
chiefly the daughters of Munster farmers. The stipend paid by each 
for the six weeks' course is only £3 ($14.60). * * * The success, so 
rapid and complete^ of this school is said already to have increased the 
value of the dairy produce of Munster by so large a sum that I hesitate 
to record it. But there can be no doubt whatever that this propitious 
experiment has proved not only to be a turning point in the fortunes of 
Irish agriculture, but a practical lesson to the whole population of 
Munster that education is not a device of statesmen to make people 
only masters of books and of sciences, but that, wisely directed, it is 
all the while a certain means of promoting their material prosperity. 

It must not be inferred that instruction in the Munster school is 
limited to the mere details of the manipulation of butter. On the 
contrary the training in dairy management includes instruction in the 
nature of the food and feeding of milch cows, in the nature of milk 
and its products, as well as in practical demonstrations of the most 
approved methods of handling milk and making butter with modern 
and with ordinary appliances. 

The success of the school has won for it state aid to the amount of 
£526 ($2,559.78) per annum. Without this support there can be no 
question that it would soon share the fate of all schools of practical 
agriculture that are not subsidized j that is to say, it would cease to 
exist. 

This typical dairy school has been described at some length in the 
belief that (both for the purposes of example and of warning) it is 
necessary to understand somewhat in detail the practical manage- 
ment of an educational system, whether that system be agricultural, 
scientific, or literary. We can not undertake to catalogue all the farm 
schools of various grades that exist in Great Britain j and, were it pos- 
sible, the execution of such a task would be of doubtful service. One 
must gain a clear perception of both excellences and defects in an in- 
stitution that is set forth as a model, in order to know what to avoid 
and what to imitate. The servile copying of the methods of the Mun- 
ster school in America would be an egregious blunder, but it may .be 
possible to derive some useful hints from its course of instructioo. 



CHAPTER VII 



PRESENT STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN 

ITALY. 



441 



CHAPTER VII. 

PEESEin? STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN ITALY. 

Italy is beginning to feel tlie Influence of tlie international movement 
in favor of manual training and teelinical education. Thougli liandi- 
capped by peculiar difQculties in entering ui>on the work of recon- 
structing her school system^ she has bravely made an effort in this 
direction J and will doubtless succeed at last in so readjusting the rela- 
tions of her educational establishments as to bring them into closer 
harmony with the conditions of modern commercial life and business 
enterprise. 

A bill was introduced in the chamber of deputies (of the Italian 
parliament) during the session of 1889-'90, under the joint authority of 
the minister of agriculture, industry, and commerce, and the minister 
of pubhc instruction, which provided for the reorganization of the 
school system of Italy, and the gradual evolution of art and trade 
schools, and of special schools for the promotion of industry and com- 
merce. 

On presenting this bill the two above named officers addressed to 
the chamber of deputies a clear and logical memorial in support of the 
measure. They urged that the bill ^'does not create a new type of 
school, but determines the legal status of existing types." They advo- 
cated a reform in school management, however, as entirely feasible 
without doing violence to established methods. 

^'The technical school," said they, "has two functions — one is to give 
the general culture necessary for admission to the technical institute, 
the other is to give the special training that is an end in itself. * * * 
The character of this special training should depend upon the particular 
enterprises carried on in the respective localities, whether art, industry, 
or commerce predominates." 

The idea which they explained and amplified at some length was that 
the technical schools must inevitably become industrial schools of arts 
and trades, or of art applied to the industries. This evolution is in 
l^rogress in France, transforming into professional schools their con. 
tinuation schools, which correspond to the Italian technical schools. 

'• The names applied to the schools should correspond to their intrinsic 
nature in every instance" is the aphoristic exin^ession by which the 
scheme for changing the designation of the different classes of schools 
is justified. 

The innovation is a comr)rehensive one. Title I, article 1, of the bill 
declares that all scholastic institutions (day, evening, Sunday, and 

443 



444 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

vacation schools) '^ whose design is to promote and perfect national 
industry" shall be governed by the present law. They are to be dis- 
tinguished as schools of arts and trades, and schools of art applied to 
industries. 

Title lYj article 23, states tliat the provisions of the present law are 
applicable — 

1. To the higher schools of commerce, at Yenice, at Genoa, and at 
Bari. These impart higher scientific education, with the applications 
of science to various branches of domestic and international commerce. 

2. To the Industrial Museum at Turin. 

3. To the Superior l^Taval School of Genoa. 

Article 24 requires that the instruction given in these schools '^ shall 
be coordinated with that of the technical institutes, that of the com- 
mercial sections with the courses in the higher schools of commerce, 
and that of the physico-mathematical and industrial sections with 
the curricula of the Industrial Museum and of the I^aval School." 

In concluding their comments on the new project of law the two min- 
isters observe that it is "especially recommended to your favorable suf- 
frage by virtue of the end which it contemplates — the increase, and the 
technical and aesthetic imi)rovement, of industrial production, * * * 
the promotion of national industry, and the economic progress of the 
laboring classes." 

At Genoa manual training is about to be introduced into the commu- 
nal schools. At present it is experimentally taught to some 400 pupils. 

The School of Industrial Design and Elementary Mechanics at Naples 
comes very near the manual training system. There is a small shop con- 
nected with the school, where the rudiments of practical metal working 
are taught. 'No workmen are graduated here; boys are only prepared 
to adopt later on some trade in the line of metal working. In this school 
are 8 teachers and 40 pupils. An income of 8,000 lire ($1,544) supports 
this school. Of this sum the state grants 3,200 lire ($617.60) -, the prov- 
ince, 2,000 lire ($386); the municipality, 1,600 lire ($308.80) ; and the 
chamber of commerce, 1,200 lire ($231.60). This school was organized 
about six years ago, but it is not in a flourishing condition. 

In Italy, at the close of the school year 1886-^87, there were 419 tech- 
nical schools, and 74 institutes of secondary technical instruction. In 
the technical schools there were 28,140 pupils in regular standing as 
to membership, and 628 auditors, or pupils attending certain classes, 
but not enrolled as full time students. The technical institutes, which 
are of a higher grade than the technical schools, had at that date 6,231 
students and 410 auditors. 

In proportion to the population there is in Italy one technical school 
to every 67,923 of the inhabitants and one technical institute to every 
384,589 of the inhabitants, or 57,727 inhabitants for each technical insti- 
tution of higher and lower grade. There are 12.08 technical students 
in these schools to every 10,000 of the population. The number of tech- 



CHAP. VII. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN ITALY. 445 

nical schools in Italy increased by more than one hundred from 1880 to 
1887. In the year 1880 there were 314, while in 1887 there were, as 
above stated, 419. Within the same period the number of pupils in- 
creased from 22,120 to 28,140. 

The foregoing figures do not include the institutes of technical in- 
struction of the mercantile marine. Of these there were 23, with 595 
students and 36 auditors at the end of the school year 1886-'87. It 
would be inconsistent with the object of this inquiry to make extended 
reference to the Italian lyceum, gymnasium, or university, but there 
are several special higher schools and institutes which deserve to be 
mentioned. 

Among the higher institutes those devoted to technical studies are 
the following : 

At Bologna is an institute of civil engineering and architecture, 
having in each department a three years' course of study, and at- 
tended in 1886-'87 by 131 students. At Milan there is a technical 
institute with a course of instruction divided into three sections, viz., 
a preparatory course of two years' duration, with 123 pupils enrolled 
in the school year 1886-'87j an engineering and architectural course of 
three years, with 166 pupils j and a course of physics and chemistry 
of four years, with 3 pupils. Ii^aples, also, has an institute of civil en- 
gineering and architecture, with 214 students of engineering and 2 of 
architecture in 1886-'87 j the course of study covers three years in each 
department. Eome has a similar institute, with a course of study of 
the same length, but with only one student pursuing architecture and 
81 in the department of civil engineering. The Turin institute has 
three departments. In 1886-'87 there were 305 students of civil en- 
gineering, 89 taking industrial engineering, and none studying archi- 
tecture. 

Among the special schools, of a rank below the institute, may be 
named the commercial school in the small town of Bari, which was at- 
tended by 49 pupils in 1886-'87; the commercial school at Genoa, with 
its 27 pupils; the school of naval engineering, mechanics, nautical train- 
iDg, and hydrographic engineering at the same place, having 89 students; 
the schools of agriculture at Milan and Portici, the former having 44 
students, the latter, 72; the Industrial Museum at Turin, with its 
electrical engineering course and 75 students; and the commercial 
school at Venice, with its two, three, and four years' courses and its 
88 students in the year 1886-'87. 

The British commissioners visited the Milan institute and in their re- 
port referred to it in the following terms : 

The Technical Institute of Milan is situated in the via San Marco. 
Like most of the schools and many of the private houses of Milan it 
was originally a convent. We had the opportunity of being present 
when lessons were being given in the ordinary subjects of instruction, 
and likewise of inspecting the appliances and methods of teaching for 
the special subjects. In one room we found a class of boys receiving a 



44(3 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

lesson iu trigonometry; in another tlie subject was history. The walls 
of the rooms were perfectly bare, and no attempt seemed to be made to 
illustrate the subject of instruction. The master was lecturing and the 
boys were listeniug. 

As in the other Italian schools visited the appliances here for 
teaching drawing were good, and the instruction in this subject was 
both general aud technical. 

Several rooms of the school or college are occupied by physical ap- 
paratus for the instruction of those who enter the physico-mathe- 
matical section. * * * 

The museum of the department of agriculture contained models 
and illustrations of much with which a practical agTiculturist has to 
be familiar, besides actual specimens of a great variety of natural 
products. Here were collected and well classified diiferent kinds of 
ploughs and other agricultural implements and machinery; specimens 
of tools, historically arranged; collections of herbs, cereals, roots, 
etc.; specimens of woods, showing the vertical, horizontal, and 
oblique sections, and the polish of which each kind is susceptible; 
preparations exhibiting the chemical constituents of vegetable sub- 
stances; models of different kinds of apples, pears, fruits, etc., indi- 
cating where they are severally grown; specimens of the soil taken 
from different parts of the valley of the Po; the various kinds of 
grapes; models and diagrams of the phylloxera, and of its effect on 
the plant, etc. 

Of the chemical department the commissioners say : 

The general laboratory affords accommodation for about 60 pupils 
to work at the same time. The instruction embraces the metals and 
metalloids and qualitative analysis. The apparatus is on an extensive 
scale. * * * One room was occupied by physico-chemical appara- 
tus, including batteries, spectroscopes, etc. The professors of the three 
divisions into which the teaching of the school is divided are each 
I^ersons of scientific authority in his own branch of study. 

All of the technical institutes of Italy are similar in character to 
that of Milan, and the courses of instruction in each of them are i)re- 
scribed by the educational department of the government. Pui)ils are 
admitted to the technical institutes at the age of 14, on presentation of 
their diplomas from some technical school. 

Some of these technical institutes are said to have given a strong 
impulse to local industries. Thus the British commissioners report 
that the directors of the silk dyeing establishment at Como spoke in 
high praise of the influence of the technical school of Oomo. It had 
materially and beneficially affected the silk industry by greatly increas- 
ing the knowledge both of masters and foremen. A higher culture in 
designing had led to more variety, more enterprise, and increased 
trade. A few years ago scarcely anything but the weaving of plain 
silks was attempted; now there is a growing fancy trade, the influence 
of which is felt in a marked degree at these works, hj the greater 
demand for varied and delicate colors in the dyeing. 

There is a government technical school in the province of Foggia, 
where, during the school year 1888-'89, 150 pupils were in attendance. 
In the same x)rovince, and at the same period, there were three other 



CHAP. VII. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN ITALY. 447 

teclmical scliools ^itli an aggregate of 189 xmpils. A scliool of tlie 
ittecliaiiic arts was opened in 1874 in this province. One liundred and 
twenty-seven students attended this school during the year 1889-'90. 

La ScuoUi Professionale Tiiyofrafica di Milano was founded November 
4, 1884, by the municipal tyj)Ograx)hical societies of Milan. It was 
hampered, however, by the want of financial backing at the start. At 
the opening of the first course, in 1885, there were 87 pupils in attend- 
ance. In 1888, by a ministerial decree, the school was chartered, and 
the expenses of its maintenance were fixed, by article 2, at the sum of 
5,000 lire (I9G5) per annum. Provision was made, also, for meetiDg 
this expense by means of subventions from the state, province, com- 
mune, the chamber of commerce, etc. A school so recently organized 
can have but a brief biography, and little is stated beyond the above 
facts in any report. 

Tlie enterprise of the school management is shown by the publication 
of several pamphlets, under the auspices of the council, on subjects re- 
lating to the art of printing and collateral or cognate branches of book- 
making. We have carefully examined these brochures, and have 
received very favorable impressions as to the thoroughness of their 
teaching. One of them is on i)ractical rules of typography, and treats 
of the making up of printing forms, the working of presses, etc. An- 
other is a lucid dissertation on the correction of proof, in which the 
anomalous and variable orthography of the Italian language is severely 
scored. Still another gives a succinct history of the invention of type- 
setting machines,with cuts showing the mechanism of the Eraser type- 
setter, that of Lagermann, and that of Joseph Thome. All the pam- 
phlets bear the imprint of the Milan Typographical School, and are 
useful and instructive writings, though perhaps not germane to the 
matter. 

In November 1889 the studies of languages and drawing were made 
a part of the course of instruction. French and Italian are the lan- 
guages studied. In the technical departments four instructors are 
employed to teach compositors and four to teach press work, etc. The 
course is of three years' duration. In 1890 there were in this school 
190 enrolled pupils. Of this number there were in the drawing classes 
57 } in Italian, 47 -, in French, 86. 

Most of the Italian schools are under ecclesiastical control, and it is 
imi)0ssible to classify them exactly. Some of them are a combination 
of school and hospital. This is true of the Pia Casa di Lavoro at 
Florence, an elementarj^ scliool for the intellectual and industrial 
education of both sexes. The boys are taught reading, writing, arith- 
metic, the elements of practical geometry, linear drawing, ornamental 
drawing, and gymnastics. The girls also take the elementary brfinches 
and are taught women's work suited to their condition. At the begin- 
ning of the year 1890 there were 842 inmates of this institution — 538 
males, 304 females. December 31, 1890, there were 634 males and 345 
females — 979 in all. 



448 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

At La Spezia there is a royal scliool of arts and trades {Beale Scuola 
d'Arti e Mestieri) wliicli was establislied by a decree of King Hum- 
bert, dated February 21, 1886. The object of the school is the gi^ang 
of instruction applicable to the mechanic arts and trades. The cost of 
annual maintenance is by means of state and other subsidies. Pupils 
must be 11 years old or over. 

The courses of study and practice are as follows : The elements of 
geometry, of physics, of chemistry, of the technology of wood and iron 
and other materials for building, of drawing, of modelling and intaglio 
work, with special application to the industries in which the school is 
concerned. Besides these branches Italian is to be taught, with arith- 
metic and the elements of algebra, accounts, penmanship, and indus- 
trial economy. The course of training occupies four years. According 
to the regulations for the conduct of the school th^ instruction is given 
in two sections and is comj)rised in two courses. 

The first years course is common to both sections, and includes the 
principal operations in whole numbers, linear and ornamental drawing 
and penmanship, geometry and its applications, the Italian language, 
its orthography and ijarts of speech, grammatical analysis, simple 
accounts, the principal facts of the ancient history of Italy, the indus- 
trial and commercial geography of the region, and the elements of 
chemistry and physics. 

In the second year the class is divided into the mechanical section 
and the section of construction. Both sections are taught in common 
in the following branches, viz., fractions (numerical and literal) and 
problems of the first degree with one and two unknown quantities, 
geometry and its applications, commercial and descriptive letter writ- 
ing, history of the epoch of the middle ages with chief events, and 
industrial and commercial geography of northern Italy. Special in- 
struction in the mechanical section includes projections, penmanship, 
practical mechanics, and industrial physics j in the section of construc- 
tion, architectural and naval drawing, penmanship, and chemistry in 
its applications. 

In the third year the common subjects in both sections are Italian, 
composition in general, description and narration, equations of the 
second degree, progression, logarithms and their properties with the 
use of tables, diagrams, and analytical geometry, modern Italian his- 
tory, industrial geography, and commerce of central and southern 
Italy. Special instruction in the mechanical section includes machine 
drawing (sections), practical mechanics, physics, and industrial chem- 
istry^ in the section of construction, naval drawing, technology and me- 
chanics, and materials of construction. 

In the fourth year special instruction for the first section is in mate- 
rials, metals, etc., machine drawing to scale, machine building, and gen- 
eral management of motors^ for the second section, drawing for civil 
engineering and naval construction, plans of construction in general. 

By a royal decree dated January 5, 1873, a school of arts and trades 



CHAP. VII. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN ITALY. 449 

was instituted at Foligno, in order to furnish instruction to such as 
wish to fit themselves for workmen in wood and metals and in the 
building trades. The school is divided into two sections — one a pre- 
paratory school and the other a school of arts and trades. 

The prescribed course in the former lasts two years; in the art and 
trade section, three years. The instruction includes the Italian language, 
history, geography, penmanship, French, arithmetic, accounts, geome- 
try (plane and solid), algebra, trigonometry, ornamental, architectural, 
mechanical, industrial, and topographical drawing, mechanical tech- 
nology, building construction, descriptive geometry, kinematics, theo- 
retical and practical mechanics, estimates of work, physics, industrial 
chemistry, and political economy. 

Provision is made for the employment of a teaching staff consisting 
of four professors, each at a salary of 1,800 lire ($347.40) per annum, 
viz., a professor of arithmetic, plane and solid geometry, algebra, 
physics, chemistry, and mineralogy j a professor of the Italian language 
and literature, history, geography, chirography, French, and accounts j 
a professor of ornamental drawing, architecture and the plastic arts, 
designing of ornaments, and of drawing apx)lied to industrial and archi- 
tectural uses; a professor of mechanical technology, theoretical and 
practical mechanics, machine drawing, kinematics, trigonometry, topo- 
graphical surveying, measurement of altitudes, building construction, 
estimation of cost, etc. 

To gain admission to this school pupils must be at least 13 j^ears 
old, in good health, and have a i^hysician's certificate of vaccination; 
they must also have completed the elementary course of studies in a 
public or x)rivate school, and present a certificate of good behavior from 
the local authority. 

In a letter dated March 27, 1892, Prof. T. Buccolini, director of this 
institute, writes that the school is free, the pupils paying merely an 
annual enrolment fee of 30 lire ($5.79). 

The whole number of pupils enrolled in the year 1890-'91 was QQ. Of 
these there were in the first year's course, 33 ; second year's, 16; third 
year's, 7; fourth year's, 7; fifth year's, 3; a total of G6. This number 
of ijupils seems small, but there have never before been so many in 
attendance during the sixteen years' existence of the school. Most of 
the pupils are said to prefer the trade of iron workers. The estimate 
of the expenses of the school for the year 1891-'92 is i)ut at about 
15,000 lire ($2,895). 

The x)rofessional school of Savona, founded by a royal decree bear- 
ing date of August 15, 1871, was instituted for the puri)ose of giving 
industrial instruction. It consists of two distinct sections — the mechan- 
ical section and the chemical section. The programme outlines a 
four years' course of study. The first year's work is general and pre- 
paratory; afterwards special subjects are taught. Elementary instruc- 
tion is given in geometry, algebra, x>hysics, chemistry, mechanics, tech- 
S. Ex. (35 29 



450 



EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



nology, and drawing* with special regard to industries. The Italian 
language^ arithmetic, penmanshij), and history are also included among 
the branches taught. 

For admission to the preparatory class in this school the pupil must 
be at least 9 years of age and not over 17. To enter the evening class 
he must be 14 years old, and able to read and write. Each pupil pays 
a matriculation fee of 2.20 lire (42 cents). 

The total income of the Savona school for the year 1883 was 20,370 
lire ($3,931.41). The expenditures for the year were 20,836 lire 
($4,021.35), leaving a deficit of 466 lire ($89.94). 

In the graduating class of 1883 there were six members (day school). 
Of these one has become a decorator in ceramic art; one, a decorator 
in stucco J one, an assistant in the drawing school; one, a student in the 
Nautical Institute; one, a tradesman; and one, a churchman. The 
evening class, graduating the same year, consisted of six members. All 
but one of these has adopted some mechanical occupation. The one 
exception is devoted to a military career. 

There are in Savona two gymnasia, one lyceum, one t<3chnical school, 
one technical institute, and a nautical institute, besides this x)rofes- 
sional school. 

The School of Art Applied to Industry {Scuola W Arte Applieata alV 
Industria) at Luzzara was instituted by a ministerial decree issued in 
1881, in sui^port of the School of Drawing opened at the close of the 
year 1868. 

The minister of agriculture, industry, and commerce grants to this 
school an annual allowance of 1,200 lire ($231,60); the commune, 1,000 
lire ($193); and the province, 400 lire ($77.20). The chamber of com- 
merce of Eeggio neir Emilia also contributes 150 lire ($28.95) annually. 

Statistics of the school for ten years are as follows : 



School year. 


Attend- 
ance. 


Enrol- 
ment. 


Graduates. 


1881 '82 


S3 
42 
46 
49 
57 
56 
64 
75 
75 
83 


53 
48 
50 
52 
61 
65 
68 
78 
82 
93 


2 


1882 '83 


4 


1883 '84 . 


5 


1884 '85 


4 


1885 '80 .. 


6 


1886-'87 




18b7 '88 


14 


1888 '89 . 


13 


1889 '90 , 


16 


1890 '91 


17 







The subjects of study in the school are: Ornamental drawing, 
geometrical drawing, architectural drawing, elements of figure draw- 
ing, modelling, intaglio Avork, civil engineering, and elements of 
machine drawing. The principal instruction imparted in this school 
consists of the drawing — free-hand, ornamental, and figure drawing, 
and geometrical, architectural, mechanical, and topographical drawing. 
With this instruction its applications in modelling, carving, etc., are 
taught in the different courses. 



CHAP. VII. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN ITALY. 451 

La Reale Sciiola Professionale di Fahriano is maintained jointly by 
the government, the province, the commune, and the chamber of com- 
merce. There are two sections of the school. The first section includes 
the pupils enrolled in the shops, the other section the i)upils enrolled in 
the scholastic courses. Pupils are not admitted to the first section if 
under 11 or over 17 years of agej in the second section none can be 
received under 11 years of age. When the i)upils of the first section 
liave finished the course they may enter a shop to perfect themselves in 
manual labor j those of the second section, not having received the com- 
bined training of culture and technical instruction so useful in the artistic 
professions, may easily becomeproficient in the trades of the school course. 

The Aldini-Yaleriani Institute at Bologna is a technical school. Its 
comioouud title was given it in honor of its founders, one of whom. 
Prof. Giovanni Aldini, in 1834, by his last will and testament, made 
provision for the establishment of a school of mechanic arts, and of 
chemistry as applied to the arts of manufacture, to be under the joint 
control of a committee composed of members of the university staff, 
of comx)etent artists, and of the government council. To this school, 
constituted on such a plan. Prof. Yaleriani added an equipment for 
instruction in drawing applied to the arts. 

The general scope of the Bologna institute is to promote technical 
knowledge, to train the eye and hand in the acquisition of mechanic 
art, and physical and chemical manipulation j to give popular courses 
of instruction in technical science and drawing to adult artisans j and, 
in general, to contribute to the imx)rovement of art by means of in- 
struction and experimentation in science. 

The institute ai)pears to have a good equipment for its proposed 
work, possessing a rich collection of machines, apparatus, models, 
drawings, books, etc. It has a school shop with motors and machine 
tools for working in wood, iron, etc., a laboratory (chemical and phys- 
ical), a large drawing room, and two halls for recitations, reading, etc. 
The location is the convent of Santa Lucia in via Castiglione; and 
the establishment is supplied with water, gas, and (in part) with elec- 
tric lights. 

.The current expenses of the institute for the year 1891 were 39,370 
lire ($7,598.41). The amount was covered by the income of the school, 
derived from funds from the commune, from the grant of the minister of 
agriculture, industry, and commerce, from the evening school fees, 
and from various contributions. 

There are three sections or subdivisions of the institute, with a re- 
spective attendance in 1890-'91 as follows: 

Day section, mechanic arts department, 128; chemical and phj^s- 
ical department, none. Evening section of geometrical and ornamental 
drawing, etc., all classes (number enrolled), 255; subsection, steam en- 
gineering, 102. Of these 75 were born in the commune of Bologna, 
24 in other communes of the province of Bologna, 27 in other provinces, 



452 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

and 2 were foreign born. Pupils are admitted to membership in the 
institute at 12 years of age, if qualified for the successful pursuit of its 
courses of study. 

The course of instruction in the department of the mechanic arts 
comi)rises the following subjects: The Italian language, geometry, 
the elements of physics, of chemistry, of mechanics, and of technology; 
morals and economics, ornamental drawing, drawing applied to the arts, 
general studies and exercises, and last, but not least, practice in the 
school shop. In the physico-chemical department the studies are essen- 
tially the same, except that practice in the chemical laboratory is sub- 
stituted in a large measure for shop work. Fifty-four hours a week 
are occupied with school work throughout the three years' course. 
One-half of this time is spent in the shop. 

There are six instructors in the institute — one for each of the chief 
specialties taught. But, besides these, there .are eight assistants and 
master workmen who give shop instruction. 

The Museo Artistico Industriale e Scuole Officine in ^N'aples is one 
of the few schools which are under the control of the government. It 
was established in 1883; has an income of about 95,000 lire ($18,335), 
of which sum, however, the state contributes only 30,000 lire ($5,790), 
the rest being given by the province, the municipality, and by dona- 
tion. The school is of an artistic character only, with 18 teachers 
and about 200 scholars. The course of instruction lasts three years, 
but continues through ri early eleven months of each year. The shops 
consist of— ceramics, with painting, ornamenting, etc.; metal casting, 
on a very small scale and for ornamental purposes only, in zinc, lead, 
brass, and silver; gold and silver smithing, and enamelling; engraving; 
lithography, and chromolithography ; wood carving, intarsia, and fine 
wood working for furniture; chiselling. The engraving, lithographing, 
and wood working departments had apparently about three-foui ths of 
all the scholars. The theoretical instruction given refers only to the arts 
mentioned, no general educational instruction being given as the 
pupils are admitted only after an examination. 

JScuola Industriale Alessandro Volta, Naples, is a small school estab- 
lished in 1886, mainly under the control of the municipality, although 
the state grants a yearly subsidy of 25,000 lire ($4,825). The entire 
income is only about 56,000 lire ($10,808). It is a good practical school, 
but not patronized as it should be. There is too much hard work con- 
nected with the trades taught there. There are 11 teachers and only 
about 65 pupils. The scope of this school is to educate good practi- 
cal machinists, but it seems that the course is entirely too short, 
there being only three years allotted to the practical course. General 
education is also given, and its extent is about alpari with our high 
schools. The school has a good machine shop with steam power and 
modern tools; only metals are worked. Pupils must pass a mild exam- 
ination. 



CHAP. VII. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN ITALY. 453 

Istituto Casanova, Naples, is the largest and probably the best 
appointed school in the entire south of Italy. It, like the preceding 
ones, was established by large hearted philanthropists who saw 
clearly the necessity of providing for the education of the children of 
the poor. 

This school was established in 1880. It is x)roperly an oriDhans' 
asylum, only it must be understood that the word orphan is to be 
taken in its most extensive sense; that is to say, children who have 
lost tlieir father, or their mother, or both their parents are all called 
orphans. It is the aim of this institution to keep the children confided 
to its care away from their former associates. Children above the age 
of 10 years are admitted, and in many instances they are younger. 
They receive full elementary instruction, and are then instructed in 
the higher branches of education i)ertaining to the trade which they 
have chosen. 

The shops connected with this school are — joinery, cabinetmaking, 
wood carving, gilding, machine, watchmaking, gold and silver 
smithing, printing (typography), for the manufacture of instruments 
of precision, and bronzing. The course of instruction covers eight 
years and sometimes longer, as they do not leave the school until they 
have reached the nineteenth year of age. In 1892 there were 27 teachers 
and about 450 i^upils. The income from contributions to this school 
is about 65,000 lire (|12,545). The state contributes 18,000 lire ($3,471), 
the province 6,000 lire ($1,158), the city 10,000 lire ($1,930), the cham- 
ber of commerce 1,500 lire ($289.50), benevolent associations 7,000 
lire ($1,351), workingmen's associations 11,500 lire ($2,219.50), and 
private donations 11,000 lire ($2,123). Besides this the school earns 
something from the sale of articles there manufactured. 

Scuola di Lavoro della Societa ])er VEducazione del Fopolo, also in 
Naples, is a good school, but its resources are limited, the entire 
income being only about 9,000 lire ($1,737), of which the state furnishes 
3,000 lire ($579), i\iQ city 4,000 lire ($772), and the society 2,000 lire 
($386). The course covers five j^ears. They have 16 poorly paid 
teachers at an average of 370 lire ($71.41) a j^ear, and claim to have 
about 230 x)upils. At the time of visitation in 1892 they did not seem 
to have so many, but that may have been caused by the many branches 
of industry in which instruction was given. There Avere silversmiths, 
machinists, joiners, cabinetmakers, wood carvers, wood turners, gild- 
ers, model makers, electrical apparatus makers, smiths, locksmiths, 
bronzers, printers, and bookbinders. The majority appeared to be 
emi)loyed in typography and bookbinding. Their AYork was not very 
good. 

There are three other schools for males in Naples which were not 
visited. They are scientific rather than practical. The agent of the 
Dejpartment was informed that these three schools, togetlier, did not 
have more than six teachers, and that the i)ui)ils, nearly all of whom 



454 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

were already flnislied workmen or apprentices in tlieir last year, did 
not exceed tlie number of 50. The names of the schools are — Scuola di 
Chimica Applicata aUe Arti della Societa Centrcde Operaia Wapolitanaj 
laboratory for smelting j Scuola di Meccanica Pratica per gli Operai 
presso la Reale Jlniversita^ school for the manufacture of instruments 
of precision J Stazione Sperimentale per la Industria delle Pe?'i, school 
for experiments in dyeing. 

A free school for females in Naples, called Scuola Gratuita del Bitiro 
di Suor Orsolttj bears an excellent reputation. Twenty-nine nuns are 
employed as teachers and the pupils number about 600. This is an 
entirely charitable institution for the i^oor. The theoretical instruc- 
tion is of the grammar school grade. Besides this practical instruc- 
tion is given in sewing, embroidery, artificial flower making, and knit- 
ting and crocheting. The course covers five years, nine months^ in- 
struction per year beiug given; and the cost of maintaining the school 
is 30,000 lire ($5,790) a year, of which the state pays 17,000 lire ($3,281), 
the remainder being paid by a religious order. 

There exists in Naples a similar school called Scuola Professionale 
Femminile nel Bitiro del Santissimo Ecce Homo. 

In Sicily the following schools exist in which some attention is i^aid 
to industrial education: At Girgenti the Scuola W Arti e Mestieri Gioeni, 
a small orphans' asylum with a shop for locksmiths and cabinetmakers; 
at Trapani the Scuola W Arti e Mestieri, a middle sized orphans' asylum 
with shops for wood carvers, marble cutters, and workers in lava, sea- 
shells, and corals; and at Palermo the Museo Artistico Industriale e 
Scuole Officine. a small asylum with a shoj) for cabinetmaking only. 

In Eeggio di Calabria is a school which is theoretical rather than 
]3ractical, much time and attention being devoted to drawing, and only 
a little modelling in clay being done. 

In the Abruzzo and the Apulia divisions at Ohieti and Bari very 
little of educational interest or imi)ortance exists, Bari having only a 
commercial school for mineralogy and assaying, and Chieti a very small 
school {Scuola d^ Arti Applicata alV Industria) with about 30 pupils, 
and a shop for wood carving, wood turning, and cutting for tailors. 
There is a still smaller school for girls at Chieti in which industrial 
instruction is confined to knitting with machines. 

At Aversa, near Naples, is the Scuola W Arti e Mestieri nelV Istituto 
Artistico di San Lorenzo. This school can not be considered a school 
for boys, as advanced apprentices, young workingmen, and even older 
students are admitted. There are 9 teachers and about 200 pupils. 
The instruction is confined to two hours in the morning and three 
hours in the evening. The shoi)S are for joiners and cabinetmakers, 
blacksmiths and locksmiths, gilders, wood carvers, shoemakers, tailors, 
weavers, machinists, i)rinters, and hatters. This school, in which in- 
struction is free, requires an expenditure of 9,000 lire ($1,737) per year, 
of which the state provides 7,000 lire ($1,351) and the province 2,000 



CHAP. VII. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN ITALY. 455 

lire (I3S6). Whatever is mannfacturecl liere is sold in Naples, but the 
receipts are divided among the pupils. 

The Scuola cVIncisione sul Corallo, e cTArti Decorative e Bidustriale 
at Torre del Greco, seven miles southeast of I^aples, is an interesting- 
establishment, as it is from here mainly that the stores and itinerant 
venders, not ojily of ]Srai)les but of all Italy nearly, are furnished with 
the so-called "mementos of Italy.'' All kinds of Avork in coral, lava, 
sea-shells, tortoise-shell, ivory, wood, metal, etc., are made here. There 
are but 4 teachers and about 140 i)upils. The course of instruction 
covers five years. The school has an income of about 10,000 lire 
($1,930), which are contributed by the state, the province, the munici- 
pality of Naples, the chamber of commerce, etc. This school resembles 
what in Austria would be called a school for house industries. 

At San Giovanni a Teduccio, a suburb of Naples, is located the 
Scuola di Bisegno Industriale ed Elementi di Meccanica. Instruction in 
this school approximates the manual training system. There is a small 
shop connected with the school where the X)ractical rudiments of metal 
working are taught. No workingmen are graduated j boys are simply 
prepared to adopt later on some trade in the line of metal working. 
There are 8 teachers in all, who have charge of 40 puxDils. But very 
few graduate, as, for instance, at the beginning of the past school year 
57 pui^ils were entered j during the year 5 had to be dismissed for utter 
moral worthlessness, 12 dropped out, and only 26 passed on examination. 
Tlie financial support given to this school is limited, reaching only 8,000 
lire ($1,544) in all, of which the state grants 3,200 lire ($617.60), the 
province 2,000 lire ($386), the municipality of Naples 1,600 lire ($308.80), 
and the chamber of commerce 1,200 lire ($231.60). This school has ex- 
isted only about six years, but the results are not gratifying to the 
heads of the institution, and if improvement does not ensue the school 
may possibly be closed. 

The Scuola Frofessionale, at Foggia, was established by the state as 
far back as 1872, but deteriorated while under state management. The 
school then passed under the control of the local authorities and is now 
in a flourishing condition. There are 7 regular teachers with about 100 
pupils. There are shops for wood working of every description, includ- 
ing carpentry and wagon making, shox)S for harness and saddle making, 
stone cutting, etc., making it one of the best and most comi:)letely ap- 
j)ointed schools in Italy. The course covers five years. The state 
grants a subsidy of 1,000 lire ($193) per annum, while the chamber of 
commerce contributes yearly the amount 38,000 lire ($7,334), and an 
additional 9,000 lire ($1,737) are contributed by the province, the city, 
and imvate parties. This is really a pay school, but poor scholars are 
not only admitted free of charge, but are also allowed a subsidy to 
defray their maintenance. 

Rome contains but few schools in which industrial instruction is 
given. Not more than seven such schools are of sufficient import- 



456 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

ance to be noted, all of ayIiIcIi are orplian asylums, and either self-sup- 
porting or supported by some religious order. 

The Istituto Frofessionale MascMle delV Ospizio di San Micliele a Bipa, 
at Eome, is a very old scliool (over one hundred years old), and is con- 
nected with an orphan asylum and a home for the aged. It is supported 
entirely by public charity. It has about 140 scholars, who, once entering, 
must stay till they are 19 years old. Before being admitted to any of the 
shops the pupils must have acquired an elementary education reaching 
as high as perhaps the fourth gTade with us. Therefore the scholars 
are admitted at 10 to 14 years of age, but not over 14. Here, as well as 
in the majority of these schools, great attention is devoted to art, and to 
those trades which may be term ed artistic. The artistic shops are — wood 
carving, copper plate engraving, stucco work, decorative painting, archi- 
tectural draughting, and tapestry. The trade shops are for stone and 
marble cutting, joinerj^ and cabinetmaking, blacksmiths and lock- 
smiths, machinists, printing, and metal casting. The great majority 
of the pupils adopt here as everywhere else in meridional Italy the 
line of the arts. The school authorities, however, have no record of 
the career of the pupils after they leave school. 

The Istituto Pio IX degli ArtigianelU di San Giuseppe^ Eome, is the 
exact counterpart of the preceding one, with the only exception that 
this school is in charge of the Christian Brothers, while the former is in 
charge of the laity. There are about 100 pui)ils, who may enter at 
10 years of age and upward. This school admits also pay scholars at 
the rate of 35 lire ($6.7G) per month, for which sum they are fed, clad, 
housed, and instructed. The branches of instruction are the same as 
above, with the exception that decorative painting and architectural 
draughting droj) out, and that shoemaking and tailoring are added. 
This sciiool also exists entirely from the sale of its products and the 
contributions of the order. 

Ospizio di Tata Giovanni^ Eome, is in charge of the priesthood. It is 
an orphans' asylum, rather small, with about 60 pupils who receive a 
religious and theoretical education in the house, where they are also 
fed and clad; but the practical trade education is not imparted in the 
house. The i)riests, however, procure apprenticeshiT)s outside for the 
boys. 

The system seems to work well, for it has been adopted by the ScuoJa 
Frofessionale del Rione San Angelo — a school established by Israelites 
who pick ui) little erring and wandering Jews, apprentice them some- 
where, and instruct them in the Hebrew faith. 

Ospizio degli ArtigianelU Bonanni is an orphans' asylum similar to 
the Istituto Frofessionale Maschile delV Ospizio di San Micliele a Ripa 
and the Istituto Fio IX degli ArtigianelU di San Giuseppe, but very 
much smaller and supported entirely by the working classes. 

The Yictoria Home, Eome, is a school that rests ui)on a charitable 



CHAP. VII. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN ITALY. 457 

foundation. A niemorial tablet upon the building bears tlie following 
inscription: "In memory of Margueretta Leslie Edwardes, who for six- 
teen years labored with untiriog love and zeal for the good of the chil- 
dren of Italy. Died July 12, 1891." The school is now conducted by 
the daughter of the deceased. There are about 40 pupils (both male 
and female). Pupils are admitted at a very tender age, in fact when 
they can walk, and stay till they are 14 years of age, when situations 
are iwocured for them. The girls are taught household work, including 
sewing, knitting, crocheting, etc. The boys are educated to become 
printers and bookbinders, or shoemakers. The printing done, consid- 
ering the very old and very i)oor material, is good. The children are 
fed, clad, and housed, as a rule, without charge, but there are Italian 
families who desire to send their children there and. are willing to pay. 
The charge is then 400 lire ($77.20) per annum. 

The Scuola Femminile Torlonia in Eome is supported entirely by the 
munificence of Prince Torlonia, and is conducted on the convent school 
plan. The instruction is of a high grade, and in ornamental rather 
than industrial branches. Pux)ils are admitted after a very rigid ex- 
amination, not only as to their personal conduct, but also as to the 
antecedents of their parents. Among the inhabitants of Eome the school 
stands high in esteem. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



PRESENT STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN 

RUSSIA. 



459 



CHAPTER yill. 

PRESENT STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. 

Enssia has no national sjvStem of elementary instruction — sncli school 
organization as exists in Finland, Poland, and the Baltic dependencies 
being of local and provincial origin. The government is understood, 
however, to have under consideration a scheme for promoting primary 
education. Meanwhile many of the manufacturers have established 
schools in connection with their works, and most railway comx)anies 
maintain similar schools for the benefit of the children of their em- 
ployes. The government also takes the utmost pains to promote the 
interests of manufactures and mechanical pursuits generally, by found- 
ing and subsidizing technical schools of a high order. 

The imperial technical schools at Moscow and Saint Petersburg 
are richly endowed, and are reputed to be among the best equipped 
of European schools of their class. But these are properly classed as 
^professional schools. 

Of the schools below the university rank in Moscow, which give 
manual instruction and yet make no attempt to teach a handicraft, 
the Komisarof Technical School is among the oldest and best. It 
was opened in 1866 j two railroad contractors having originated the 
scheme for its establishment. The institution is aided by the govern- 
ment, and is attended by about 400 students. Boys are admitted at 11 
ye«.rs of age, if qualified, and remain five years. 

The course of instruction by years is as follows : 

First year. — Reading, writing, arithmetic to common fractions, gram- 
mar, German, geography, and drawing. 

/Second year. — Same subjects continued, Latin, Eussian history, math- 
ematical and mechanical drawing, and map drawing; workshop 
practice three hours daily. 

Third year. — Some of the above subjects, algebra, physical geography, 
free-hand drawing, geometry, and conic sections. 

Fourth year. — Mechanics, dynamics, history, elementary physics, min- 
eralogy, and metallurgy. 

Fifth year. — Trigonometry, magnetism and electricity, i)hysics, prop- 
erties of metals and woods, composition of stones, lime, mortar, machine 
construction, hydraulics, and bookkeeping. 

The elements of botany and zoology are taught in all the classes. 

Carpentry constitutes the workshop practice of the second and third 
years. Subsequently metal work takes the place of it. The equipment 

461 



462 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LA.BOR. 

of tlie worksliops comprises 44 vises, 60 carpenters' benclies, 30 foot 
latlies, 4 forges, etc. 

Of the same kind . tliongli on a smaller scale, is the Mechanical Handi- 
craft School of Moscow, founded by the Society for the Promotion of 
Technical Education. The instraction is much like that of the school 
just described. The government contributes about 81,000 annually to 
the support of this school. The course of study requires five years for 
its completion. Boys enter the school at 12 years of age. 

The Strogonoft" School of Technical Design and Museum of Art and 
Industry was founded in 1860 by Count Strogonoff in conjunction with 
the Emperor Nicholas. Drawing, modelling in clay, and designing of 
fabrics are the i)rincii)al subjects of instruction. The Museum of Art 
and Industry, established in connection with this school, is char- 
acterized by Mr. Mather as ^'a sort of South Kensington in em- 
bryo." ~ 

Like Moscow, Saint Petersburg has its technological institute and 
other institutions of collegiate rank for the education of civil engineers, 
mining engineers, etc. But the city is also abundantly provided with 
secondary schools which do not train i)upils for professions or specialties. 
Foremost among these is the Saint Petersburg Handicraft and Indus- 
trial School. This school is the outcome of an undertaking begun 
many years ago by the town authorities, with the aid of private indi- 
viduals, and under the patronage of the imperial family, having for its 
object the education of poor boys and orphans in the mechanic arts. 
Boys enter this school at the age of 12 years, and pursue a five years' 
course. 

The studies comprise reading, writing, arithmetic, the Eussian lan- 
guage, history, geography, natural history, elementary chemistry, me- 
chanics and i3hysics, technology of metals and woods, free-hand drawing, 
mechanical projection, singing, and gymnastics. Joinery, bootmaking, 
engraving, paper hanging, smiths' work, turning, planing, and shaping 
of metals constitute the various branches of workshop practice. 

The teaching staff numbers 24 persons, 2 of whom are drawing 
teachers, and 3 teach the handicrafts. 

In the first two years pui>ils spend two hours in the workshop and five 
hours in the classes daily ; in the third and fourth years the time is about 
equally divided between the classes and the workshop j while, in the 
fifth year, the whole of each day is passed in the shop. 

In connection with this school is a girls' department conducted on 
the same general plan. There are 19 teachers, of whom 9 are teachers 
of handicrafts. Girls are admitted at 10 to 12 years of age, and re- 
main until 17. In addition to elementary book learning they are taught 
the cutting out of clothing, needlework, dressmaking and millinery, 
lace making, cooking and housekeeping. 

At the Munich congress (1888) Saint Hilaire, director of the seminary 
at Saint Petersburg, said in reference to the state of the work school 



CHAP. VIII. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. 463 

movement in Enssia, tliat great interest liacl been taken in manual 
training in Russia ever since tlie efforts of Olauson-Kaas in Germany 
liad become known. He furtlier declared that the Technical Society 
of Saint Petersburg had for ten years sought to promote manual train- 
ing; but that the greatest impulse had been given to this form of in- 
struction by the i)resent minister of finance, Mr. "Wischnegradski. 
In 1884 he made a journey to Sweden, and visited the seminary of 
Salomon at Is'aas. During the same summer the minister of education 
sent two teachers to Naas, in order that they might go through the 
six weeks' course there; and, later, the director of the teachers' in- 
stitute at Saint Petersburg was dispatched to Sweden and Germany to 
ascertain what were the most approved equipments of manual training 
shops. 

In the same year (1884) a workshop for boys' hand labor was estab- 
lished in connection with the teachers' institute at Saint Petersburg by 
the minister of education, and one of the teachers, Mr. Zizuhe, who had 
worked in the Wdd^ seminary, was appointed (and had since served) 
as superintendent of this establishment. In the year 1885 the council 
voted an annual sum of 3,000 rubles ($1,059) for the workshop. 

The method of wood working pursued by Director Salomon at l^aas 
had been adopted with but slight and unimportant modifications, and 
also within the past year (1887) a beginning in metal work had been 
made. Each year about 45 pupils of the teachers' institute, who are 
preparing for positions in the city schools, take the course, and about 
20 x>upils of the practice school— boys from 12 to 15 years of age — also 
attend. They are divided into four groups and each gToui3 has to per- 
form six hours' shop work per week. 

Many of the pupils who have completed the manual training course 
[Sandfertig'keits-Cursus) are already introducing hand labor for boys 
into other educational establishments in Saint Petersburg, in the x)rov- 
inces, and throughout Russia. Yery many teachers and young peoi)]e, 
including women, apply for admission to the school workshop, and it 
is impossible to accommodate all of them. The teachers also give many 
private lessons in manual training in well to do families and in families 
of the highest station. During the present summer (1888) three courses 
in manual training have been held in Russia, viz., in ISTovaia Ladoga, 
for city and country school teachers, led by School Inspector Kotikof, 
a pupil of the Mias seminary; a course at Riga under the direction 
of Mr. Zizuhe; and a course for country school teachers at Kiev. 
All of these courses have received subventions from the state. 

Manual training has made good progress in Russia of late. The first 
institution which adopted this special. instruction into its curriculum 
was the teachers' institute at Saint Petersburg, and it is still at the 
head of the movement. 

iSTot only do the future teachers there learn to practise their profes- 
sion, but many teachers already in office are sent thither from various 



464 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

provinces of the kingdom to graduate in its courses of instruction. 
For carrying out tliis course of teacliing 3,000 rubles ($1,659) are annu- 
ally appropriated for the benefit of the Saint Petersburg teachers' 
institute. Similar provision is made for instructing teachers in manual 
labor at the institutes in Glookhov, Yilna, and Orenboorg. 

Besides, there are now eleven teachers' courses held in various local- 
ities in Eussia during the vacation season, and by this means 250 
teachers are prepared for the work of imparting manual instruction 
every year. Furthermore, the Eussian minister of war has decided to 
introduce manual training into all cadet schools; and, accordingly, in 
the summer of 1891, he instituted at Saint Petersburg a course of 
instruction for ofiicers from all cadet corps. 

Altogether, manual training has, up to the present time, been intro- 
duced into 116 establishments, viz., 4 teachers' institutes, 14 teachers' 
seminaries, 4 intermediate schools, 16 cadet corps, 44 higher public 
schools, and 34 elementary and common schools. 

In the Eussian congress of manual training in 1890 it was resolved: 
(1) That manual training should be recognized as a general educa- 
tional subject; (2) that the most effectual means of educating teachers 
of manual training are the vacation courses of instruction; (3) that 
in order to insure the adoption of manual training in all teachers' 
institutes and. seminaries the government should make it an obligatory 
subject. 

FIXLAKD. 

The data are not at hand from which to -sketch an outline of the 
industrial educational system of Finland. The following extracts from 
the Statistislc Arsholc for Finland , 1889-'90, show, however, that such 
a system exists in that country. 

Seven commercial schools are reported, with 46 male and 11 female 
teachers, and with 297 pupils — 162 boys and 135 girls. These schools 
all receive state subsidies. 

Thirty-one schools for apprentices, with a total of 2,111 pupils, are 
also mentioned, all receiving subventions from the town and state. 

There are 12 agricultural schools, with 44 instructors and 279 stu- 
dents. The course of study in these schools occupies two years in some 
cases and three years in other. Then there are 16 dairy schools, with 
25 male and 16 female teachers, and 148 x)upils, all but one of whom 
are females. 

Of industrial schools there were 6 in Finland, with 37 teachers and 
255 pui)ils, at the end of the school year 1888-'89. In certain of these 
schools the Finnish language is used, in others the Swedish. The 
schools derive their supi)ort from tuition fees. 

Finally, there were 12 towns in which 16 trade schools were main- 
tained. The teachers in these schools numbered 68, the x)ui)ils 965, 
varying in age from 11 years to 40. The state and commune contribute 



CHAP. VIII. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. 465 

to their siii^port. The report gives no clue as to what trades are taught, 
or what is the nature and scope of the instruction in any of the Finnish 
schools. 

Helsingfors, the capital of Finland, is the site of a polytechnic school 
which bears an excellent reputation. It has five sections, viz., engineer- 
ing, machine construction, architecture, chemistry, and surveying. 
The total number of pupils in attendance during the* school year 
1890-'91 was 128. 

There are also several schools in Finland where navigation is taught. 
Seven such are named in the list of the Arsholc, The total number of 
pupils in the seven schools in the school year 1890-'91 was 156. 

Kine commercial schools are given in the list of industrial institutions 
of Finland. These have, altogether, 62 teachers and 443 pupils — 247 
males and 196 females. 

The number of agricultural schools in Finland has increased from 
12 (as enumerated in the ArshoTc, 1889-^90) to 14, the present number. 
In the aggregate there are now 51 instructors in these schools and 
362 students. The dairy schools have apparently grown in favor with 
the people also. Of these there are now 19 in Finland, with 20 male 
and 26 female teachers, and 177 pupils, all females. 

There are trade schools of the primary grade in existence in 13 towns 
of Finland, with 58 teachers, 632 Finnish speaking pupils, 73 whose 
mother tongue is Swedish, and 9 whose native language is neither 
Swedish nor Finnish. As to age the youngest is 11, the eldest 33. 
Total state subvention, 4,774 marks ($1,136.21)5 communal, 8,099 marks 
($1,927.56). - 

There are also trade schools of the superior grade in 6 towns, with 37 
teachers, 251 Finnish speaking pupils, and 27 Swedish speaking pupils. 
As to age the minimum is 11 years, the maximum, 39 years. The 
state subvention is 10,755 marks ($2,559,69) ^ communal, 17,006 marks 
($4,047,43). 

In this report {Arbholc^ 1892) there are no statistics concerning the 
industrial schools of Finland that come down to a later date than 
those contained in former annuals. Indeed thQ figures from the report 
of 1889-'90 are here reiDroduced without change. 

Except in the case of the Polytechnic School at Helsingfors statis- 
tics are not given respecting individual institutions, and the informa- 
tion as to the polytechnic is very meagre. 

Following is a census of the Finnish technical and industrial schools : 
S.Ex.65 30 



46 G EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIOKER OF LABOR. 

TECHNICAL A^TD ENDUSTEIAL SCHOOLS IX FIXLAKD. 



Mar- 
ginal 
nuai- 
ber. 


I^ame of scliool. 


Location. 


Curriculum. 


1 


Lcnver teehnieal schools. 
Helstngfors teclmicalschool-. 

Abo technical scliool 

Tammerfors technical school 
Kuopio technical school . . . 
Nikolais tad technical school. 

Elementary tecknieal schools. 

Tammerfors elementary 
technical school. 

Aho elementary technical 
school. 

Tiborg elementary tech- 
nical school. 

Uleaborg elementary tech- 
nical school. 

Bj oi-neborg elementary tech- 
nical aehooL 

Jyva*kyla elementary tech- 
nical school. 

Hotka elementary- technical 
schooL 

Eaumo elementary tech- 
nical school. 

Saint Michel elementary 
technical school. 

Jacobstad elementary tech- 
nical school. 

Ekenas elementary tech- 
nical school. 

Tornea elementary tech- 
nical school. 

Xcxholm elementary tech- 
nical schooL 

Mariehamn elementary 
technical school. 

Industrial schools. 

^asa practical school 

TJleiiborg practical school. . . 

Makame Hallonblads in- 
dustrial school. 

Lektor Makineus practical 
school. 

Sakkijarvi industrial school. 

Joensuu industrial school .. 

Ingmau's iodustrial school . 

TVillmanstrand industrial 

school. 
Hattula industrial school . . . 

Satakunta industrial school. 

Imperial Finnish industrial 

t^cbool. 
Borga weaving school 

Borga school for straw 

workers. 
Tavastehus work school 

Xuopio school of weaving . . 


Helsingfors . . 


Penmanship, bookkeeping, mathe- 
matics, physics, practical mechan- 
ics, machine construction, free- 
hand, mecbanical, and trade draAV- 
ing. bridge, road, and water en- 
gineerii)<r. and manual work. 

Same as isTo. 1, and, in addition, 
ship building. 

Same as IS'o. 1 

Same as INo 1 


2 


i.bo ^ 


3 


Tammerfors 


4 


Kuopio 

Kikolaistad 


5 


Same as 2v'o. 1, ami, ia a,ddition, 

chemistry, 

Ereo-hand, ornamental, trade, and. 
mechanical drawing, mathemat- 
ics, penmanship, history, book- 
keeping, Swedish and Finnish 
languages. 

Drawing, modelling, carpentry, and 
blacksmith work. 

Carpentry, lathe work, wood sculp- 
ture, basket making, drawing, 
and modelling. 

"^ork in wood and iron, drawing, 
and modelling. 

All kinds of carpenter work, free- 
hand, ornamental, and trade draw- 
ing. 

Carpenter, blacksmith, and tin- 
smith work, free-hand and trade 
drawing. 


6 


Tammerfors 


7 


Aho 


8 




9 


Uleaborg 


10 




11 


Jyvaskyla 


12 


Kotka 


13 


■ 
Eaumo 


14 
15 


1 
Saint u^Cichel 

Jacobstad 


16 


Ekenas 


17 


Tome& 


18 


Kesholm . . 


19 




20 




21 


Uleaborg 


22 




23 
24 


Sordavala. 

Sakkijarvi.. ...... .. . 


25 




26 


Abo 


Fancy work in wood and wood 

sculpture. 
Carpenter work, harness makiug, 

drawing, and arithmetic. 
All kinds of wood work 


27 


WiUnianstT'and 


28 


Hattula 


29 


Tuiskula 


Blacksmithing, wagoa making, and 

agricultural implements. 
"W^eaving, sewing, straw work, 

drawing, and bookkeeping. 
Weaving, knitting, sewing, and 

straw work. 
Straw work of all kinds, and 

basket making. 


SO 


Abo 


31 




32 


Borga 


33 




04 




Weaving, dyeing, and sewing 







CHAP. VIII. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. 

TECKNICAL AXD rNDUSTEIAL SCHOOLS TS rrS-LAND. 



467 



How supported. 



Courses. 



Fees 
(approximate). 



Total 
pupils. 



Mar- 
ginal 
num- 
ber. 



By government, county, and fees 

By government, county, and fees 

By goTernment, county, and fees 
Bj- goverunjeiit, county, and fees 
By government, county, and fees 



► By gOTernment, county, and fees. . . 



By government, county, and feos 

Bj- government, county, and fees 

By government, county, and fees 

By government, county, and fees, and 
' by private donations. 

By government, county, and fees, and 
by private donations. 

By government, county, and fees, and 

'by private donations. 
By government, county, and fees, and 

by i)rivate donations. 
By government, county, and fees, and 

by private donations. 
By government, county, and fees, and 

by private donations. 
By government, county, and fees, and 

by private donations. 
By government and private donations, 

and fees. 
By government and private donations, 

and fees. 
By government and private donations, 

and fees. 
By government and private donations, 

and fees. 
By government and private donations, 

and lees. 



One and two years 

One and two years 

One and two years 
One and two years 
One and two years 



Six montlis each . 



Six montlis each; 

twelve hours daily. 
Six months each 



Eight months each; 

ten hours daily. 
Oi e year each; twelve 

hours daily. 

Eour months each; 

thirty-four hours per 

week. 
Six months each , 



Eight months each. 

Two years 

One year 

No fixed time 

No fixed time 

No fixed time 

No fixed time 

No fixed time 



$4 per year 

$4 per year 

$4 per year 
$4 per year 
$4 per 3-ear 



$2 per course 



54 cents permonth . 
TOcentspermonth. 

60 cents per month. 
80 centsper month. 



40 cents per month. 
40 cents per month . 



80 cents per montli . 



40 centspermonth . 
40 cents per month . 
40 cents per month . 
40 cent s per month . 
60 centspermonth. 



32 



955 



40 


25 


33 


20 


20 


27 


15 


23 


50 


29 


00 


30 


30 


31 


30 


32 


60 


33 


65 


34 



468 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

TECHNICAL AND IXDITSTRIAI. SCHOOLS TN FLNLAND— Concluded. 



Mar- 
ginal 
num- 
ber. 


Name of school. 


Location. 


Curriculom. 


1 


IndustHal schools— cone' ^. 

Joensuu school of weaving. 

Saint Michel school of 

weaving. 
"Cleaborg school of weaving 

Rovaniemi school of weav- 
ing. 
Kajana school of weaving . . 

Xexholm school of weaving. 

Frcdrikshamn school of 

weaving. 
Satakunta school of weaving 

Central school of art in- 
dustry. 




"Weaving, dyeing, and sewing 

"Weaving, dyeing, and sewing 

"Weaving, dyeing, sewing, and draw- 
ing. 

"Weaving, dyeing, sewing, and draw- 
ing., 

"Weaving, dyeing, sewing, andbook- 

"Weaving, dyeing, sewing, and book- j 
keeping. \ 

"Weaving, dyeing, sewing, andbook- j 
keeping. j 

"Weaving, dyeing, sewing, and book- 
keeping. 

Free-hand, ornamental, architect- 
ural, and mechanical drawing, 
trade drawing, arithmetic, math- 
ematics, bookkeeping, ornamen- 
tal modelling, porcelain and 
flower painting, wood sculpture 
and wood engraving, metal work, 
and penmanship. 


2 


Saint Michel 


3 


"Cleaborg , 


4 


Eovaniemi ............. 


5 


!K!aiana 


6 




7 




8 




9 


Helsingfors 







CHAP. VIII. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. 469 

TECHNICAL AND INDTJSTEIAL SCHOOLS IN FINLAND— Concluded. 



How supported. 


Courses. 


Fees 
(approximate). 


Total 
pupUs. 


Mar- 
ginal 
num- 
ber. 


By government and private donations, 

and fees. 
By government and private donations, 

and fees. 
By government and private donations, 

aiid fees. 
By government and private donations, 

and fees. 
By government and private donations, 

and fees. 
By government and private donations, 

and fees. 
By government and private donations, 

and fees. 
By government and private donations, 

and fees. 
By state, private donations, and fees. 


No fixed time 


40 cents per month . . . 
40 cents per month . . . 
40 cents per month. . . 
55 cents per month . . . 
40 cents per month . . . 
40 cents per month . . . 
60 cents per month... 
40centspermonth. . . 
$2 per term 


If, 

30 

100 

85 

64 

38 

92 

101 

364 


1 


No fixed time 


2 


No fixed time 


3 


No fixed time 


4 


No fixed time 


5 


No fixed time 


6 




7 


No fixed time 


8 


One to three years 


g 







470 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



TEOKN^ICAL ANT> TEADE EDTJCATIOE'. 

The following review of the present condition of middle and lower 
grade technical and trade education in Eussia is derived from a work (a) 
on that subject by J. A. Anapoff of Saint Petersburg, portions of 
which* have been specially translated for this Department. This, we 
are informed, is the only work of a statistical nature relating to this 
subject. 

Technical and professional education in Eussia, in the current re- 
stricted sense of- the terms, is of comparatively recent origin, for, 
though the government had previously given some attention to general 
education, it was not till within the last twenty-five years that meas- 
ures were adopted for the promotion of special education, except in 
the two government schools — the Saint Petersburg Technological Insti- 
tute and the Imperial Technical Institute at Moscow, both of which 
have since attained to the rank of universities. 

Twenty-five years is too short a period for the fall development of 
any scheme of public education j nevertheless the following data may 
serve as a proof of the great progress of professional education through- 
out Eussia within the two and a half decades to which this report 
relates. This progress is attributable chiefly to the aid granted by the 
government, the communes, and by private munificence. The financial 
assistance extended by individual benefactors to newly established 
technical and professional schools has sometimes been quite large, and 
the ministry of finance, in whose care these institutions were placed 
up to 1881, also rendered essential service in their development. 

The liermanent establishment of new schools and the large increase 
of their number showed the necessity of forming a general plan of 
technical and professional education, which was finally formulated by 
the ministry of finance, in accordance with an imperial order, in 1878. 

In 1881, in obedience to an imperial decree, most of the schools were 
placed under the superintendence of the ministry of public instruc- 
tion. By this order the authority to organize a system of public edu- 
cation was vested in the ministry of public instruction j and, pursuant 
to the plan, the committee of the scientific 'department organized a 
special section of technical and professional education. 

a Review of the Present Condition of Middle and Lower Technical and Trade Edu- 
cation in Russia, by J. A. Anapoff, director of the Tsarevitch Trade School^ member 
of the section of the scientitic committee on technical and proiessioua] education, 
and assistant to the president of the permanent committee on technical education 
attached to the Imperial Russian Technical Society. Saint Petersburg, 1889. 



CHAP. yill. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. 471 

The faudamental regulations of sncli schools were imperially confirmed 
in 1888, the minister of public instruction being ordered, in conjunction 
with the minister of finance and of the interior, to determine the places 
where such schools should be opened at the expense of the government. 

The new statutes (1888) relating to real-gymnasia provide for closing 
the special additional sections (except the commercial), and, instead 
of them, opening different government industrial schools, viz., the 
middle technical, lower technical, and trade schools. 

This review relates only to those schools established for training 
specialists in trade works and manufacturing industries; that is, those 
which were opened between 1860 and 1870, but which have not yet 
yielded definite results. 

All these technical and trade institutions may be assigTied to the 
five following groups: 

(1) Technical schools, with a course of studies similar to those pur- 
sued in middle educational institutions (classic and non-classic gj^mna- 
sia, commercial schools, etc.), which resemble the non-classic gymnasia, 
but differ from them by a greater attention to technical subjects. The 
object of these schools is to give pupils (in six to eight years) a general 
education, and such technical knowledge as they will need as assistants 
to engineers. The graduates of such schools have the right of entering 
the high special schools (technological institutes, etc.) as jjermitted the 
graduates of classic and real (non-classic) gymnasia, and as to military 
service have also the same rights as these latter. The scholars, besides 
receiving general instruction in classes, work in mechanical shops or 
in chemical laboratories. To this group belong, strictly speaking, only 
three schools — the High Trade School in Lodz, the Irkootsk Tech- 
nical School, and the Komisarof Technical School in Moscow. The 
Omsk and Kungursk technical schools are partly of this class, and are 
therefore included in this group. 

(2) In the second group may be classed those schools whose cur- 
ricula equal those of town schools (grammar schools). For those enter- 
ing them the knowledge of the subjects included in the curricula of 
primary schools is necessary, the full course of study being from four 
to six years; for military service their pupils have rights of the third 
degree {i. e., serve in regular service three years as privates), excex)ting 
the pupils of Tsarevitch Nicholas Trade School of Saint Petersburg, 
whose rights in this respect are higher. The curricula do not exceed 
those of the town schools, but these additional branches are studied — 
physics, mechanics, and technology of wood and metals. Such schools 



472 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

are establislied to train master workmen, junior mechanics, macliinists, 
and tracers. Graduates of sucli scliools have not the right of entering 
high schools, although the extent of the curricula of some of them de- 
velops in the scholars a desire to continue their education. In most of 
the schools they follow a strict course of instruction in locksmiths' and 
joiners' trades, which makes their maintenance quite expensive; when 
there are no other financial resources the scholars are educated on the in- 
come derived from the sale of pupils' work and from the fulfilment of 
private orders. Many of the graduates enter as teachers of trades in 
lower schools, and in this way the schools of this grouj), not being in.- 
teiided for i3reparing trade teachers and not having any special class 
for such purpose, nevertheless necessarily resemble trade school semi- 
naries; many of them are provided with boarding facilities. To such 
schools belong the Alexander Technical in Gherepovetz, the Count 
Orlolf-Demidoff Trade School in Simbeersk, and the trade school of 
Tsarevitch Nicholas in Saint Petersburg. In this group it is necessary 
to include the technical railway schools, superintended by the ministry 
of ways and communications, but as they pursue only special courses, 
restricted to the needs of emi^loyment upon railways, we wiU not de- 
scribe them. 

(3) Trade {remessleni) schools with curricula not higher than those 
of x)rimary schools, or sometimes reaching that of two-class village 
schools. Most of them accept graduates of public (peasant) schools and 
repeat the programme of the latter. Such schools are established for 
the purpose of training masters in the common trades, and also work- 
men. They have shops for joiners, blacksmiths, carpenters, locksmiths, 
shoemakers, bookbinders, and other trades, but these schools do not 
all farnish systematic instruction in trades. In summer the scholars 
mostly do manual work in the shops ; most of these schools are without 
boarders. This group includes the Kazan, Orenboorg, Kishenev, Irbit, 
and other trade schools; it should also include the trade schools estab- 
lished by benevolent societies as in Yladimeer, Tver, and other. towns, 
and also such trade shops as at the Tambov and Birsk trade schools. 

(4) To this group belongs different special schools of general educa- 
tion for adults, such as the school of overseers of architecture, the print- 
iPig school, the evening and Sunday special classes of the technical 
society of Saint Petersburg, Eiga trade schools, and others. The in- 
struction is given during the evenings when the workmen have leisure 
time. The graduates of such schools have the right of third and fourth 
degree for military service, according to the degree of their education. 



CHAP. VIII. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. 473 

(5) The general educational low schools, that is, non-technical, non- 
trade, which embrace the primary, district (county) or town schools, 
with additional trade sections. 

In respect to the foregoing classification of technical and trade 
schools it is necessary to add that the line of separation between the 
groups can not be quite definite, for these various schools merge into 
one another. A list of the schools in the several groups, together with 
the nuniber of students and graduates and the cost of support and 
studies, follows; 



474 



REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOE. 



STUDENTS AND GEADUATES OE THE MIDDLE AND THE LOVEE TECHIO:CAL AND 

TRADE SCHOOLS. 



Mar- 
gin- 


Name of sciieol. 


Tear 

estab- 
lisbed. 


Students during the last scliool year. 


al 
num- 
ber. 


Lock- 
smiths. 


.Join- 
ecrs. 


Found- 
ers. 


En- 
grav- 
ers. 


Black- 
smiths. 


Turn- 
ers. 


Shoe 
and 
harness 
mak- 
ers. 


Book- 
bind- 
ers. 


Tai- 
lors, 


1 


First group. 


1869 
1873 
1865 

1882 
1877 






- 














2 






















3 


Komisarof technical in Mos- 
cow. 
Omsk technical 




















4 




















5 


Kungursk technical of Mr. 
Gubouiov. 


33 


1 


































33 


1 


1.... 














Second group. 

Cherepovetz Alexander tech- 
nical. 


1868 

1868 
1875 
1872 

1880 
1885 
1868 

1871 
1878 
1886 
1872 
1879 

1883 
1874 

1883 

1886 
1879 
1877 

1887 
1885 
1873 

1877 
1886 


1 












6 




















7 


139 
269 
50 

106 

a 71 

48 

108 
60 
40 
37 
52 

12 

110 

53 
36 
34 

38 


15 
06 
27 

70 

3 

26 

32 
42 
12 
11 
26 

10 
29 

29 

32 

6 

64 

18 
















8 


Tsareviteh Nicholas trade 

Kiilibinsk (Nizhnee Novgo- 
rod) trade. 

Till is town Michailovsk trade. 

Vladimeer Maltzef trade 

Vladi Kavkas Ct.Loris Meli- 
kof trade. 

Saratov Alexander trade 

De"'tiaref trade 
















9 


29 


7 












10 












11 














12 
















13 
















14 


7 




10 










15 


Putivl Maklakof trade 

Stavropol Mioliailof trarle 

Saint Petersburg technical so- 
ciety' s trade. 










16 
















17 
















18 






12 










19 


Odessa Jew society (Labor) 
trade. 

Michailof-Elisavetpol profes- 
sional. 

Kharkov trade 


27 












20 




35 

2 










21 




12 


25 








22 


Bolshesoisk-Popoff trade 

Okhta (suburb of Saint Pe- 
tersburg) trade. 








23 










9 






21 














25 


Warsaw Konarsky trade 

Moscow technical society's 
trade. 

Moscow Morosoff trade 

Novo-Cherkask Attsman trade 
















26 


... 1 
















27 


48 


22 
















28 






































1,311 


540 


63 


19 1 59 


25 


9 








Third group. 
Kazan trarle 


1881 
1875 
1877 
1877 
1881 
1884 
1879 

1870 
1883 
1884 
1S88 
1882 
1866 
1873 
1875 
1877 
1872 
1880 
1874 






29 


63 
33 
17 

16 

27 

44 

141 

13 
10 
26 


35 
13 
17 




1 




38 


...... 


13 


30 


liiazan trade ............. 




26 


15 


31 




' 32 


Irbit trade ..... 






6 




11 






33 




31 
29 
24 

18 
4 
19 










34 


Tambov trade modelling shop. 
Private trade school of Kin in 

Warsaw. 
Orenbooro' trade 














35 






15 

12 

2 






36 




1 


* 






37 






' 








38 


Kortch tirade 




1 








39 


Viatka ti ado 














40 




14 
71 
30 

""'is' 

""70" 
93 


10 














41 


S. S. trade Co.'s trade . 














42 


Harbor of Nicolaef trade 

Eeshetof Tver trade classes. . . 


27 
17 
21 
27 


2 


20 


23 








43 








44 


7 






10 

1 






45 


Kiev benevolent societies trade 




4 


27 


.... 


46 






47 


Smolensk trade 


19 






7 





























a All the students of the first class (35) were occupied in the joiners' shop; 21 of the second class in 
the locksmiths'; and of 18 of the third class 3 chose the joiner's trade. 

b Tlie other 49 of tlie junior class v/ere occupied in more than one trade. 

c Of this number 10 were occupied in the cooper's business and 9 in agriculture; of 7 students no 
information is given. 

d Of this number 26 were occupied in church painting and 9 had graduated in this specialty. 



CHAP. Vin. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. 



475 



STUDENTS AXD GEADTJATES OF THE MIDDLE AND THE LOWER TECHNICAL AND 

TEADE SCHOOLS. 



Students, 

during the 

last school 

year. 


Graduates. 


Cost of 
support 

and 
studies. 


Mar- 
gin- 


Booli- 
koep- 
ers. 


Total. 


Look 
smiths. 


Join- 
ers. 


Found- 
ers. 


En- 
grav- 
ers. 


Black- 
smiths. 


Turn- 
ers. 


Shoe 
and 
harness 
mak- 
ers. 


Book- 
bind- 
ers. 


Tai- 
lors. 


Book- 
keep- 
ers. 


Total. 


al 
num- 
ber. 





347 
109 
433 

69 
34 






















287 

91 

426 

38 
43 


$15,484.00 
21, 014. 00 
51, 982. 00 

16, 590. 00 
16, 590. 00 


1 






















2 























3 






















4 






















5 


























1, 052 












1 








885 


121, 660. 00 














1 










10 


175 

154 
335 

84 

205 
74 

74 

150 
119 

52 
48 
78 

6 83 
166 

c90 

124 
d6S 
ell9 

56 






















1 
202 1 '>^ -^38 nn 


6 


97 

251 

29 

52 


11 
57 
38 

27 


















108 

330 

81 

80 


18,249.00 
58,618.00 
7, 189. 00 

16, 590. 00 

10, 507. 00 

9,954.00 

19,355.00 

15,649.90 

4, 755. 80 

4, 424. 00 

4, 424. 00 

9,401.00 
8,295.00 

14, 378. 00 

7, 742. 00 

2, 820. 30 

J 3, 825. 00 

2, 543. 80 
4,147.50 

5, 695. 90 

3, 318. 00 
17, 143. 00 


7 


1 


22 
11 














8 




3 










9 










10 
















11 


59 

93 
29 


56 

22 

47 


















115 

117 
90 


12 
















2 


13 


1 




13 










14 












15 


44 
79 

10 
57 


17 
28 

8 
18 


















61 
107 

29 
82 


16 


















17 






11 












18 


7 














19 
















20 
























21 


14 
14 


1 
13 


















15 
/55 


22 




^ 




1 


4 


1 






23 






24 


■" 1 "' 






i 
















25 




150 
70 






















&1 
53 


26 


44 


9 


















27 


















28 






























10 


2,474 


872 


352 


9 


37 


24 


4 


4 


1 


2 


2 


1,608 

30 
.57 
40 
36 

8 
24 
70 

104 
9 


284,463.20 




::::;: 


149 
103 
34 
33 
58 
73 
180 

9 66 
g 40 
45 
10 
24 
71 
102 
17 
50 
59 
70 
48 


16 


7 










5 




3, 318. 00 
8, 954. 00 

2, 765. 00 

3, 539. 20 
2, 986. 20 
6, 636. 00 
5, 806. 50 

4,811.10 
1,535.50 
5,530.00 


29 










30 


27 
20 


12 
5 


1 
















31 




5 




6 








32 












33 


19 
65 

' e" 


4 
3 

48 
2 






1 












34 


.... 






2 

19 

1 








35 






37 










36 












37 
















38 
























39 


11 
276 
119 

24' 

■"'ioi' 


11 




1 












22 

276 

hi25 

25 

51 

i35 

101 


3, 649. 80 
2, 7G5. 00 

4, 733. 68 


40 




! 












41 


66 

25 

16 

9 


11 




77 


58 










42 








43 


3 










8 
3 








4, 700. 50 


44 




2 




9 






45 












4, 147. 50 
4, b77. 00 


46 






















47 



e Of this number 9 were occupied in wood and 3 did not study trade. 

/ Seventeen of the graduates still work in the school shops; of 1 graduate no information is given. 

g Stu<lents of junior classes do not study trades. 

h Of 94 graduates no information is given. 

i Since 1886; of 12 graduates no information ia given. 



476 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



STUDEl^TS AND GRADUATES OF THE MIDDLE AND THE LOWEil TECHNICAL AND 
TKADE SCHOOLS— Concluded. 



Mar- 
gin- 


Name of school. 


Year 
estab- 
lished. 


Students during the last school year. 


al 
mim- 
ber- 


Lock- 
smiths. 


Join- 
ers. 


Found- 
ers. 


En- 
grav- 
ers. 


Black- 
smiths. 


Turn- 
ers. 


Shoe 
and 
harness 
mak- 
ers. 


Book- 
bind- 
ers. 


Tai- 
lors. 


1 


Third grrowj?— concluded. 

Irkootsk Trapesnlkof trade . . 
Massalsk trade asylum of 
Kanshin, 

Krasnoslohodsk trade 

Birsk trade 


1874 
1874 

1885 
1882 
1884 
1873 
1883 
1878 
1887 
1878 
1876 
1878 
1877 

1882 
1887 

1883 
1883 
1877 
1884 
1871 
1887 
1875 


;;;;;;; 

""26" 
...... 


38 

7 

17 




7 


7 




21 






2 


2 




3 












4 


20 
23 







29 










5 










17 






6 


Vilna training shops 














7 


Turgaisk Jacovleff trade 

Oofa Alexander trade 


5 

28 
18 
10 
10 














5 
5 


g 










13 




9 


Menkof Sebastopol trade 

Vitebsk town trade asylum . . . 
Tobolsk trade 










10 










7 


13 




11 










12 


Kolomna trade 
















13 


Astrakhan trade school of 
the Armenian church. 

Kobijsk-Savinsk trade classes. 

Alexandrof trade school in 
hamlet Koch ureshty (Bessa- 
rabia). 

Nogaisk commune trade 


8 

7 


10 
8 










7 






14 














15 


18 






7 










16 


13 














17 
















18 


Saksagansk commune trade . . 


9 


' 
















19 
















20 


KoteluicheskKomisaroftrade. 
Suisk trade 


6 
3 


2 
3 

7 


2 




4 


1 








21 








22 


Chembarsk commune trade . . . 
Bskov trade. .. --- 
















23 
















1 


24 


Samara Alexander trade 

Aleshkof trade classes at the 
four-class town. 

Archangel town trade 

Astrakhan Alexander H 
trade. 

Astrakhan benevolent soci- 
ety's trade. 


1872 
1888 




















25 




17 














1 


26 


1867 
1875 

1874 

1872 
1887 
1879 
1867 
1877 

1889 
1886 
1875 


















27 




37 
13 










18 
10 






28 














29 














30 


Elabujsk trade 


8 


28 
16 
















31 




... 








11 






32 


Yelisavetgrad trade . 














- 33 


Abramtzef 8 primary school 
joiners' shop. 

Kovno Alexander II trade 

Novo Cherkask military trade. 
Liidinovsk trade. 






.. 










- 34 
















35 


11 
8 

23 
7 

53 








9 




15 







36 


6 
12 

It 








37 
















38 


Novo-Majatkovsk trade 

Kiev Alexander trade 

Alexander child asylum's 
trade (Nizhnee Novgorod). 

Yladimeer benevolent so- 
ciety's trade. 

Profession section of the 
Batoom town. 

Minsk primary Jew school, 
with trade section. 

Trade section at Vonzsk (gov- 
ernment Archang<>l) villaj^e. 

Class of ivory carving at tne 
Lomonosof village school 
(government Arcli angel). 


1883 
1874 
1878 

1882 

1884 

1879 

1875 

1865 

1880 














1 


39 








23 


52 
11 

12 






40 








11 


8 
13 


41 


19 


. 










42 










43 


60 


14 

7 
















41 










5 






• 45 














46 




10 




5 




3 






















887 


873 


11 


38 


89 


69 


288 


69 
69 


44 
44 




Total for all the three groups . . 








2,231 


1,414 


74 


57 


148 


94 


297 









a Students of junior classes do not study trades. 



CHAP. VIII. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. 



477 



STUDENTS AND GRADUATES OE THE MIDDLE AND THE LOWER TECHNICAL AND 
TRADE SCHOOLS— Concluded. 



Students 

during the 

last school 

year. 


Graduates. 


Cost of 
support 

and 
studies. 


Mar- 
gin- 


Book- 
keep- 
ers. 


Total. 


Lock- 
smiths. 


Join- 
ers. 


Found- 
ers. 


En- 
grav- 
ers. 


Elack- 
smiths. 


Turn- 
ers. 


Shoe 
and 

harness 
mak- 
ers. 


Book- 
bind- 
ers. 


Tai- 
lors. 


Book- 
keep- 
ers. 


Total. 


al 
num- 
ber. 




a 90 
9 

17 
49 
40 
40 
10 
46 
35 
30 
10 
25 
17 

16 
25 

20 
15 
18 
7 
15 
6 
7 






















4 

17 


17, 696. 00 


1 


ii' 


13 

4 
7 

12 
3 

(&) 


■ 










4 






632. 63' 2 
















927. 381 ^ 






7 












7, 189. 00 
4, 424. 00 


4 
















5 
















■ 


29 
6 


6 














3 




948. 40 
1, 659. 00 


7 














8 




















9 




14 










15 


19 






48 


2, 234. 12 


10 














11 






















14 
20 

9 


1, 382. 50 
1, 106. 00 

1, 659. 00 
1,106.00 

1, 106. 00 


12 


7 


10 
2 










10 








13 
















14 


















15 






















2 
8 
19 


16 






















17 


8 


11 


















1, 824. 90 


18 


















19 


8 


2 


9 




3 


4 










26 


1, 106. 00 

1^106:00 

442. 40 


20 










21 




5 


















5 


22 


















23 






























24 




17 

23 
55 

23 

33 
























1, 106. 00 

2,57L45 
6,359.50 

1, 935. 50 

1, 935. 50 
2, 422. 14 
1, 993. 01 


25 
























26 
























27 
























28 
























29 


36 
21 
70 
16 
























30 




16 










17 








33 


31 
















32 




14 


















14 


1,88L86 


33 


















34 


:::::: 


35 
14 
35 
23 
159 
30 

66 






















. 


7, 963. 20 
1, 382. 50 


35 
























36 
























37 






















7 
194 
38 

13 

10 

44 

29 


3, 124. 45 
16, 590. 00 


38 


63 


39 








24 


68 








39 














40 


5 


5 


. .. 








2 





1 






41 












42 




74 
12 
11 

18 


41 


3 

14 


















2, 765. 00 

884. 80 

97.88 

1, 106, 00 


43 










15 








44 
















45 




11 




2 














13 


46 



















2,562 
6.088 


833 
1,705 


393 
745 


24 


2 


132 


86 


171 


32 


6 




1,933 


172, 923. 10 




10 


33 


39 


156 


90 


175 


33 


6 


2 


4,424 


579, 040. 3p 





b Three or four yearly. 



478 



REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

HOUES OF STUDY PEE "WEEK IN MIDDLE TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. 



Subject. 


Mechanical course. 
Classes — 


Chemical course. 
Classes— 


Architectural course. 
Classes— 




I. 


II. 


in. 


IV. 


I. 


n. 


III. 


IV. 


I. 


II. 


in. 


IV. 


Eeli £11 on .. ..... .... 


1 
3 


1 
3 


1 


1 


1 

I 
3 
3 
5 




1 


1 


1 


1 
- 3 


1 
3 


1 


1 












2 
3 
3 

2 
2 


2 








Pbysics .......... 


3 
3 
5 


3 
2 
2 

2 
•2 




a2 




3 
3 
5 


3 

2 
2 

2 








4 








Mecbaiiics 










Construction of machines 


I 




2 




2 






6 
3 




3 
8 




i"--- 


Cbeniical work 








6 






- - o" 








3 






3 




4 


7 


6 


Surveying and levelling . . 

Commevciai geography 
and eiementaxy politi- 
cal economy. 

Bookkeeping and com- 
mercial correspondence. 


3 












3 






2 
2 


1 

2 
2 




2 


1 
2 














2 
2 






2 


2 














3 


GrapMcalttudies. 

Geometrical tracing 

Technical tracing . . 


6 


6 




4 


4 




6 


4 






3 
6 


12 


4 


4 


6 
10 
6 

6 


' ■ 














2 
10 


3 

8 

10 


20 


Drawing 


3 
9 


3 

9 

2 




4 
9 


2 






4 


Practical training. 

Mechanical shops 

Chemical shops 


9 


9 






6 


6 


18 


10 
8 
















20 
































Total 


36 


38 


34 


38 


34 


42 


40 i 40 


42 


42 


42 


42 











a Electrical. 



HOUES OF STUDY PEE WEEK IN LOWEE TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. 



Subject. 


Classes. 


Classes. 


Classes. 


I. 


II. 


HI. 


I. 


II. 


ni. 


I. 


n. 


III. 




1 
4 
4 
4 
3 


1 
3 
2 
2 
2 
2 


1 
"i 


1 
4 
4 
3 
3 


1 


1 


1 
3 
4 

4 


1 


1 


Arith'iiptip. nnf] fllfphrn^/r^ 




Geometry . .. . ....... 


2 
3 
4 


""q 

7 


2 












Chepiistry .. -- 










Zoology . ..... 




3 



















4 
2 


6 
4 


2 
3 
3 


5 








Mecha'^i'^al Trork 














8 








Archi te'^tural work a^^d materials 












6 


8 
2 

1 


6 
















3 


T,pvoiliiiar mifl la.vino' dni nf iri.ifpririls 

















2 


Bookkee^in"" -.. 






2 

2 

6 






2 

2 
4 




4 


Graphical studies. 


4 

4 


2 
4 


4 
4 


2 
2 


6 
4 
2 


6 

4 
2 


6 


Technical and geometrical tracin"' 


4 






Practical training. 


20 


20 


20 


18 








Chemical shops i 


10 
10 


6 

8 


















14 


14 


18 














Total 


44 


44 


46 


44 


42 


49 


44 


40 


44 









a Alj;ebra is taught only in mechanical classes. 



CHAP. VIII. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. 



479 



nouns or study per week in teade schools. 



Subject. 



Classes. 



II. nx 



Eeligion 

Eusaian laBgua«;e 

Arithmetic and boolckeeping 

Geometry 

Elementary knowledge of physics 

Technology of woods in the joiners' section 

Technolo";y of metals in the locksmiths' section. 

Calligraphy - 

Drawing 

Geometrical tracing 

Technical tracing 

Practical studies in workshops 

Singing 



Total. 



24 



42J 44^ 



43i 



THE FUKDAMEKTAL EEGTJLATIOKS FOE rNT)USTEIAL(a) 
SCHOOLS, IMPEEIALLY OONFIEMED MAEOH 7, 1888. 

The object of these regulations was to afford a definite basis for dis- 
trict and graded institutions for technical education. So far, however, 
no schools have been established under them. The regulations are as 
follows : 

(1) The industrial schools for the male population of the empire are 
established for the purpose of propagating in the population middle 
and lower technical and trade education. 

(2) The middle technical schools teach all that is required for mechan- 
ics as nearest assistants to engineers, and the other chief supervisors 
of industry. 

(3) The lower technical schools, in teaching some special branch, 
give the knowledge required by the immediate and direct sui^ervisors 
of the labor of workmen in industrial works. 

(4) The trade schools teach the practice of different trades, and give 
the knowledge necessary for an intelligent system of executing work. 

(5) Each of the above forms of industrial schools can exist sepa- 
rately, or together with other similar schools of different grades and 
specialties. If, in the general superintendency, the middle technical 
schools are joined with the lower, or with the trade schools, then such 
a conjunction of schools bears the name of a general industrial school. 
To the industrial schools, as far as possible, are joined supplementary 
schools for teaching workmen during their unoccupied hours. 

(6) The industrial schools may be joined with prei^aratory schools 
of a general education. In educational institutions of this kind the 
teaching of general educational subjects may be done in classes desig- 
nated to take special vStudies. On the contrary the teaching of some 
of the mixed subjects and practical work may be begun before finishing 
the general educational course in the school, on condition, however, 
that in the middle technical schools the teaching of mixed subjects 
and of practical work do not begin until the scholars have ended their 
general education according to the third class of real (non-classic) gym- 
nasia. 

aPyomeeshleni (Frencli, induatnel ; German, (jeiverh). Included under tbis term are 
the middle tecbuical, lower technical, and trad€ schools. The higher technical 
subjects would be taught in the universities. 



480 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. 

[An industrial school joined with a school of general education can 
not be joined with industrial schools of other categories.] 

(7) The industrial schools are supported either at the expense of the 
government, or of communes, or of societies, or of private people. The 
schools supported by the government treasury or requiri?^g material 
assistance from it, undergo all the rules ijromul gated for them by the 
government, and their teachers and scholars enjoy all the rights men- 
tioned in the regulations. The government can also grant such rights 
to other schools supported by communes, private people, etc. 

(8) The offerings received by these schools, the payment for tuition, 
and income through the sale of articles made in the school shops are 
considered to be the sole property of the school. The payments for 
studies are generally to be employed as supplementary to the sums 
given to the schools by the government for the salaries of teachers of the 
corresponding sections, for the purchase of books, and at last for assist- 
ing persons in destitute circumstances who have served or who serve 
in such schools, as well as poor scholars. The profit from the sale of 
articles is to be chiefly utilized for the needs of the shops. 

(9) In industrial schools a predominant significance is given to the 
teaching of subjects directly relating to the specialty of the school, and 
also to graphical studies and to practical exercises in the ways of work- 
ing. The teaching of general educational studies is chiefly limited to a 
repetition (review) of the programme passed in the preparatory gen- 
eral educational school, with the addition of such subjects only as are 
needed for the practical life to which the scholars are preparing them- 
selves. 

(10) The extent of the course of studies in industrial schools, the 
determination of the studies eniering the programme, and also the time 
which must be employed for graphical studies and for practical exer- 
cises in working are defined by statutes and regulations published for 
such schools conformably to their specialty and to the local conditions 
and requirements. On the same basis is also established the extent of 
studies in industrial schools, it being observed that the programme of 
middle technical schools and that of trade schools lasts not longer than 
four years, and the programme of lower technical schools not longer 
than three years. In an industrial school joined with a general educa- 
tional one, the general term of the course must not exceed the normal 
term of studies of both schools. According to this the trade schools 
completing the general education of primary schools, up to the degree 
of a two- class village school, can not have a course of studies exceeding 
five years. 

(11) Industrial schools supported by the government are established 
by order of the minister of x^ublic instruction and those supported by 
other sources are established — the technical, by permission of said min- 
ister; and the trade schools, by permission of the curator of the educa- 
tional district. Technical schools are controlled by the said curators, 
and the trade ones by the director of public (peasant) schools. 

(12) The industrial schools are allowed to accept scholars of all con- 
ditions and religions. 

[In the schools supported by private people limitations can be allowed 
in this resiiect through the permission of the minister of public in- 
struction.] 

(13) To enter trade schools one must present a certificate of his end- 
ing the course of studies of primary schools; for entering the lower 
technical school, the course of studies of town or district schools; and 
for entering middle technical schools, a certificate of his ending the 



CHAP. VIII. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. 481 

studies of five classes of real (non-classic) gymnasia, or of any other 
middle educational institution, tlie course of wliicli will be regarded 
equal by tlie minister of public instruction. 

(14) Persons not satisfying the above conditions are allowed to enter 
such schools if they have stayed at least two years in industrial works, 
and by their examination can prove that they can follow the course of 
the school in which they wish to enter. Before accepting such persons 
the directors must get information of them from the places where they 
worked. 

(15) The full programme regarding the entrance into such schools, as 
well as the regulations regarding the passing from class to class, and 
graduating, is published by the ministry of public instruction. 

(16) The industrial schools must have — a librarj^, a cabinet of man- 
uals for tracing and drawing (where possible), a special room for model- 
ling, and the necessary books conformable to the specialty of the school. 
Besides this the schools must have the necessary facilities for practical 
studies, or the possibility for such guaranteed by private industrial 
firms. 

(17) By i^ermission of the minister boarding schools may be allowed 
at such industrial schools, provided they be superintended by the man- 
agers of the latter schools. 

(18) The boarding schools are supported either by the government 
or by payments received from boarders, or by donations from com- 
munes, private x)eople, etc. 

(19) The formation of the control and management of boarding schools 
is api)ointed by special ministerial instructions. 

(20) In industrial schools, supported by the government, the fees 
for studies are defined — for technical schools, by the ministry; for 
trade schools, by the curator of the educational district; for those estab- 
lished by private means the fees for studies are determined by those 
who supi)ort the schools. 

(21) The composition (personal) and the order of managing indus- 
trial schools are defined by statutes imblished for such purposes, con- 
formable to the necessities and to the statutes existing for general ed- 
ucational institutions of an equal grade. 

(22) The teachers of religion are chosen by the school managers after 
being recommended by the. local diocese; their appointment is con- 
firmed by the curator of the educational district. 

(23) The teachers of practical work are taken from among those 
who by their education have the right to occupy the place of teachers 
in real gymnasia. For trade schools the teachers of general educa- 
tional studies are taken from among those who have received a tech- 
nical or artistic education ; the teachers of technical studies, teclinical 
tracing, and teachers of practical work, from among those who have, 
at least, graduated from middle technical institutions. 

(24) The teachers of religion, of mixed studies, of tracing and draw- 
ing, in the laboratory, and the masters having the title of mechanics are 
considered to be in active government service. The masters not hav- 
ing such titles, and also teachers of modelling, gymnastics, music, and 
dancing, in schools where these subjects are taught, are simply hired. 

[On the recommendation of the superintendent, approved by the cu- 
rator of the educational district, all the teachers may be private; i. e.j 
hired.] 

(25) For increasing general educational knowledge and for the pur- 
pose of forming experienced technical school teachers, such schools 
may have supernumerary teachers, 

S. Ex. 65 31 



482 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOXEK OF LABOR. 

(26) Teachers of teclmical schools are appointed for service by the 
rules existing for non-classic gymnasia, and the trade teachers by those 
existing for town schools. 

(27) The supernumerary teachers and master teachers in technical 
schools su])ported by the government are divided into four categories 
with the following salaries: 960, 1,200, 1,440, and 1,800 rubles ($530.88, 
8663.60, $796.32, and 8995.40) in middle technical schools; 750,900, 
1,250, and 1,500 rubles ($414.75, $497.70, $691.25, and $829.50) in lower 
technical schools; each of these salaries is given for twelve lessons a 
week, for fifteen liours in directing the gTaphical studies, for twenty 
hours in laboratory work, and for twenty-five hours in practical work 
in the sliops, with a deduction for the hours which were not occupied 
conformable to the salary. 

(28) Those re-entering the service as teachers in technical schools 
receive at the beginning the lowest salary, and only alter five years' 
service in the same school can it be increased. The next salaries are 
given to those who have served more time in the school, and have dis- 
played a useful service. 

(29) For additional lessons or hours in technical schools the teachers 
receive an additional pay, which in middle technical schools is calcu- 
lated at 75 rubles ($41.48) a year for each general educational study, at 
60 rubles ($33.18) for each graphical study, etc. 

(80) Teachers of trade schools sui^ported by the government receive 
a remuneration for teaching according to the number of hours occupied 
by them during the week ; the lessons of religion and of special sciences 
are paid at 50 rubles ($27.65) for a yearly hour, and the general educa- 
tional lessons at 40 rubles ($22.12), the payment for practical work 
being 25 rubles ($13.83) for the yearly hour. 

(31) In each lower and middle technical school with one or two 
specialties there is appointed one supervisor, the middle school with 
three specialties has two suiDervisors, and the general technical school 
has four of them who are chosen from among the teachers. Such su- 
13ervisors must assist the school authorities in controlling the conduct 
and success of scholars, and must also replace absent teachers. 

(32) On combining several middle technical schools, in each of its 
sections is appointed a special person for controlling and teaching the 
specialty aT)pertaining to such section. 

(33) In industrial schools, in case of need, doctors may be appointed 
by the cnrator of the educational district, while in trade schools they 
may be chosen by the inspector and appointed by the director of 
public schools. 

(34) At industrial schools, conformable to the grade and the num- 
ber of their teachers, there may be formed pedagogical councils and 
household committees on regulations, which exist for other schools of 
the same standing. 

(35) At industrial schools there may be appointed i^ositlons of hon- 
orary curators, and in trade schools honorary inspectors. 

(36) These schools have the right to have a seal engraved with the 
government armories and the name of the school, to procure realties and 
accept all sorts of gifts, and to get from abroad articles of art, etc., ex- 
empted from duties. 

(37) Arrests, etc. 

(38) Persons teaching in government industrial schools are pen- 
sioned according to their grades. 

(39) Graduates of middle fourth-class technical schools receive the 
name of techno-mechanic, conformable to the specialty. Graduates 



CHAP. VIII. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. 483 

of siicli of these schools as have a course of studies of two or tliree 
years get the above name only after having served two or three years 
in industrial works. 

(40) Those receiving the name of techno-mechanic, if they have no 
other higher rights, receive the title of honorable citizen, and also the 
right to enter higher technical schools of a corresponding nature. 

(41) The graduates of middle techni-cal schools, if they did not pos- 
sess higher rights before entering these schools, have in regard to title 
and conscription the same rights as those graduating from middle gen- 
eral educational institutions. The graduates of lower technical and 
also of trade schools receive the rights given to persons of a corre- 
sponding education. 



OHAPTEE IX. 



PEESENT STATUS OF IIDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN 
SCAiNDINAYIAN COUNTRIES. 



485 



CHAPTER IX. 

PRESENT STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SCANDINAVIAN 

COUNTRIES. 

Trade schools have not, as yet, attained great importance in Scandi- 
navian countries. Outside the trade departments of some of the tech- 
nical schools but few exist, and these are still in their infancy. AmoDg 
artisans there is a strong opposition to the ordinary trade school; but 
the general opinion among educators and others favors them, and almost 
every employer finds youths who have graduated from trade schools 
superior both as artisans and as men. The most important trade schools 
are those for weaving in Sweden; schools for wood carvers and one for 
mechanics in Norway; and schools for shoemakers and watchmakers, 
in Denmark. A number of new schools are spoken of, and some are 
soon to be opened. 

Of much greater imx3orfcance, as yet, than the trade schools in the 
industrial life of the Scandinavian countries are the technical schools, 
of which (not including technological institutes) Norway has 14, Swe- 
den 34, and Denmark 82. All of these schools receive support from the 
governments of their respective countries. They are for the greater part 
evening schools, and have as their chief object the technical education 
of artisans, though a few of them offer facilities for general academic 
studies. A few have trade departments, but most of them are conte^it 
to give theoretical instruction in the trades, leaving it to the pupils to 
obtain manual skill in the shops. The greatest attention is paid to 
drawing of all kinds, esiDCcially trade and mechanical drawing. The 
great majority of the pui^ils of these technical schools are working 
already at some trade. Emj)loyers are obliged sometimes to send the 
youths who work for them to these schools; others are glad to pay their 
fees, and encourage all to attend. 

It was observed that nearly every foreman of a shop was a graduate 
of some technical school. Some idea of the importance given these 
schools in Scandinavian countries may be gathered from the fact that 
in Denmark alone, with its 2,500,000 inhabitants, about 10,000 pupils 
attend technical schools every year. 

Next in importance to the technical schools are, in Norway and Den- 
mark, the so-called schools of home industry, their task being the 
revival of home industry among the country i^opulation by teaching 

487 



488 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

the men to do siicli carpeuter and blacksmith work'as maybe useful to 
the farmer, and the women, weaving, spinning, etc., and also different 
kinds of ornamental work for those who desire it. These schools are 
regarded as i)roductive of great economic results, in many cases en- 
abling country laborers to double their income during the winter months. 
In Denmark no less than 500 schools of home indastry exist, generally 
in connection with other schools, and are supported by 400 societies for 
the promotion of home industry, and in part by the government. 

In Sweden few schools of this kind exist, as home industry has 
always flourished in that country, and skill in all kinds of manual work 
has been transmitted from generation to generation. 

The manual training schools (sloid schools) play a great part in 
Scandinavian education. In Norway manual training, or sloid, is yet 
in its beginning, having been introduced principally in higher private 
schools, but after January 1, 1892, will become obligatory in all pubhc 
schools throughout the country. 

In SY\xden the manual training departments are nearly all in pub. 
lie schools of a lower grade. The higher schools teach manual training 
f o a very limited extent. There are also a number of schools in Sweden 
where manual training only is taught. 

In Denmark instruction in home industrial work seems to have taken 
the place of sloid in most of the i^ublic schools j the latter is found only 
in schools of a higher grade (about GO in all). 

As to the real aim and purpose of instruction in sloid there is even 
at this date considerable difference of opinion among educators in 
Scandinavian countries. Although its very practical results are obvious/ 
and manufacturers and other employers are enthusiastic over these 
schools because they furnish youths who possess more manual skill 
combined with considerable technical insight than those who have 
not enjoyed the same advantage, stiU this is by others regarded simply 
as an incidental advantage, and not that which gives sloid its real 
worth. 

The prevalent belief that the so-called Wa^as system is the one accord- 
ing to which aU manual training is conducted in Scandinavian 
countries is erroneous. Each country has its own system, and nearly 
every large school some peculiar feature of its own. Thus in XJpsal 
shoemaking is a part of the instruction, in Gothenburg tinsmiths' work, 
etc. 

The higher schools in ISTorway, where manual training is obligatory 
and occupies a part of the time which would otherwise be given to the 
usual studies, have the book work to be accomplished in a year's course 
fixed by law. Inquiry has shown that in order to introduce manual 
training the time for the ordinary studies had to be shortened by 
two or more hours a week in several schools, yet no difficulty had been 
experienced in doing as much book work as formerly and in doing it as 
Avell. This was the case in some schools where inquiry was made. 



CHAP. IX. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SCANDINAVIA. 489 

The directors of these schools all agreed that in some cases manual 
training had the effect of making a stndent more proficient in book 
work. It is further believed that manual training has a wholesome 
iniiuence on merrtal work in general, in this that it stimulates the fac- 
ulties besides effecting a more harmonious development. Most schools 
aim to have their manual training departments extended. Only in one 
case was manual training spoken of with indifference and looked upon 
as beneficial only as taking the place of gymnastics. In no case was it 
regarded as detrimental in any way to proficiency in study. 

Sewing, knitting, mending, and various kinds of needlework have 
been taught in every girls' school in the Scandinavian countries for a 
great number of years. Embroidery and finer needlework, however, 
are taught only in private schools. In Sweden an attempt is also being 
made to introduce cooking courses into the public schools, but so far 
with poor success as the attendance is not obligatory. 

In the folk schools the pui)il-s receive instruction for four, eight, and 
even twelve hours a week for seven years in sewing and industrial 
work. In the higher private schools the same instruction extends over 
a period of from ten to fourteen years, and is in most cases obligatory. 

The aim in the public schools is to enable the pupil to make and mend 
her own clothing, and to teach her various kinds of housework. There 
seems to be but one opinion as to the results of this kind of instruc- 
tion, viz., all agree that they are excellent, and that especially among 
the poorer classes the ability in different sorts of handiwork and the eco- 
nomical and orderly habits the girls bring with them from school are of 
great moral and economic importance. Usually the girls on leaving 
school are competent enough to do sewing of all kinds, plain dress- 
making and other similar work, with some skill. The training they 
receive is thorough and systematic, and many attain a degree of pro- 
ficiency that enables them to earn a living by this kind of work, with- 
out seeking special instruction out of school. Constant improvement 
in methods is made, and only specially trained and experienced 
teachers are employed. 

For the benefit of those who wish further training in the kinds of 
work above referred to the Scandinavian countries have so called in- 
dustrial schools for women, generally private enterprises, though some 
of them receive state aid. In addition to teaching sewing, dressmak- 
ing, etc., these schools have made great efforts to revive the interest in 
art weaving and lace making. Their success has far surpassed expec- 
tation, and it is predicted that owing to their influence home industry 
will flourish in the Scandinavian countries as never before. Some of 
these schools offer courses in languages, bookkeeping, etc, and do 
much, it is claimed, to better the economic and social position of 
women. 

The number of graduates in trade, technical, and industrial schools 
in the Scandinavian countries, and the per cent, who go out as graduates 



490 



REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



and non-graduates into tlie occupations for wMch tliey have been fitted, 
are as follows : 



GRADUATES OF SCHOOLS IN K"OEWAY. 



School. 



Graduates. 


Per cent. 


79 


85 


95 


40 


56 


49 


55 


90 


58 


94 


60 


96 


23 


93 


32 


90 


250 


37 


100 


48 


195 


50 


130 


75 



Trade schools. 

SkiiTifjordm scliool for mecliaDics 

Areudal school of carpentry 

SeJje school of carpentry 

Dovre school of wood carving 

Kienservik school of wood carving 

Technical schools. 

Trondhjem technical school 

Bergen technical school 

Christiania technical school- 

Industrial schools. 

Christiania industrial school for women 

Levanger industrial school for women 

Ofstadlndustrial school for women 

Trolich industrial school , 



GRADUATES OE SCHOOLS I]S^ SWEDEl^. 



Trade schools. 

Boras school of weaving 

Lenning school of weaving 

Eskilstuna school for metal workers 

Technical schools. 

Orehro technical school (four years, 1888-1891) 

Norrkioping technical school (four years, 1888-1891) 

Malmo technical school (four years, 1888-1891) 

Boras technical school (four years, 1888-1891) 



87 


100 


110 


96 


29 


90 


78 


85 


48 


89 


80 


95 


44 


90 



GEADTTATES OE SCHOOLS I:N" DES"MAEE:. 



Trade schools. 

School for shoemakers (three years) 

School for watchmakers (three years) 

Technical schools. 

Department of painting, Copenhagen technical school 

Department for metal workers, Copenhagen technical school 

Department of painting, Odense technical school , 

Department of painting, Aarhuus technical school , 




100 
95 



MANUAL TEAmmG IN SWEDEN 



In liis address before tlie manual training congress at Munich in 
1888 the celebrated SalomoHj director of the seminary at Il^aas, gave 
a brief outhne of the development of sloid as an educational factor in 
Swedish schools. He said: 

The work of introducing sloid instruction in the Swedish schools, in 
accordance with i)resent principles, had its beginning in the year 1872 j 
in which year, also, was founded the sloid school at l^aas. In those 
first years the movement was restricted to the establishment of inde- 
pendent schools and to the introduction of sloid, as a special branch 
of instruction, into a number of common schools. 



CHAP. IX. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SCANDINAVIA. 491 

With tlie year 1877 the Swedish sloid instruction reached a new 
stage of progress, when the diet, at the snggestion of the government, 
determined to appropriate an annual subvention of 75 crowns ($20.10) 
out of the state treasury for the benefit of every common school in 
which sloid instruction for boys should be introduced. 

After giving due credit to Minister F. F. Oarlsson for the successful 
accomplishment of this work Director Salomon continued : 

It was estimated that this allowance of 75 crowns ($20.10) would be 
paid to 200 schools; but it is evident that this estimate was much too 
low, since there are now more than 1,000 schools which are entitled to 
the award. With the exception of the common schools in Gothenburg 
sloid instruction is everywhere elective. 

In Gothenburg sloid is reserved for pupils of the fourth school year 
in the common schools. About 2,000 boys have taken this course. The 
sloid teaching is given to 20 different divisions, each of which includes 
18 to 19 pupils. There are 13 carpentry divisions, 5 divisions for iron 
work, and 1 each for pasteboard work and painting. Each pupil re- 
ceives 7 hours' instruction in sloid per week. This is given by master 
workmen. * * * 

In 1887 the city appropriated 22,200 crowns ($5,949.60) for this in- 
struction, to which the state added the sum of 3,750 crowns ($1,005). 
As long ago as the year 1875 sloid was introduced as an elective spe- 
cialty into the common school teachers' seminary at Carlstad, and in 
the fall of this year (1888) it is proposed to bring it into the common 
school teacliers' seminaries at Lund and at Hernosand. 

From the common schools, as a point of departure, the sloid instruc- 
tion has extended little by little to other educational establishments ; 
and so, within recent years, the opportunity has been given to the 
i:)upils of many of the higher institutions of learning (both gymnasia 
and private schools) to receive sloid' instruction at stated hours every 
week. 

Large numbers of teachers' associations have declared themselves in 
favor of this idea. At the (twelfth) general council of teachers at Goth- 
enburg in 1887 the question for discussion was, ^' Should sloid instruc- 
tion be introduced into teachers' seminaries generally j and, if so, in 
what way and under what form?" On motion of Principal Oarlsson, 
son of the former minister, F. F. Oarlsson, the following resolution was 
adopted : 

''In consequence of the experience accumulating on many sides the 
teachers' council holds it to be indisputable that further experiments 
should be made in introducing sloid instr^ction into the general teach- 
ers' seminaries. The sloid teaching should form an elective specialty, 
and, at first, Avood sloid only should be taught (cabinetmaking and a 
little turning)." 

It deserves mention, as of special significance, that in recent years 
sloid has also been introduced not only into the higher schools for 
bo5^s, but into a number of gMs' schools and mixed schools. 

•From a hygienic point of view sloid instruction for girls has been 
advocated. The so-called people's high schools (the seminaries for the 
country population) have begun to introduce the sloid; and in the 
universities at Upsal and Lund sloid rooms are fitted up for the use 
of students. 

The education of the teachers is provided for, partly through courses 
held in the several provinces, partly through means of the sloid semi- 



492 KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

nary at Naas, where every year great numbers of male and female 
teacliers receive free instruction. Those male and female teacliers 
who are installed over the common schools receive a subsidy from the 
provincial treasuries, and can travel on the state railroads to and from 
the seminary at reduced fares. 

As regards the principles of sloid instruction in the Swedish schools 
a distinction is commonly made between pedagogic - and practical 
school sloid. This last is now practised in a few schools only — as in 
the Practical Work School at Stockholm, the Institute of Eeformation 
at Hall, and in certain common schools in the provinces of Stockholm 
and Carlscrona. The object of sloid teaching here is to enable the chil- 
dren to acquire dexterity and skill in making certain specified objects. 
This plan, therefore, places the school in servitude to sloid instruction; 
whereas at Naas, and elsewhere in Sweden, for the most part, peda- 
gogic sloid instruction provides, first of all, a means of development 
for the children, and thereby serves primarily for their education. 
]S"ot skilled labor, but the exercise itself is here the chief object. Since, 
therefore, sloid instruction is here placed in the service of education, 
this instruction must be made available for the pedagogic education of 
the teachers who are in a position to prevent what is designed to be 
merely a means from being confounded with the end. 

Formerly artisans' sloid instruction prospered fairly well in the com- 
mon schools; but of late years this form of instruction has become less 
popular, so that in Gothenburg, where this '^ practical school sloid" has 
had its strongest fortress, they are earnestly endeavoring, as I have 
already pointed out, to direct it in a purely pedagogical course. 

From all these indications it is apparent, therefore, that sloid instruc- 
tion in Sweden is having a successful development, both quantitative 
and qualitative, and corporeal labor will be annually introduced into 
hundreds of schools. The interest in this instruction reaches to ever- 
widening circles. For the advantage of a wise and generous educa- 
tion, adapted to the times in which we live, may it continue to extend. 

At the close of the year 1890 there were in Sweden 1,392 schools 
into which manual training had been introduced. These schools re- 
ceived state aid to the amount of 103,067.78 crowns ($27,622.17). Be- 
sides, the state appropriates 20,000 crowns ($5,360) annually to support 
this instruction in" various districts. From other sources these schools 
derive a revenue of 200,000 crowns ($53,600) a year. 

To the above number must be added about 200 institutions which, 
within the year 1891, adopted manual training — state schools, private 
schools, several sloid schools, and public schools. 

MAl^UAL TEAIKING m DENMAEK. 

In Denmark there existed for many years prior to 1883 a form of 
educational hand labor styled ^'home industry," of which the Danish 
teacher, Glauson-Kaas, was a prominent advocate and champion. 

Owing to differences of opinion between this remarkable man and 
the secretary of the Central Association of Home Industry (concern- 
ing the utility of manual training as a means of intellectual disci- 
pline) the partisans of each polemic fell into a violent conflict, and as 



CHAP. IX. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SCANDINAVIA. 493 

a result the movement came to a sta.id and even sliowed unmistakable 
signs of retrogression. At this juncture Prof. Mikkelsen, whose sys- 
tem of teaching is regarded by Herr Schenckendorff with great admi- 
ration, and in respect to thoroughness the nearest to perfection of any, 
exerted his influence as a pacincator. 

Prof. Mikkelsen, now director of the sloid school at Copenhagen, as 
a delegate from Denmarli:, made an address before the eighth German 
manual training congress ur>on the progress of Danish sloid, in the 
course of which he referred only by indirect allusion to the unprofit- 
able controversies that had been waged between the riv^al factions. 
He merely said : 

It will be needless for me, in this presence, to go into the early his- 
tory of the work school movement, as it was conducted in former years 
by'Clauson-Kaas, and so zealously and energetically promoted by him 
and his friends. This history is so well known in Germany that I can 
add nothing new concerning it. I remark only that the present aims 
of our sloid teaching folloAV other lines than those which the home in- 
dustry experiment of Clauson-Kaas had in view. 

As this address contains a succinct account of sloid instruction as 
pursued in Denmark its salient points are here reproduced: 

In reviewing this new order of things in Denmark I must, in a 
rude fashion, begin with my o^n undertaking. Yet this shall not 
deter me from giving you a wholly objective picture of the develop- 
ment and condition of sloid instruction, as well as of the system pur- 
sued by me. I shall endeavor, however, to exclude from my report 
everything of a polemical nature. 

After I had labored for the cause, with voice and pen, for a series of 
3^ears, in 1883 I established the first genuine sloid school in Denmark 
at Kestved, where I was then the principal of a technical school. In 
the year 1885 1 went to Copenhagen, founded there^ at my own expense, 
a sloid school, and began to work for the promotion of sloid by means of 
strenuous agitation, not only in Copenhagen, but everywhere through- 
out the country. 

At the beginning of the school year 1885 Herren Slomann and 
Winkel-Horn, who had founded a new Latin and real-school, prepared 
to incorporate sloid as an obligatory study in the plan of instruction 
in their school. In this school, as everywhere else in Denmark at 
present (with the exception of two schools), the system of teaching 
devised by me is adopted. Wherein this system consists I wiU ex- 
plain further on. 

In the spring of 1886 the Danish Sloid Society was founded at my 
suggestion, whose aim is to secure the introduction of pedagogical 
sloid into both the higher and lower schools of the country. The 
state immediately placed 6,000 crowns ($1,608) at our disposal for the 
benefit of the society, and at the same time I began to give instruc- 
tion to teachers. 

Soon after this I bought a large, convenient, and well located build- 
ing, in which I fitted up a sloid school for teachers. Here, in August 
1886, was established the first vacation course for teachers, which was 
attended by 24 male teachers and some female teachers. The attend- 
ants on this course were from Copenhagen and other i^arts of the 
country. • 



494 REPORT OF THE COMJ^OSSIONER OF LABOR. 

At tlie beginning of tlie school year 1886 sloid was introduced in 
an experimental way in the Latin school at Fredericksborg. At 
the same time sloid was taken up in six private Latin and real- 
schools in Copenhagen, from whence, in the course of the school year, 
it found admission to three more institutions. The cause of sloid 
steadily won new friends, and in educational circles people began to 
make exx)eriments and think earnestly concerning the matter. 

In July and August 1887 was held the second teachers' course in 
my sloid teachers' school, and this was attended by 41 male and fe- 
male teachers. 

The extension of sloid instruction has gone steadily forward until 
now; and, up to the i^resent time, sloid. has been introduced into 
11 Latin schools, 13 real-schools, 4 people's high schools, 1 village 
school, 3 children's homes, and 2 asylums. Many more yet will intro- 
duce it during the current year. Finally, there are besides 4 inde- 
pendent sloid schools in Denmark. Some classes also in the common 
school will be exi)erimentally taught sloid exercises. 

At first sloid was taught only to the older boys, aftervf ards to boys 
from 10 to 11 years of age. Later it came to be more and more the prac- 
tice to begin instruction in wood sloid with boys in their seventh year. 
Originally, participation in sloid instruction was almost everywhere 
optional; now it is almost everywhere obligatory, and the iDeople are 
well satisfied to have it so. In the people's high school alone (in conse- 
quence of the nature of this school) does it remain elective. 

At the teachers' courses (of which four of six weeks' duration will be 
annually held at my sloid teachers' school) instruction will be given 
in wood sloid in connection with drawing. Then a series of lectures will 
be conducted here. These pertain in i)art to pedagogical and phj^siolog- 
ical subjects, and, in part, to working tools and tlie knowledge of ma- 
terials. This summer two teachers' courses have been held — from the 
beginning of June to the middle of July and from that time till the 
end of August. 

The state supports this movement for the education of the teachers; 
and, during the past fiscal year, the state has contributed, through the 
Danish Sloid Society, 14,400 crowns (13,859.20) for the furtherance of 
the cause. The education of the teachers continues through three or 
four consecutive six weeks' courses, or a single course of six months' 
duration. 

It is gradually becoming clear to us that if sloid is to exert the in- 
fluence we wish it must rest on the same basis as the other specialties 
of the school. 

The price of tuition is not uniform, but ranges from 2 J to 5 crowns 
(67 cents to $1.34) per year. Children are allowed to keep as their own 
the articles they make. The hours of instruction vary from one to 
four x^er week. 

Teachers and school directors are everywhere well disposed toward 
the cause. Only exceptionally here and there does one meet an avowed 
opponent. But all have reached the conviction that we have in sloid 
a valuable means of education. But the higher and lower schools 
here are not equally devoted to the cause. While the first are sub- 
stantially unanimous in favoring the introduction of sloid, there is 
much hesitation on the part of the lower schools to adopt it. This will 
disappear with time. Public opinion is unequivocally friendy to sloid. 

Artisans hesitated at first, but they already begin to regard the 
matter with approval. Physicians are its most zealous advocates. 



CHAP. IX. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SCANDINAVIA. 495 

Tliey look upon sloid as a means by wbicli the evil effect of tlie 
sedentary habits incidental to the ordinary school may be successfully 
counteracted. It is hoped, also, that we have therein a means for pre- 
venting the development of evil impulses. 

In general the communal authorities do not yet understand the great 
significance of sloid. Only three communes have voted subsidies for 
the introduction of sloid, and a fourth (Copenhagen) determined, two 
years ago, that one of the classes might receive sloid instruction in 
my school for two hours per week, during school hours. 

Following out the suggestion and wish of Ilerr Schenckendorff, who 
visited meat Copenhagen this year, I proceed now to set forth the dis- 
tinctive features of my system. I am for from affirming that this sys- 
tem is of unique excellence; but I may say that, in the leading intel- 
lectual circles of Denmark, it is acknowledged to be correct in theory 
as well as in practice. 

The word sloid is of ancient northern origin, and in Denmark it has 
come to signify manual labor in the service of education. 

The reasons which led to the formation of the Danish sloid system 
may be stated as follows: 

If manual labor is to subserve the interests of education and of the 
school by the means of sloid, the system should have reference to the 
development of the child's mental powers in those directions that are 
not provided for by the system of theoretical instruction. It is believed 
that through practical labor the special capacities of the child, especi- 
ally the faculties of observation and taste, maybe unfolded in awhoUy 
diiierent manner from that which is possible by theoretical instruction 
alone. 

The many difi'erent objects which the child takes in hand and brings 
before the eye — which it must work with, and which it must make ac- 
cording to specified models and drawings — lead very systematically to 
the education of the faculties of observation and comparison, and coui- 
pel the thoughtful attention of the pupil. The child is restricted to 
the making of a particular object, or of its single parts when it would 
not otherwise be able to construct anything worth mentioning; accord- 
ingly, it learns thereby to concentrate its thoughts upon one sx)ecifi.c 
object of some kind. 

As a result of the work the finished object, with its faults and im- 
perfections, leads the child to the correction of his exercises, and so 
teaches him the elements of criticism of manual labor. Whoever has 
concerned himself much with sloid must have noticed what patient 
trials are requisite (so foreign to a child's nature) to overcome all the 
difficulties that pertain to the handling of materials and the difierent 
working tools. 

The speaker, in summing up the advantages of sloid as an educa- 
tional agency, declared his convictions as follows: 

Therefore, since it exercises the faculty of observation, promotes 
clearness of conception, sharpens the perception of cause and effect, 
develops the sense of form and of beauty, concentrates the attention, 
cultivates patience, and, withal, creates a love and enthusiasm for 
labor, it is, in reality, the entire intellectual strength of the child 
which is called into requisition by sloid. 

In Denmark this pedagogical object of sloid occupies an advanced 
position; and from this point our system must carry it forward. 



496 REPORT OF THE COM:\nSSIONER OF LABOR. 

To condense the furtlier claims of sloid instruction, as stated by- 
Prof. Mikkelsen, it is admirably adapted, in tlie opinion of pliysi- 
cians, to improve the circulation and the breathing; and, from a phys- 
iological point of view, it is therefore excellent. Besides, as the 
speaker said, '^ School children often show a tendency to become 
round shouldered. This tendency will be counteracted by sloid work, 
which requires the pupil to labor with his arms wide apart." The 
work is useful, also, as a corrective of bad habits in sitting or standing 
It tends to give symmetry of development. Children are required to 
bend the body at the hips, and are not permitted to crook their backs 
at work. They are also trained to use the left hand in some of the 
exercises; and, it is said, that as a corrective of shortsightedness the 
objects on which the pupils busy themselves are gradually removed to 
a greater distance from the eye. 

From the point of view of social economy, too, this speaker urged 
the adoption of sloid teaching. ^^ Much of the poverty and want of 
the lower classes of society would disappear,'^ he declared, " if the 
youth should learn to love and honor corporeal labor, instead of hating 
and shunning it, as now." 

He thinks that '^ many misunderstandings and disagreements between 
the higher and the lower classes of the people would cease if the former 
were to learn to appreciate the worth of bodily labor." 

Then, again, '^ today very many boys, through unfortunate circum- 
stances and through ignorance of themselves, enter into a calliDg for 
which they possess neither fitness nor inclination; as a consequence 
they have a feeling of discontent, as if they were not in the right place, 
and they are apt to become useless or criminal. Many such unfortu- 
nates might be saved to society through sloid instruction as a prepara- 
tion for life." 

Again Prof. Mikkelsen continues : 

We are unequivocally opposed to the so-called polysloid because 
we are convinced that, with many different kinds of labor to be done, 
it is never possible to execute a single kind so thoroughly as the ta- 
terests of education require. 

We have, therefore, chosen wood sloid alone (work at the carpen- 
ter's bench) as a means of instruction, because it appears to us, for 
the present at least, to be the only sloid method by which we can most 
certainly obtain the best pedagogical, physiological, technical, practical, 
social, and economical results. 

Instruction in wood sloid begins with special single forms, and 
extends in an uninterrupted series of exercises, arranged according to 
established pedagogical and physiological principles, with reference to 
technical and i)ractical requirements. 

In this way the child will gain distinct ideas which may be joined 
together to form a whole. This clearness of conception will be best 
attained when the child perfectly masters the various working tools, 
each of which represents a particular kind of idea. Accordii).i>ly, each 
exercise leads up independently to one result (object), which exliibits 



CHAP. IX. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SCANDINAVIA. 497 

in its finislied state the work of the principal tool. But, at the ^ame 
time^ it represents a sum of related ideas. 

In concluding this part of his subject Prof. Mikkelsen insisted that, 
in order to insure good results from class instruction in sloid, it is 
necessary not only that the shop, the tools, etc., should be adapted 
to the end in view, but that, ^* before all things, the teacher should 
possess sufi6.cient skill and interest in his specialty." 

The recommendation is made that drawing should be taught in the 
people's schools in connection with sloid, and that sloid models should 
be made use of for copying exercises in drawing. In some schools this 
plan has been carried out with good results the speaker said, as at 
Stockholm, where, in 1887, he was greatly surprised to witness the re- 
markable effects of this method of teaching drawing in the school of 
Mr. J. J. Dahlstrom. 

";N"ext," the speaker said, "after this general survey of the system, 
it is in order now to show in detail where every exercise has its place, 
and therefore in what sequence the ATorking tools should betaken up." 

We quote only what Prof. Mikkelsen had to say concerning one of the 
sloid tools, viz., the saw: 

Give a child the opijortunity to busy himself with saw, plane, knife, 
etc., and he will always return to the first named implement. The rea- 
son for this is, on the one hand, that the saw requires a lively move- 
ment, and, on the other, it is iiossible for the child to cut wood with a 
saw just as he Likes. It also affords the child special delight to handle 
a tool which he commonly sees only in the hand of the adult. 

But we may cite other reasons for choosing the saw as the first working 
implement. The discipline demanded by the saw presents but slight diffi- 
culty. Then one may (more than in any other exercise) assume a 
healthy and graceful posture. So it comes about that the saw is pop- 
ular. It is, besides, the ''most independent" of all tools; because with 
it one may make a complete and useful object without the aid of other 
tools, except, i)erhaps, a nail to hold the parts together. It also makes 
it easy for the child to understand a straight line. 

Our saws are somewhat smaller than those used by workmen, and 
are so constructed as to require only the smallest possible outlay of 
strength. We distinguish the saws as the rip-saw, the cross-cut saw, 
and the back- saw. These three kinds should be employed consecutively 
in the order named, since each j)resents its own peculiar difficulties. 
The rix)-saw cuts in the direction of the grain, and the position of the 
body in using it offers no difficulty. With a little practice this saw 
can be used with either hand, changing from one to the other. The 
cross-cut saw is somewhat harder to manage, because the saw teeth 
easily penetrate the soft interstices of the grain. But if the children 
have already learned by handling the rip-saw to hold the saw lightly 
and steadily the difficulties wiU be readily overcome. The back- saw 
requires greater precision, and must, on this account, be taken up in 
the third place. It would not be easy, with this implement, to preserve 
a good position of the body without previous practice with the rip-saw 
and the cross-cut saw. 

This course is connected with construction — first, parallel, then rec- 
tangular, and, finally, diagonal lines. 
S. Ex. 65 32 



498 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

At^ tliis stage the accessory tools are the metre measure, the lead 
pencil, the square, and the hammer. 

In the same exhaustive manner Prof. Mlkkelsen described the yrlace 
and uses in his system of the plane, the knife, the bit and bit stock, 
the file, etc. 

In conclusion he remarked, "Such are the requirements which the 
friends of sloid lay upon the sloid teachers. If th^se are not carried 
out the whole movement must soon come to naught. The time of fine 
theories has gone by; we now demand a sound practice which shall se- 
cure what theory denied to us.^^ 



CHAPTER X. 



PRESENT STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN 

SWITZERLAND. 



499 



CHAPTER X. 

PRESENT STATUS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 
KATIOKAL SUBSIDIES. 

The constitution of the Swiss confederation permits the federal 
congress to establish and to support, in addition to a university and a 
polytechnic school, other higher technical institutions. It leaves to the 
cantons the primary education of the children, giving them the exclu- 
sive direction of the primary schools. It directs, however, that such 
education must be obligatory, and, in the public schools, gratuitous, 
and that all pupils must be permitted to attend the public schools 
without prejudice to their liberty of belief and conscience. The consti- 
tution also authorizes the confederation to make uniform regulations 
regarding the employment of children in factories. 

On June 27, 1884, a resolution was adopted by the federal congress 
granting subsidies, under certain conditions, to all institutions for pro- 
fessional and industrial education that desired to accept such aid. It 
resulted in the establishment of new, and the development of existing, 
institutions, and has given a great impetus to industrial education 
throughout the country. Since the adoption of the resolution the 
number of trade schools has been nearly doubled, and other industrial 
institutions, such as drawing schools, workingmen's evening schools, 
industrial art schools, etc., have greatly increased in number and effi- 
ciency. The following is a translation of the text of the resolution and 
of the regulations for enforcing the same; 

Article 1. For the purpose of advancing professional and industrial 
education the confederation will grant subsidies out of its treasury to 
any institutions that are or will be established for such objects. When 
any of these institutions have other objects aside from professional and 
industrial education, as, for instance, general education, the federal con- 
tribution will be made only for the former branch. 

AnT. 2. The following are regarded as institutions for industrial and 
professional edLication: 

The workingmen's schools, the schools for i)rofessional improvement, 
and industrial drawing schools, even if these are in connection with the 
public schools, the higher industrial and professional schools, the art 
schools, the trade schools, collections of patterns, models, and other 
materials for technical instruction, and professional and industrial 
museums. 

Art. 3. The confederation can also contribute toward paying for 
lectures and prizes in connection Tvith professional and industrial edu- 
cation. 

501 



502 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Art. 4. The federal subsidies may, according to the judgment of the 
federal council, amount to one-half of the sum provided by the cantons, 
communities, corporations, and private individuals. 

Art. 5. The lederal council {Bundesrath) will call upon the cantonal 
governments for detailed information regarding the uses made of the 
sums mentioned in article 4 ; it will talie cognizance of the progress of the 
institutions, and will require the receipt of programmes of instruction, 
reports, and results of examinations. In determining the federal sub- 
sidy special consideration must be made for institutions which educate 
teachers for professional and industiial instruction, and particularly 
institutions where drawing teachers for the workingmen's schools and 
the schools for professional improvement are educated. 

The confederation shares, in the same measure, the expenses for 
educating candidates for teacbers at the institutions named in article 2. 

Art. 6. The federal council will negotiate with the cantons regard- 
ing the conditions on which the confederation will particii>ate in the 
professional and industrial education, and it will make the final 
arrangements with them, by contract, if necessary. 

Art. 7. The contributions of the confederation must not result in a 
diminution of the amounts contributed by the cantons, communities, 
corporations, or private individuals; they should result, on the con- 
trary, in stimulating an increase of energy in the domain of professional 
and industrial education. 

Art. 8. The confederation will set aside in its budget a credit of 
150,000 francs ($28,950) for aiding professional and industrial education. 
This credit may be increased when the need becomes apparent, and 
when the financial condition of the confederation permits it. 

For the year 1884 a supplementary credit of 100,000 francs (819,300) 
will be placed at the disposal of the federal council for this purx)ose. 

Art. 9. The federal council is instructed to i)ublish this resolution, 
and to fix the time when the same will go into effect, in conformity to 
the federal law of June 17, 1874, coneerning popular voting on federal 
laws and resolutions. 

The following are the regulations, adopted January 27, 1885, con- 
cerning the execution of the resolution relating to industrial and 
professional education : 

The federal council of Switzerland, in executing the federal resolu- 
tion of June 27, 1884, relating to professional and industrial education, 
resolves, at the suggestion of the Swiss department of commerce and 
agriculture, as follows: 

Article 1. Eequests for subsidies from the federal government for 
professional and industrial education must be made to the Swiss depart- 
ment of commerce and agriculture, and must be forwanled by the 
cantonal governments after the latter have examined the applications 
and found them worthy of consideration. 

Art. 2. The first api^lication made by any institution must contain: 
A. In reference to organization : 

(1) The full name and location of the institution. 

(2) Tbe name of the proprietor. 

(3) Duration of its existence — date when founded. 

(4) A full description of the institution — statement relating to 
organization, arrangement of classes, object, management, attendance, 
and conditions of admission of i)upils. 

(5) All publications up to date of documents giving any informa- 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 503 

tioTi regarding the institution, sucb as laws, decrees, ordinances, regu- 
lations, programmes, statutes, annual reports, accounts, catalogues, etc. 
B. In reference to finances : 

(1) A detailed account of income and expenditures during the last 

fiscal year. 

(2) A detailed account of expense budget for the fiscal year for which 

the subsidy is desired. These documents must contain ac- 
curate information of the contributions and other support 
from the cantons, communities, societies and corporations, and 
private sources, and the special uses made of these contribu- 
tions. 

(3) Statement relating to the dues, tuitions, admission fees, etc., 

required of persons attending the institution. 

(4) The proi)osed uses to be made of the federal subsidy; a detailed 

account relating to the same. Exx)enditures which are con- 
templated for the first time during the coming fiscal year 
must be distinctly specified. 

(5) Amount and value of property possessed by the institution. 
Ar^T. 3. For schools and special classes the following will be re- 
quired in addition : 

(1) Statement of the divisions of the scholastic year, the classes, 

courses, etc., and the duration of each. 

(2) Statement of the number of weeks of instruction per year, and 

the distribution of the same in months. 

(3) The programme of instruction — faculty, courses of study, 

weekly hours of session, arrangement of hours, etc. 

(4) Statement of number, sex, and required age of pupils. 

(5) Statement of tbe attendance of each brant^h of instruction, and 
whether the same is obligatory or optional. 

(6) Information as to whether the institution trains teachers for 

technical schools and how, especially drawing teachers for the 
workingmen's schools and the schools for professional im- 
provement. 

Art. 4. Applications for federal subsidies for collections named in 
article 2 of the federal resolution must be accompanied by the statutes, 
regulations, and reports relating to the object of the collection, the 
right of access to the same, the patronage up to date, etc. 

The statutes must designate clearly the disposition made of the ar- 
ticles jjrovided by means of the federal subsidies, so as to make it pos- 
sible to identify the same in case of a discontinuance of the institu- 
tion. 

Art. 5. Applications for federal subsidies for lectures and prizes re- 
lating to professional and industrial education, and for distributing 
stipends to candidates for teachers of the institutions named in article 2 
of the federal resolution, must be treated in the manner specified in 
article 1 above. 

Stipends to candidates for teachers will be granted only on condition 
that the cantonal government grants like stipends. The federal sti- 
pend, in any case, can not exceed that of the canton. The recipient of 
a federal stipend obligates himself to report at least once every six 
months to the department of commerce and agriculture regarding his 
progress and studies, and to connect himself at the end of his stmlies 
with one of the insliLutions mentioned in article 2 of the federal reso- 
lution. 



504 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Art. 6. Applications of existing institutions wliich already receive 
federal subsidies must contain : 

(1) A complete report of the progress, resources, and attendance 

during the past fiscal year, and, in addition to the provisions 
of article 3 of these regulations, a brief characterization of 
the results of examinations must be added. 

(2) A complete programme for the coming scholasti<? year. 

(3) The statements required in article 2, section B, of these regula- 

tions, and also a detailed account of the dispositions made 
of the federal subsidies. 

(4) Printed annual reports, accounts, etc. 

Art. 7. Estimates for subsidies requested must not as a rule include : 

(1) Expenditures for general administration, office expenses, rent, 

maintaining rooms or buildings, lighting, and fuel. 

(2) Expenses for school furnishings, furniture, cases, etc., for col- 

lections, and supplies (paper, etc.) for the use of pupils. 
The following may be included and subsidized: 

(1) Expenditures for raw materials, tools, apparatus for instruction 

(in workshops, etc.), and collections. 

(2) Expenditures for certain InstaUationen for the special use ot 

the named institutions. 

The Swiss department of commerce and agriculture will examine 
each application and decide according to its merits. 

Art. 8. Institutions receiving federal subsidies must furnish any 
further information to the department of commerce and agriculture 
that the latter may require. 

Art. 9. The Swiss department of commerce and agriculture is em- 
powered, subject to the approval of the federal council, to act upon 
the ai)plications mentioned in article 1, remaining within the limits ot 
the budget, and it will decide as to the amount of the subsidy to be 
given in each case. 

Art. 10. The subsidies may, according to circumstances, amount to 
one-half of the total sums contributed annually by the cantons, com- 
munities, corporations, and private sources. The subsidies hitherto 
granted by the cantons and communities must not be diminished. In 
reference to the contributions of corporations and private sources the 
department of commerce and agriculture may, if it deems necessary, 
require a guaranty for a specified time. 

Art. 11. An inventory of property purchased with the federal 
subsidies must be made each year and forwarded to the department of 
commerce and agriculture for examination and approval. The same 
must be made through the cantonal government, which will guarantee 
that the property will be used for public purposes should the institu- 
tion to w^hich the same belongs be discontinued. The cantonal gov- 
ernments will be held responsible for the correctness of the inventories. 

Art. 12. The subsidized collections must be made accessible as much . 
as possible, by loaning the articles to temporary exhibitions and pri- 
vate individuals, always on security, and by permitting the multipli- 
cation of the same by means of photography, copying, etc. 

Art. 13. A federal subsidy may be granted for an entire course, 
extending over several years, with the reservation that the subsidy 
may be withdrawn in case the institution or course is discontinued 
before the end of the time, or when the course may not prove satis- 
factory. 

Art. 14. The department of commerce and agriculture has the priv- 
ilege of making at any time an inspection ol the worlj: of any institu- 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 605 



tion subsidized by the confederation, either directly or by sending a 
delegate, and it may also be represented at the examinations. 

For this purpose timely notice must be given of all examinations to 
be held. 

The department of commerce and agriculture will prepare the 
instructions for its inspectors, in which their duties and compensations 
will be specified. 

Art. 15. The present re^'ulations take effect at once. 

The results of the resolution are shown by the following statistics; 



EXPENSES FOR INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, 1885 TO 1889. 




Year. 


Insti- 
tu- 
tions 
subsi- 
dized. 


Total 

expenses. 


Paid by 
cantons, 
communi- 
ties, pri- 
vate indi- 
viduals, etc. 


Federal 
subsidies. 


Total 
amount 
spent by- 
federal 
govern- 
ment by- 
virtue of 
the resolu- 
tion. 


1885 


82 
100 
110 
120 
124 


$156,732.15 
185, 176. 49 
197, 652. 71 
231,914.52 
253, 498. 37 


$99, 336. 95 
116, 220. 96 
122,854.98 
139, 749. 89 
147,600.32 


$29,324.46 
38, 672. 43 
42, 275. 62 
54, 861. 75 
62,023.25 


$33, 075. 70 


1886 


42, 462. 44 


1887 


50, 176. 52 


1888 


61, 572. 16 


1889 


70, 845. 32 






Total 




1, 024, 974. 24 


625, 763. 10 


227, 157. 51 


258, 132. 14 







Institutions entitled to federal subsidies are divided into three 
classes by the department of commerce and agriculture : Trade schools 
(including schools for watchmaking and weaving, workshops for ap- 
prentices, pattern and model collections, etc.) j industrial art institu- 
tions (schools and collections) 5 workingmen's schools, drawing schools, 
and schools for lorofessional improvement. 

The department of commerce and agriculture appoints for each class 
from four to six inspectors (or experts) who rej^resent the department 
at examinations, investigations, etc. At least once each year these 
inspectors have a conference for the discussion of special questions 
relating to their work (methods and plans of instruction, programmes, 
etc.), and for stimulating the advancement of the institutions placed 
under their supervision. 

Following are the amounts of the federal subsidies paid during the 
year 1890 to the various kinds of industrial institutions: 

DISTRIBUTION OF SUBSIDIES. 



Kind of school. 


Schools. 


Subsidies. 


The Teclmikum, Winterthur 


1 
1 
7 

31 
57 
2 
7 
8 
2 
5 
13 


$6, 915. 58 
3, 088. 00 

14, 724. 36 
2, 703. 16 
8 963 03 




Schools for industrial arts and dra-w^inff ................ 




Schools for professional improvement and ■worl£in<'Tnen'8 schools 


Weaving schools 


1, 930 00 


Watchmaking schools 


9, 705. 00 

6, 154. 77 

752 70 






Female industrial schools 


2, 151. 95 
8, 828. 21 


Industrial museums, collections, etc 




Total 


134 


65, 917. 66 





506 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



CLASSIFICATION*?" OF SCHOOLS. 

Institutions for industrial education, including tliose wliere manual 
work is taught, in Switzerland may be divided into the following 
classes : 

Kindergartens. 

Classes in manual training, comprehending needlework for girls, and 
pasteboard and wood work for boys (sloid system); trade schools for 
male apprentices, which include watchmaking schools, carpenter work- 
shops, shoemaking workshops, schools for metal workers, schools for 
wood carving, and schools for weaving; industrial schools for women, 
which include schools for needlework and ladies' tailoring, housekeep- 
ing schools, and schools for servants; industrial art schools (either 
sex), which are schools having classes in pattern designing for the tex- 
tiles, modelling, ceramics, engraving, sculpture, etc. 

Institutions for the farther development of working people of both 
sexes, under which name are included schools for professional im- 
provement, workingmen's schools, and industrial drawing schools. 

Higher technical schools — Cantonal Technical School at Winterthur, 
canton Zurich, comprising schools for builders, mechanical and elec- 
trical engineers, and surveyors of industrial arts and of commerce; 
Federal Polytechnic School at Zurich, comprising schools for archi- 
tects and builders, civil engineers, foresters, chemists, engineers of 
construction and of agriculture, a mechanical technical school, a school 
for special teachers of mathematics and natural philosophy, and in 
addition special courses of lectures on art, history, political science, 
military science, literature, languages, mathematics, natural sciences, 
and technical branches. 

Industrial and art museums. 

KI^DEEGAETEIS^S. 

Kindergartens in Switzerland exist mostly as private institutions, 
supiDorted by tuitions, societies, donated funds, and contributions from 
the states or communities. In canton Geneva, where kindergartens 
are state institutions, no tuitions are required, and the instruction forms 
part of the educational system of the public schools. There is a gradual 
advance from kindergarten work to manual training. In other cantons 
the kindergartens are generally independent of each other and of the 
public schools, and differ greatly in their systems of instruction and in 
the manner of their support. In nearly all the Swiss kindergartens the 
Froebel materials are used together with other subjects, such as elemen- 
tary studies, object lessons, games, ete. The age for admission varies 
greatly in the different kindergartens, ranging generally from 2, 3, and 
4 to 5, 6, and 7 years, th^3 average being about from 3 to 6 years. The 
latest statistics collected regarding kindergartens in Switzerland are 



CHAP. X. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 507 

for tlie year 1889 by M. Grob, secretary of public instruction at Zurich. 
They are as follows : 

PTJPILS AND TEACHERS IN KINDEEGARTENS. 



Canton. 


Schools. 


Boys. 


Girls. 


Tota] 
pupils. 


Teachers. 




61 

62 

3 

1 

4 

2 

5 

10 

8 

32 

8 

16 

1 

2 

13 

23 

160 

3 

36 

65 


1,657 


1,875 


3,532 

2, 550 

260 


79 


Bern - - .... 


63 


Luceruo .. ..... ..... . .......... 






6 


TJri 








Sell wytz 






91 

85 

188 

912 


4 








2 


Zlior 


97 


91 


6 




10 


S<>l6ur<* ... ..... .. ... . ....... 








Basel To^vn 


1,084 


1,033 


2,117 

452 

843 

60 

80 


46 


Biisel Laud . . .. 


8 




369 


474 


19 


Aupenzell Jjnner Rhodfis . .. ... 


2 




42 


38 


4 


A ar^'an .... 


13 




658 


G93 


1, 351 

4, 000 
249 
997 

3.872 


43 


Taud - - 


160 








3 


UenchAtel 






36 




1,993 


1.879 


85 






Total 


515 






21, 639 


589 











MANUAL TEAIMI^G. 

Manual training schools like those of the better class in the high 
school grade in the United States do not exist in Switzerland. What 
is called manual training for boys is more like advanced kindergarten 
work, than training which tends to make pupils more proficient in the 
trades. It consists of the execution of cardboard and simple wood 
work, somewhat on the plan of the sloid system. Sheets of cardboard 
are prepared and cut into the necessary forms, and then by means of 
paste and colored paper they are transformed into little useful articles, 
commencing with simple cubes, plain boxes, lids, etc., and advancing 
gradually to more complicated pieces, such as paper shelves, match 
boxes, picture frames, card baskets, pen boxes, etc. The wood work 
consists of simple work with the knife, the chisel, the saw, the plane, 
and the hammer. They begin generally with simple work with the 
knife, such as making penholders, salad spoons, etc., later, rules, 
shelves, boxes, dovetailing work, receivers for inkstands, etc. JSTo 
attempt seems to be made to prepare the pupils for any profession, the 
idea being simply to give the boys an idea of and a taste for such work 
as may be useful for them to understand in theii' own homes, and in 
g:eneral to make them more proficient in the use of their hands. Manual 
training is also looked upon as a profitable and pleasant recreation 
and a means of keeping the boys from the streets. The classes in man- 
ual training are generally held after school hours and are outside and 
independent of the school programmes. 

Manual training classes for boys exist at the present time in the can- 
tons Grisons, Saint Gall, Appenzell, Thurgau, Schali'hausen, Zurich, 



508 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



Aargau, Basel, Soleiire, Bern, E^eucliatel, Freyburg, Yaud, Glaras, and 
Geneva, over one- half of tlie cantons. In tlie cantons Yaud and ^en- 
cliatel the state contributes 200 francs ($38.60) per year and furnishes 
the materials whenever a school or class for manual training is organ- 
ized. In Bern the state pays 100 francs ($19.30) per year toward the 
expense of each class. In Geneva all expenses are paid out of the pub- 
lic funds, and manual training is compulsory for aU male pupils at aU 
public schools. The latest statistics collected on the subject of manual 
training are the following for 1889 : 

STATISTICS OF MANTJAi TIlAIIs^NG CLASSES. 



Canton. 


Classes. 


Pupils. 


Teachers. 


Hours per 
week. 


Ztiricli 


19 
32 
6 
2 
2 
2 


305 
558 
122 
120 
48 
46 
40 


13 
19 

8 
2 
2 

1 
1 
1 
5 


3 






Saint Gall 




Schaff liausen .......... ............................. .. 






24 


Thurcfau . . . . 








1 
5 




Bern . 


175 


4 







Yaud, Neuchatel, Appenzell, Freyburg, and Glarus each have several 
classes, but the statistics are not available. 

Boys attending manual training classes are generally from 9 to 13 
years of age. 

Manual training for boys in Switzerland is yet in its infancy, having 
been introduced but a few years ago. It has not existed long enough, 
nor has it developed sufficiently, to have shown any appreciable effect 
upon the proficiency of pupils as workingmen. This opinion is ex- 
pressed by the leading teachers of manual training, as well as by those 
who employ skilled labor. The teachers of manual training are every- 
where working zealously for the development of the work. Every 
year, during vacation time, a class for manual training teachers is 
held at one of the cities of Switzerland, and these classes are well 
attended. The first class of this kind at Basel in 1884 was attended by 
40 i)ersons, while at the last meeting at Ohaux-de-Fonds in 1891 
there were over 100 participants, including several foreigners. The 
meetings or classes are under the direction of M. Eudin, the gentleman 
who introduced the system of manual training into Switzerland. 

Manual training for girls, such as needlework, knitting, darning, 
mending, etc., has existed in Switzerland for many years, and in most 
cantons it is considered as one of the most important branches of study 
for girls. In nearly all cantons this instruction is compulsory. 

The following table gives a fair idea of the nature and extent of this 
work in Switzerland : 



CHAP. X. — ^INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 509 



MANUAI. TRAINTN-G FOR GIELS. 



Canton. 



Age 
for 
com- 
menc- 
ing. 



Age 
for 
finish- 
ing. 



Years 

of 
■work. 



Honrs 

per 
week. 



Oblig- 
atory? 



Nature of work done. 



Zurich . . 

Bern 

Lucerne 



3 to6 
3 to 6 



Uri 

Schwytz , 



Unterwalden (Tipper) 
TJnterwalden (Lower) 
Glarus 



13 



Zug 

Freyburg. 



Soleure 

Basel Town.. 
Basel Land . . 
SchaflEhausen. 



12 



Appenzell, 
Rhodes. 

Appenzell, 
Rhodes 

Saint Gall . 



Outer 
Inner 



Grisons. 
Aarsau . 



Thurgau . 



Ticino 
Vand . 



Valals 

Xeucliatel 



Geneva . 



4 

2 to4 

3 to6 

2^ to 6 

8 to4J 

4 to6 
4 to6 
4 to 6 
4 to8 



3 

3 

3 

3 to6 



6 6 



4 

3 to 6 



2 to4 



Yes... 

Yes... 

Yes... 

Ifo.... 
Yes... 

Yes... 
Yea... 
Yes... 

Yes... 
Yes... 

Yes... 

Yes... 

Yes... 
Yes... 
Yes... 

Ifo.... 

Yes... 

No.... 
Yes... 

Yes... 

Yes... 

Yes... 

No.... 
Yes... 

Yes... 



Knitting, sewing, mending, and cut- 
ting. 

Knitting, sewing, mending, cutting, 
and finishing garments. 

EJnitting, sewing, mending, cutting, 
and finishing garments. 

Plain needlework. 

All kiuds of plain needlework, and 
household duties. 

Plain needlework. 

All kinds of plain needlework. 

Knitting, mending, cutting, and sew- 
ing. 

Plain needlework. 

Knitting, sewing, mending, cutting, 
and preparing garments. 

Knitting, sewing, mending, drawing, 
cutting, and housekeeping duties. 

Knitting, sewing, mending, cutting, 
and finishing. 

Ejnitting, sewing, mending, cutting, 
and finishing. 

Knitting, sewing, mending, and cut- 
ting. 

Knitting, sewing, mending, cutting, 
crocheting, and lectures on house- 
keeping. 

Knitting, sewing, mending, cutting, 
and lectures on housekeeping and 
gardening. 

Knitting, sewing, mending, technical 
drawing, and lectures on house- 
keeping. 

Knitting, sewing, mending, drawing, 
and cutting. 

Knitting, sewing, mending, finishing 
garments, and lectures on house- 
keeping. 

Knitting, sewing, mending, cutting, 
technical drawing, and lectures on 
housekeeping. 

Plain needlework, and lectures on 
housekeeping. 

Plain needlework, and lectures on 
housekeeping. 

Plain sewing, etc. 

Plain needlework, and lectures on 
housekeeping. 

Plain needlework, and lectures on 
housekeeping. 



In canton Zuricli manual training for girls at the age of 9, and from 
13 to 15 years, is optional; in Basel Land it is optional from 14 to 16 
years of age; and in canton Lucerne it is optional during the thirteenth 
and fourteenth years. 

The maximum number of pupils in a class in any canton is 30. The 
materials for work are generally furnished by the school authorities or 
communities. Where this is not done the pupils contribute the money 
for the purchases. Instruction everywhere is gratuitous. 

KINDEEGAETEKS AND MANUAL TEAINING, GENEVA. 

As Geneva is the only, canton in which the kindergartens and instruc- 
tion in manual training for both sexes are considered as parts of the 
regular system of public instruction, the following translation of parts 
of the official programme is given to show the connection between them: 



510 REPORT OF THE C0M:MISSI0NER OF LABOR. 

PROGRAMME OF KINDERGARTENS. 

Inferior division {ages S to 5 years). — Intuitive instruction "by means of the Froebel 
materials. Ethical talks : simple conversations with the children, \rith a view to 
developing them morally and intellectually, and correcting bad habits. Object les- 
sons : conversations for the purpose of acquainting the children with the names of 
objects, plants, and animals familiar to them. The first year the object lessons are 
given in conjunction with the ethical talks. Native language : exercises in language, 
in which children are taught the meaning of the terms ''words" and "phrasesj" to 
find them and to use them. These exercises always follow the object lessons. Pen- 
manship: preparatory exercises in making letters. Arithmetic: counting by means 
of the Froebel materials; calculating up to 6; dividing the whole into halves and 
quarters. Geometry: elementary geometrical ideas by means of the Froebel mate- 
rials. Drawing : first year, children are prepared for drawing by means of the Froebel 
materials; second year, first attempts in drawing — ^cubes, little surface figures, 
etc., are arranged by dots on the slate, which the children complete by connecting the 
dots with lines. Singing: simple melodies with easy words. Intuitive instruction 
in measure. Gymnastics : movements and games ; marches, rounds, and ball playing. 

Su2)erior division (ages 5 to 7 years). — Intuitive instruction by means of the Froe- 
bel materials. Ethical talks : conversations, of which the essential object will be 
to develop in the children sentimouts of affection, conscience, a love of work and 
of duty. Object lessons: narratives, conversations, and explanations, giving the 
pupils ideas of the scientific elements of objects, plants, or animals of the country. 
The teachers will aim to develop in the children a spirit of observation, reflection^ 
and judgment. Native language: lessons prexjaratory to reading; exercises of 
analysis, by which pupils are taught to recognize and find the words, syllables, and 
sounds. Study of vowel and consonant sounds. Reading simple syllables, words, 
and short easy phrases. Reproduction, orally and in writing, of words and phrases. 
Little oral exercises of composition. Penmanship : elementary exercises with the 
pencil, advancing gradually from letters to syllables and short words, to be written 
from dictation. Preparatory exercises with pen and ink. Arithmetic: exercises of 
calculation by means of the Froebel materials. The four fundamental rules of 
arithmetic up to 10 ; calc ulations, oral and written ; division of the whole into 
halves, fourths, and eighths; little oral problems; writing numbers up to 20. 
Geometry: notions of geometry by means of the Froebel materials; points, lines, 
surfaces, solids. Drawing : third year, continuation of the previous exercises by 
means of dotted cubes, squares, etc., ornamental designs obtained by combining 
straight lines (made by means of rules or by tracing), designs containing curved 
lines, composition, drawing from memory; fourth year, dividing lines into 2, 4, 
8, 3, and 6 equal parts, application of these divisions to ornamental designs, com- 
bining straight and curved lines, geometrical figures, triangles, squares, rectangles, 
drawing common objects, drawing letters and printed characters, first attempts at 
drawing foliage. Singing: exercises of intonation; the scale of C; harmony; 
songs of one and two parts; melodies and easy songs. Gymnastics: movements 
and games; marches, rounds, and ball playing. Needlework: preparatory exer- 
cises in sewing. 

In the primary schools wMch follow these the same studies are con- 
tinued and others gradually added, as will be seen in the following table 
of subjects and the distribution of the hours of instruction per week: 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 511 

COITRSE OF STUDY IN THE PEIMABY SCHOOLS. 



Subject. 



Hours per week. 



First 
year. 



Second 
year. 



Third 
year. 



Fourth 
year. 



Fifth 
year. 



Sixth 
year. 



Native laugnage, French: 

Olgect lessons 

Eea(lin<i and recitation. 
ConipositioD, orthogra- 
phy, and grammar 

Arithmetic 

Gecmietry 

German 

Geography 

Hi-^tory 

Drawing 

Penmanship 

Gymnastics 

Singing 

Manual traiaing 



14 



Total. 



30 



30 



30 



30 



30 



30 



The nianual training work in tlie primary schools is as follows : 

First year {ages 7 to 8 years). — Girls : Sewing, preparatory exercises, 
employment of the needle and thimble -, practice on coarse goods in the 
different kinds of stitches — the running stitch, side-stitch, seam-stitch, 
whix)-stitch, backstitch, cross-stitch; seams and hems, making a small 
sheet with a hem, drawing through on canvas. Boys: Exercises in 
platting, folding, and interweaving; cutting up pieces of colored paper 
and forming them into geometrical designs. 

Second year {ages 8 to 9 years). — Girls: Knitting, executing a strip of 
thirty meshes, right and left meshes; sewing, repetition of first year's 
work, sewing bias, sewing with the running stitch, stitching on canvas, 
making an infant's chemise. Boys: Cutting paper and cardboard in 
the form of geometrical solids; combination work by means of colored 
worsted on canvas or paper. 

Third year {ages 9 to 10 years). — Girls: Knitting an average size 
stocking, repairing stockings, right meshes, darning; sewing, repetition 
of previous year's work, work by means of the backstitch, stitching on 
cloth, making a chemise for a child of 2 or 3 years of agre. Boys: Con- 
structing cardboard objects lined or covered with colored paper; wire 
work, trellises, geometrical solids. 

Fourth year {ages 10 to 11 years). — Girls: Knitting stockings, repeti- 
tion of previous year's work, contiDuation of repairs on stockings; back- 
stitch work on the bias, hemming linen pieces, makiDg a child's apron, 
princess shape, for a child of 3 years. Boys: Construction of simple 
objects of cardboard; wire work. 

Fifth year {ages 11 to 12 years). —Gills: Knitting, executing different 
patterns, continuation of stocking mending, darning holes, etc. ; sewing, 
repetition of previous work, buttonholes, gathering, folding regular 
l^laits by means of a pin or needle, darning cloth, making pillow slips 
with buttons and buttonholes, elementary exercises in cutting. Boys: 
Sketching objects and making them from the sketches; notions of the 



512 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



most useful tools, study of the principal tools used in wood work, plan- 
ing and sawing wood, simple joining, nailed boxes and other joined 
work, objects made of wood and cardboard, constructing objects from 
side sketches. 

SixtJi year {ages 12 to 13 years). — Girls: Knitting, theory of stocking 
knitting 5 crocheting, theory and study of the various meshes; sewing, 
repetition of previous work, hemming, wristbands and cuffs, open 
worked hems, ornamental stitches, chain-stitches, etc.j application of 
the various stitches in embroidery j making an apron with a waistband, 
wristbands, and adorned by means of the different fancy stitches j small 
plaits, repairing and mending useful objects j exersises in cutting and 
finishing. Boys : Further development of fifth year's work. 

After finishing their studies at the primary schools boys who desire 
to follow an artistic, industrial, or a commercial iDrofession, or to enter 
an industrial school later on, attend the two years' course at the manual 
training school. The work in this school closely resembles that in 
American schools. Here the manual training is continued from the 
primary schools, together with some of the other studies, as shown in 
the following table of subjects and the distribution of the hours of in- 
struction per week : 

COURSE OF STUDY LN^ THE MANUAL TEAINING SCHOOL. 



Subject. 



Frencli 

German 

Commercial geography, his- 
tory, and civic instruction. 

Arithmetic and algebra 

Geometry 

Mechanics and problems 

Natural sciences 

Physics 



Hours per week. 



First 
year. 



Second 
year. 



4 
4 

a2 
a3 
a5 



Subject. 



Chemistry 

Bookkeeping 

Drawing and modelling 

Technical drawing 

Manual training , 

Gymnastics 



Total. 



Hours per week. 



First 
year. 



35 



Second 
year. 



35 



a During six months only. 

The manual training in this school is as follows : 

First year. — Properties of raw materials used in the work; the tools, 
their names, uses, and care; wood work — the various kinds of wood 
used in the industries, their classification, native and foreign wood, 
resinous woods, fine wood, hard and soft wood, their qualities and their 
defects, their uses; exercises in sawing in straight and parallel lines 
according to given directions (for instance, constructing a pine wood 
frame); joining — tenons, mortises, dovetailing, joining by means of slit 
and tongue; employment of these systems of joining in the execution of 
work; all work must be done from drawings. 

Second year. — Continuation and further development of last year's 
work; lathe work, nature and care of tools, cutting of bodies in ro- 
tation; executiug objects having cylindrical, conical, and spherical 
surfaces; iron and brass work, nature and care of tools, exercises in 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 513 

the use of tlieflat and square files ^ liupils must construct all their work 
from drawings. 

Pupils who graduate from this school are eligible for admission to the 
industrial art school, the watchmaking school, the school of mechanics, 
the school of fine arts, the school of commerce, and the technical and 
pedagogic sections of the gymnasium of Geneva. 

TEADE SCHOOLS. 

These institutions being the most important for the training of work- 
ingmen and. women and for fitting them for their vocations, much more 
attention has been given to them than to the other classes of industrial 
schools. As they differ great! 3^ one from' another in their organiza- 
tions, j)rogrammes, aims, etc., they can best be described separately. 

A striliing feature of Swiss schools is the v^ell considered specializa- 
tion of the instruction Avhich they impart. Science, art, literature, and 
language are studied, not as aii end but a means, with an ulterior ob- 
ject in view — a utilitarian object, it is true, but clearly defined and 
openlj^ avowed. Every branch of knowledge is prized and gauged ac- 
cording to its direct value in its applicability to some trade or gainful 
occupation. This explains the generosity with which these special 
schools are supported. The object is kept constantly in view to build 
up new industries or to extend those already established. The expendi- 
tures are made in accordance with strict business principles — it being 
believed that such expenditures have been the direct means of bringing 
into the country millions of capital. 

SCHOOL OF "WATCHMAKING AND MECHANICS, LOCLE. 

This school was founded in 1868, and is a municipal institution. Its 
object is " to offer to young men who wish to devote themselves to the 
watchmaking industry, and also to workingmen who wish to complete 
their education, the means of making an apprenticeshij) thorough, and 
of acquiring such knowledge as they may have to utilize.'^ 

The course of study of the division for watchmaking comprises the 
manufacture of the various kinds of watches and all other work relating 
to the profession, also theoretical instruction j it covers three years. 
The practical work includes, successively, the manufacture of tools used 
in watchmaking, the rough work without the barrel or spring box, the 
rough work with the barrel, the mechanisms for winding, the wheel 
work, cylinder escapements, anchor escapements, adjusting and regu- 
lating. The work done includes key and stem-winders of various kinds, 
repeaters, watches indicating dates and phases of the moon, chronome- 
ters, and other complicated pieces. The theoretical work comprises : 
First year — algebra, elementary geometry, descriptive geometry, met- 
S. Ex. 65 33 



514 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

alliirgy, teclmieal drawing^ and theory of watclimakingj second year^ — 
algebra, geoinetrj^, trigonometry, industrial mechanics, teclinical draw- 
ing, and theory of watchmaking; third year— algebra, general mechan- 
ics^ X)hysies, eleetpoteelHiius, technical drawing, and theory of watch- 
mahing>. 

The course of study of the division for mechanics camprises the man- 
ufacture of the various tools and machinery used in the watchmaking 
industry, and also other fine apparatus. The theoretical instruction is 
the same as in the division for watchmaking. This course comprises 
also three years. The practical work done includes, among other things, 
all kinds of smaller tools, steel rules and squares, compasses, tools for 
cutting and boring, screw gauges, various tools used in turning, meas- 
uring instruments, anvils for watchmakers, piercing and grooving 
machines, lathes, machines for cutting wheels, for stamping, and for 
polishing, etc.; also repairing all kinds of watchmaking tools and 
machinery. 

The school is in session every day except on Sundays and holidays. 
There is no vacation. The work continues from 7 a. m. in summer and 
8 a. m. in winter until 7 p. m., with an intermission of one and one-half 
hours at noon for dinner. About nine hours per week are devoted to 
theoretical instruction. All the other time is spent in the performance 
of practical work. 

The teaching personnel consists of a director of the watchmaking 
school, who is also instructor of adjusting and regulating, theoretical 
work, and drawing,- a director of the division for mechanics, who is also 
instructor of theoretical work and drawing; a teacher for the class 
in finishing; a teacher for the class in escapements; a teacher for the 
class in mounting the wheel work; a teacher for the class in rough 
work; a foreman for the division for mechanics, making a total of 7 
X)ersons. 

At the close of the session of 1890-'91 there were 40 pupils in the 
watchmaking division, and 11 pui)ils in the division for mechanics. Of 
the former 32 were Swiss, and 8 were foreigners. At the close of the 
year they were occupied as follows: Two, tool making; 2, rough work 
without the spring box; 3, rough work with the spring box; 11, the 
mechanisms for winding; 8, wheel work; 1, cylinder escapements; 10, 
anchor escapements; and 3, finishing. 

The total number of persons who have graduated from the watch- 
making division since the founding of the school is 388. The number 
who have graduated from the division for mechanics is 3. 

The latest statistics obtainable relating to the present occupation of 
former pupils are for the twenty years ending 1888. Up to this time 
275 pupils had graduated. 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 515 

OCCUPATIOXS OF EX-STUDE:S'TS of the WATCHilAKIXG SCHOOL, LOCLE. 



Occupation. Xuinbcr. Per ceiit, 



TVatcli maniifacturera 

Superinteudeuts or chiefs of worksliops 

Other enii)loye.s in the "watchniakiiig industry 

Heads of f.jreign establishments 

Watch dealers and rejjairers , 

Left the watchmaking profession 

Deceased - 



Total 




Tliey were located as follows: At Locle, 79; in tke same cautoii 
(Keiicliatel), 30; other parts of Switzerland^ 32; other European 
countries, 76; outside of Europe, 40; deceased, 18. 

The administration of the school is intrusted to a board appointed 
hj the general municipal counciL Each, year this committee or board 
makes a detailed report to tlie council e>f the progress of the school. 
Inspectors of the cantonal and federal goyernments can take part in 
conducting the examinations, and can examine tlie expenditures of the 
institution. 

The expenses of the school are defrayed as follows: By tuitions: by 
interest on the capital; and when needed by subsidies from the canton, 
tlie federal goYernment, and from appropriations out of th^ city treas- 
ury. A special permanent fund is provided by donations, the inter- 
est of which is utilized for scholarships to persons of small means. 

During the year 1890 the income and esixendituTres were as follows : 

INCOME. 

Manicipal appropriation $^1^ 1.S4. 84 

AELowanoe of the l)-ureau for stumping gold and silver, at Lode 250.90 

Tuitions , 1^ 6dG, 87 

Sale of work done by pupils 672.35 

Various receipts 61. 53 

Cantonal subsidy 1, 194. 19 

Federal subsidy 1,487. 91 

Total 6,438.59 

EXPEXDITUKES. 

Salaries of teacbers and directors 4. 188. 10 

Tools and materials 891.42 

General expenses 1^ 369. 35 

SeboIarsMps 277.92 

Total 6,726.79 

The tmtian f&r regular pupils i& 15 francs ($2.90) per month far na- 
tives of Switzerland and 30 francs ($5.79) per month for foreigners. 
Pupils who take a course in adjusting and regulating only j>ay a 



51G REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

tuition of 150 francs (128.95) for tliree montlis, and 50 francs ($9.G5) for 
each additional month. Former pupils who reenter to take this course 
l^ay a tuition of 30 francs ($5.79) per month. 

Eegular pupils must be at least 14 years of age, and must have 
passed a satisfactory examination before being admitted. Apiolicatioiis 
are made to the president of the board. They must indicate the names 
of the applicants' parents or guardians residing in the city, and if the 
latter are not residents, the names of some citizens who will be respon- 
sible for the i:)ui)ils. When the apiolications exceed the vacancies 
j)reference is given in the following order: To citizens of I^^Teuchatel 
(canton), of Switzerland, and foreigners residing in Loclej to citizens of 
jSTeuchatel (canton), of Switzerland, and foreigners residing outside of 
Locle. 

The supplies and tools bought for the pupils are charged to them. 
Parents or guardians are responsible for the damage done by pui)ils to 
furniture or the tools intrusted to their care. Pupils are put on jDroba- 
tion for three months, and if found unfit for an api)renticeship the 
board will notify their parents to withdraw them from the school. 
General examinations are held each year of the x)ractical and theo- 
retical work covered during the period. 

This school, when founded in 1868, was considered as an exi)eriment. 
It began with 5 pupils and 1 teacher of i)ractical and theoretical 
work. A teacher of the public schools taught the class in mathematics. 
On October 1 of the same year the attendance had increased and an 
instructor of rough work and mounting was added. March I, 1870, 
an instructor of wheel work and escapements was added. The attend- 
ance in the meantime had increased considerably, and on May 1, 1875, 
another teacher for rough work was added to the school. Since then 
the number of teachers has been increased as the necessities required. 
During this i)eriod of time the watchmaking industry had undergone a 
great change. The hand work was replaced by machine work. In 
order to familiarize the pupils with these laachines it was necessary to 
purchase them. Large expenditures were required for this purpose, 
but on account of government subsidies they could be met. At tbe 
X)resent time the school is equix)ped with the latest machines and tools. 
The school proved to be a success from its very beginning. The fed- 
eral subsidy made it possible to establish a school of mechanics in 1887, 
where pupils learn to make tools and construct the machines used in 
the watchmaking industry. 

SCHOOL OF WATCHMAKING AND MECHANICS, CHAUX-DE- 

FONDS. 

This school was founded in 1865. It is a municipal institution. Its 
object is to educate young men practically and theoretically in all the 
branches of watchmakirjg, and also in the construction and repair of 
tools and machinery used in watch manufacture. 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 517 

The i3ractical work in the division for watchmaking comprises, suc- 
cessively, preliminary work in turning and filing, making small tools, 
rough work, wheel work, mechanisms of stem-winders, simple ineces, 
complicated pieces, diverse escapements, finishing, mounting and ad- 
justing, and regulating watches. The work includes all kinds of key 
and stem-winding watches, from the most simple pieces to calendar 
and repeating watches and chronometers. The theoretical work is ap- 
portioned as follows: Preparatory class — arithmetic and bookkeeping, 
geometry, and theory of watchmaking j first year — arithmetic, book- 
keeping, mechanics, geometry, and theory of watchmaking; second 
year — algebra, geometry, trigonometry, physics, cosmography, me- 
chanics, and theory of watchmaking; third year — algebra, theory of 
watchmaking, mechanics, and physics; special higher course — alge- 
bra, mechanics, and theory of watchmaking. Technical drawing forms 
an important feature of the instruction. The regular course is for three 
j^ears ; with the extra course, four years. 

The i3ractical work in the division for mechanics is apportioned as 
follows : First year — preliminary work, file work, turning, forge work, 
executing models for castings; second year — models for castings, file 
work, turning, forging, setting up and adjusting, apparatus for meas- 
uring, execution of simi)le dies and matrices; third year — setting up 
and adjusting, executing tools used in watchmaking, also other ma- 
chinery, executing machines and instruments previously i)lanned and 
designed by the pupil, dies and matrices, stamping; fourth year — fine 
instruments and phj^sical apparatus, instruments for measuring, exe- 
cuting machines planned and designed by the pupil. The students in 
this division follow the same theoretical course as those in the division 
for watchmaking, except that the subjects of theory of watchmaking 
and of cosmography are replaced by technology, applied mechanics, 
chemistry, and metallurgy. In designing the x)upils of this division 
have two additional hours of sketching (mechanical). 

The average time per week devoted to theoretical instruction and 
drawing is — 10 hours for the preparatory class; 12 for the first year; 12 
for the second year; 8 for the third year; 7 for the fourth, or extra year. 
It is the same for pupils of both schools, except that those of the school 
of mechanics have two hours more per week in sketching. The rest of 
the time is devoted to practical work. The school is in session daily, 
except Sundays and holidays, from 7 a. m. in summer and 8 a. m. in win- 
ter until 7 p. m., with an intermission of one and a half hours at noon. 
There are fourteen days' vacation in the summer time. 

The teaching personnel consists of a director, who is also instructor 
of theoretical branches and technical drawing; a teacher of preliminary 
work, rough work, and wheel work; a teacher of rough work mechan- 
isms for winding, and complicated pieces; a teacher of escax)ements, 
finishing, mounting and adjusting, and regulating; a director of the 
division for mechanics, who is also teacher of drawing; a teacher for the 



518 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

pra ctiGOtl worli in meelianics ; a teaelaer fm tlie class in meehani^jal manu- 
facture of watches ; a lorofessor of mathematics j a teaeker of bookkeep- 
ing, making nine persons in all. 

Sixty- live pupils attended tlie sekool during the scholastic yeorr 1S0O- 
'91. Ten left the school, of which 2 had finished a three years' appren- 
ticeship, 6j a partial apprenticeship, and 2 had not attemled long enough 
to have profited. This left 55 pupils at tk« school ©n- June 39, 1891, who 
were then occupied as follows : Bough work and sx^ringhoxes, 11; mech- 
anisms for winding watches, S;, wheel work, 1; eomi^licated pieces, 
calendar watches,.rep€aters, chronometers, etc., 6; eseapementSy, 7 ; test- 
ing and regulating watches, 8 y the division for mechanics, 13 j and higher 
theoretical studies, 1. 

Since the fountlation of the school^ in 1865, until June 30y 1891, 472 
pux)ils have attended. 

No statistics could he obtained regarding the present occupations of 
former pupils. ISTearly all are either in business for themselves, as man- 
ufacturei^, repairers, or dealers, or are &ux)ermtendents, finishers, ex- 
aminers, or adjusters and regulators in watch factories. Pupils who 
have taken the whole course rarely if ever take any inferior xoositions, 
such as ordinary workingmen, in watch factories. They are skilled 
workingmcD, and are regarded as such by the manufacturers. 

The administration of this school is intrusted to a commission of 
twenty persons, named by the general municipal council. Each year 
this commission makes a detailed report of the progress of the school. 
A copy of this report is deposited with the archives of the nation, the 
canton, and the municipality. 

The general expenses of the school are covered by tuitions, income 
from the capital for special cases,^^mum©ipal appropriations,, state appro- 
priations,, and federal subsidies. 

During, the year 1890 the income and expenditures of the school 
were as follows : 

IKCOMIL 

Munieipal appropriation — $3> 454. 70 

State appropTiation 1^ 170^66 

Federal subsidy- 1, 775, 60 

Tuitions-.,...^ . 1,354.1^ 

Income from capital and sundries , . 441.70 

Total -. 8,196.25 

EXPENDITUEES. 

Salaries of director and tcaeliers 5, 523. 47 

Tools, materials, andfiirnialiings.- ... 1,074.88 

G<>neral exjjenses 1, 597 90 

Total... 8,196.25 

The tuition for natives of Switzerland anxi pupils^ of foreign birth 
whose parents reside in Switzerland is fixed at 15 francs ($2.90) per 
month during the first two years of apprenticeship, IC^ francs (^1.93) per 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 519 

moil til (luring the third year, and 5 francs (97 cents) per month during the 
fourth year. , For foreigners the tuition is 25 francs ($4.83) per month 
during the entire apprenticeship. PujDils must supply all their own 
small tools and furnishings. The heavy machinery is the property of 
the school. The work done belongs to the i)iipils. In the division for 
mechanics tliG tools and furnishings are the property of the school; at 
times pupils who show great zeal in their work receive compensation 
for i)ieces executed. Pux)ils of both divisions pay for the materials 
necessary for the instruction in drawing and theoretical branches. AU 
tools and materials must be purchased at the school. 

PupilSj to be admitted, must be at least 14 years of age, and must 
have passed a satisfactory examination. Applications are made to the 
president of the commission, and must contain the age and name of the 
pupil and the address of the parents or guardians who will be respon- 
sible to the commission. When pui^ils are non-residents some citizens 
of Chaux-de-Fonds must agree to be responsible for them. When the 
applications exceed the vacancies preference is given in the following 
order : To natives of ]S"euchatel (canton) and Switzerland residing at 
Ghaux-de-Fonds ; to natives of JSTeuchatel (canton) and Switzerland 
not residing at Ohaux-de-Fondsj to foreigners residing in or outside 
of Chaux-de-Fonds. 

Pupils must apply in writing one month in advance if they wish to 
leave the school before completing their course of study. They can 
leave only at the end of June and January of each year. 

1^0 pui3il can dispense with the theoretical instruction without 
special permission of the commission. During the first three months 
of apprenticeship, if pupils are found to lack the necessary proficiency, 
their parents are notified to withdraw them from the school. Partial 
apprenticeships can be taken for special branches, such as in rough 
work, in wheel work, in mechanisms for winding, in simple pieces, in 
complicated pieces, in various escapements, in finishing, in mounting, 
and in regulating, when parents can not send their children to serve 
the entire time. Young men and workingmen who desire to perfect 
themselves in their i)articular branches may attend one, two, or three 
months according to their proficiency. Free scholarships are provided 
for out of a special fund donated to the school. Pupils who intend tak- 
ing an apprenticeship in watchmaking may take a partial apprentice- 
ship of one year in the division of mechanics in order to make them- 
selves more proficient in that branch of the profession. 

At the expiration of each scholastic year, in accordance with the cus- 
tom in schools of this class in Switzerland, a general examination takes 
place, and prizes are distributed to such pupils as distinguish them- 
selves in any particular branches. At the last examination, June 26 
and 27, 1891, nineteen such prizes were distributed. Pupils who desire 
to have a certificate of capacity upon leaving the school must submit 
to a special examination in the presence of examining experts taken 



520 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

from outside the school. The following classes of certificates are issued : 
A diploma, called the diploma of honor 5 a warrant of capacity, first 
degree 5 a warrant of capacity, second degree 5 and a certificate of 
education. 

SCHOOL OF WATCHMAKING, NEUCHATEL. 

This school was founded in 1871. It is a municipal institution. Its 
object is '^ to offer to pupils and to workingmen in the watchmaking 
industry the means of acquiring the necessary theoretical knowledge, 
and as nearly as x)ossible a practical training in their profession." 

Pupils are divided into two categories — those who wish to take a 
complete course in watchmaking and those who desire to study only 
one particular branch of the profession, or workingmen who desire to 
perfect themselves in their particular lines of work. There is also a 
higher course for persons intending to become exjoerts or sui^erintend- 
enls in watch factories. 

Pupils of the first category, those taking the complete watchmaking 
course, attend three years and are divided into three classes : 

First year. — Eough work, mechanisms of winding, wheel w ork. Pupils 
make such small tools as can be executed with the file and the lathe. 
Each pupil must make six jneces of the rough work, the parts used for 
the winding and the mechanisms properly set, and various kinds of 
wheel work. Finally, they must prepare the wheel work for six stem- 
winding watches, which work is presented for the first year's examina- 
tion. 

Second 2/ear.— Escapements. The pupils must make the small tools 
used in this work, must learn to set the jewels, and must make several 
cylinders and an assortment of anchors j then they finish cylinder and 
anchor escapements, and set them in the six stem-winding watches. 
This work is presented for the second year's examination. 

Third year. — Finishing, adjusting, testing, and repairing. The pupils 
make the small tools used in this work. They learn to finish key and stem- 
winding watches, and to regulate them. They then test and finish the 
pieces. The six pieces commenced in the i)revious years are then fin- 
ished, regulated, and tested, and finally presented for examination at 
the end of the third year. 

Finally those who wish to make chronometers and other complicated 
l>ieces may continue at the school and pass an examination for a sx)ecial 
diploma. The pupils of the second category may take any one of the 
above branches of work. Their time at school dex)ends upon the nature 
of their work and their practical experience as workingmen. 

The theoretical work (mathematical course) comprises the following 
studies : 

Preparatory class {3 hours 2)er weelc). — Arithmetic — fundamental oper- 
ations with whole numbers, fractions and decimals, powers and roots, 
applications j algebra — elements of literal calculations 3 geometry — defi- 
nitions, plane (first part). 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 521 

Fimt year class (3 hours ]^er tveelc). — Aritlimetic — proportion, \)vo- 
gressiou, logaritlims, divers rules; algebra — equations of tlie first 
degree with one or more unknown quantities, powers and roots of alge- 
braic quantities; geometry — plane (second part). 

Second year class {4 hours ]^er iveelc). — Algebra — equations of tlie sec- 
ond degree with one unknown quantity; geometry of space; mechan- 
ics — preliminary studies, uniform and varied motion, w^eight, parallel aud 
oi)posite forces, exercises; physics — general properties of matter, attrac- 
tion, elasticity, laws of equilibrium, hydrostatics. 

Third year class {4 hours per iceelc). — Algebra — equations of the second 
degree with several unknown quantities, etc.; plane trigonometry^ — 
principles, resolution of triangles; mechanics — divers motions, centre 
of gravity, resultants of forces, forces and living powers, the pendti- 
luin, laws of friction; physics — heat. 

Special higher course for aspirants for experfs diplomas (4 hours per 
iceelc) . — Infinitesimal calculus ; analytical geometry — principles, straight 
lines, circumferences, ellipses, divers curves; mechanics — divers the- 
orems, engines, dynamic equilibrium; physics — acoustics, optics. 

The course in theory of watchmaking is as follows: 

First year class {.2 hours per iceelc). — General functions of clocks and 
watches; principles, motive forces, wheel work. 

Second year class {3 hours per iceelc). — Gearing; mechanical studies; 
escapements, general functions ; special studies of anchor and cylinder 
escapements. 

Third year class. — Various escapements; theory of regulating. 

Special higher course. — Studies in regulating; Phillip's theory; com- 
pensation of w^atches and clocks, etc. 

The course in electricity, first year (1 hour per week), embraces 
sources of electricity; effects, laws, and measurement of electric cur- 
rents ; practical application to watchmaking; classification of electric 
watchmaking; system of reporting time by electricity. Second year (1 
hour per week), complete study of the various systems for electrical 
clocks; correction of habitual faults; electrical registering; telephones; 
electric light. 

The course in cosmography (1 hour i)er week) embraces general 
studies of planetary bodies; celestial motions; laws; astronomical 
instruments. 

The course in French language for natives (1 hour per week) embraces 
reading selected pieces; definition and spelling of words; dictation; 
exercises in composition. Course for foreigners (1 hour per week), 
exercises appropriate for the pupils according to the extent of their 
knowledge of the French language. 

The course in technical drawing (4 hours per week) includes 
elementary draughting; gearing, escapements; copying machinery from 
the objects; plans and profiles; calibers of watches aud clocks. 

The school is in session from 7 a. m. in summer and from 8 a. m. in 



522 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF I.ABOR. 

winter until 7 j). m., with an intermission of one and one-lialf lionrs at 
noon. Each year there is a vacation of two or three weeks. 

The teaching personnel consists of a director, who teaches in x)ractical 
and theoretical work, two instructors of practical work, and thre^ pro- 
fessors of theoretical branches. 

The attendance since the foundation, has been 144 i^upils, of whom 
20 were at the school at the close of the year 1891. No record is kept 
of theii* present occupations, but it is thought that nearly all are in the 
watchmaking industry. 

The administration of this school is confided to a commission, named 
by the general council of the municipality. Each year it presents a 
detailed report of the progress of the school. This commission consists 
of 15 members, three-fifths of whom are chosen from among the watch- 
makers and the rest from the school board. 

The expenses of the school are defrayed by subsidies from the nation, 
the canton, and the municipal appropriations, by tuitions, and by volun- 
tary donations. During the year 1890 the income and expenditures 
were as follows : 

IXCOilE. 

Mnnicipal appropriation $882.78 

Cantonal subsidy 772. 00 

Tuitions 332.92 

Federal subsidy 747.88 

Total 2,735.58 

EXPENDITURES. 

Salaries of director and teacliers 2, 341. 09 

Tools and materials 211. 87 

General expenses 182. 62 

Total 2,735.58 

The tuition is 5 francs (97 cents) per month for Swiss citizens and 20 
francs ($3.86) per month for aliens. Pupils whose parents are resi- 
dents and electors of the city have the preference. Small tools must 
be furnished by the pux>ils. Fixed tools and machinery are furnished 
free by the school. Pupils are held responsible for any damage to 
property. Pupils must be at least 13 years of age when admitted. 
Pupils can not leave the school without giving notice one month in ad- 
vance. Theoretical instruction is compulsory. 

SCHOOL OP "WATQHMAKING, FLEURIBH. 

This school was founded in 1850. It has existed as a municipal insti- 
tution since 1875. 

The course of instruction comprises, successively, all the different 
parts of work done in the profession — tool making, rough work with 
mechanisms for winding, wheel work, anchor escapements, finishing 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 523 

and regulatiiigj x>laiu and calendar watclies. The tlieoretical instruc- 
tion is sinix)le, and inclndes sucli branches as are necessary in the 
practical work." The course properly re c[uires about three years, but 
most pupils learn only certain x)arts, remaining for one year or a lit- 
tle longer. Theoretical instruction is compulsory. 

The hours of work are from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m. in summer and from 8 
a.m. to 8 p.m. in winter, with au intermission of one hour at noon. The 
school is in session daily except on Sundays and holidays. The time 
spent in theoretical work varies greatly, but averages about eight 
hours per week. 

The teaching personnel consists of two instructorSj who have charge 
of both the practical and theoretical instruction. 

At the close of the year 1891 there were 13 pupils at the school^ 139 
pupils have attended the school since it was founded. I^o record is 
kept of the present occupations of former i>ui)ils. Xearly all are sup- 
posed to be still in the watchmaking industry. 

The administration of this school is intrusted to a commission named 
by the general council (municipal). Each year this commission makes 
a detailed report of the x)rogress of the school. 

The general expenses of the school are covered by tuitions and by 
subsidies from the state and the municipality. This is the only watch- 
m aking school that receives no federal subsidy. During 1890 the income 
and expenditures were as follows: 

IXC03IE. 

Cantonal subsidy ^ .-.- $772.00 

Municipal appropriation 289. 50 

Tuitions 193.00 

Yarions receipts 28. 95 

Total.. .„ 1,283.45 

EXrEXDITUEES. 

Salaries of teachers 1, 138. 70 

Tools : 38.60 

General expenses _. 106.15 

Total 1,283.45 

The tuition for natives of Switzerland is 10 francs (81.93) per month j 
for foreigners it is 25 francs (f 1.83) per month. 

Pupils before entering must be 13 years of age and must present a 
certificate of education. Apjilications are made in writing and must 
be accompanied by the names and addresses of the 2)arents or others 
resident in Fleiuier who will be responsible for the applicants. Pui)ils 
must furnish the necessary materials and tools for their instruction. 
They must also pay for lighting. 



524 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



SCHOOL OF WATCHMAKING, SOLEURE. 

This scliool was founded in 1884. It is a municipal and state insti- 
tution. 

The practical work consists, successively, of rough work, wheel work, 
cylinder and anchor escapements, finishing, regulating, and testing of 
watches. Pui)ils who have successfully passed through the three 
years' apprenticeshi]} may take a special course in watch repairing. 
Workingmen who desire to perfect themselves may attend six months 
or a year, according to their previous attainments. These may take a 
course in only one branch if they desire. 

The theoretical work comprises theory of watchmaking, mathemat- 
ics, physics, drawing and bookkeeping, and the French and German lan- 
gaages. Special instruction is also given in the Italian and English 
languages. This is optional with the i^upils, and a charge of 5 
francs (97 cents) per year is made for each language. Intercourse 
between the pupils and teachers is conducted in both the German and 
French languages. 

The school is in session daily, except Sundays and holidays, from 7 
a. m. in summer and 8 a. m. in winter until 7 p. m., with an intermission 
of one and one-half hours at noon. There are fourteen days' vacation 
in summer. All the time not taken up in theoretical work is spent in 
the workshops. All studying must be done outside the school hours. 

The teaching personnel consists of a principal, receiving a yearly 
salary of 3,300 francs (|63G.90); one assistant, receiving annually 900 
francs ($173.70) for eight hours' instruction per week; one assistant, 
receiving annually 150 francs ($28.95) for two hours' instruction per 
week. Instruction in the optional courses is given at the state college by 
professors emi)loyed there. During the scholastic year ending April 
30, 1891, 11 pupils attended the school. One pui)il graduated during 
the year. The total attendance since the foundation was 76 pupils. 
1^0 record is kept of the present occui^ations of the graduates. Most 
of them remain in Switzerland occupied in watch factories, others are 
watch repairers, and about 25 are in the watchmaking business for 
themselves. 

The affairs of the school are administered by a commission of 7 mem- 
bers, 3 of whom are selected by the cantonal and 4 by the municipal 
government. The president, vice-president, and secretary of this com- 
mission constitute the executive committee. 

The expenses of the school are covered as follows : By a federal sub- 
sidy, by a cantonal subsidy, by the community, by the municipality, by 
tuitions, and by donations. 

During the scholastic year ending April 30, 1891, the total expenses 
of the school were 10,827 francs ($2,089.61). The tuition is 5 francs 
(97 cents) per month for natives and 25 francs ($4.83) for foreigners. 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 525 

Free scliolarsliips are sometimes given to poor, deserving pupils. The 
tools and otlier materials for tlie practical and theoretical work are fur- 
ni>hed at the expense of the pupils. The work done belongs to the 
pupils, although the school commission reserves the right to designate 
what is to be done. The heavy tools and machinery belong to the 
school. 

Pupils to be admitted must be at least 15 years of age and must have 
completed the primary education required by law. They must i)ass a 
theoretical examination, and later a practical test, before entering fully 
ui)on the apprenticeships. The latter test is made after the first three 
months of attendance at the school, and upon this depends whether the 
pupil remains, and if so, whether he can be permitted to take a whole or 
a partial apprenticeship in watchmaking. Pupils enter into a contract 
of apprenticeship, and if they leave before the expiration of this contract 
a fine not exceeding 10 francs ($1.93) per month for the unexpired time 
may be exacted by the commission. 

SCHOOL OP WATCHMAKING, BIENNB. 

This school was founded in 1872, and is one of the municipal and state 
institutions. It has two divisions — watchmaking and fine mechanics. 

The practical work in the division for watchmaking comi^rises, suc- 
cessively, rough work and mechanisms for windiug, about 14 months; 
wheel work, about 4 months j escaj)ements, about 12 months j ficishiug, 
regulating, testing, and mounting repeaters, chronograi)hs, calendar 
watches, etc., 6 or more months. Instruction in complicated pieces is 
optional, and is only given when the pupil shows special proficiency. 

The practical work in the division for mechanics comprises tools 
used in the watchmaking industry, machines for mechanical work, and 
American lathes. The course continues about three years. All in- 
struction is given in the French and German languages. 

The theoretical instruction, which is the same for both divisions, com- 
prises the theory of watchmaking, mathematics, mechanics, kinematics, 
physics, chemistry, cosmography, technical drawing, and bookkeeping. 

Each pur)il before entering the watchmaking school passes three 
months in the mechanical department. The school is in session daily, 
except Sundays and holidays, from 7 a. m. in summer and 8 a. m. in 
winter until 7 p. m., with an intermission of one and one-half hours at 
noon. The time devoted to i3ractical and theoretical instruction varies. 
The average is about 45 hours' practical work and 12 hours' theoretical 
work in winter, and 51 hours' practical work and 11 hours' theoretical 
vvork in summer. At the present time (August 1891) there are four 
classes in theoretical work. 

The teaching personnel consists of a director, who is also instructor 
of drawing and theory of watchmaking, a i)rofessor of mathematics, a 
professor of bookkeeping, two teachers of i)racticalAYork, and one mas- 
ter mechanic. 

In August 1891 when the school was visited there were 28 pupils in 



526 REPOET OF TBE eaMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. 

tbe watGlimaking school and 10 in tlie seliQol for fine meelianics. Since 
tlie foundation of the school about 3o0 iinpils have attended. 

No statistics coukl be obtained regarding: the present occmpations of 
formei? pupils. It is estimated that abont 70 per cent, remain in the 
wa tell making, indnstry. Many graduates are in foreign countries. 

The affairs of the school are administered by a commission of 13 mem- 
bers, of whom 5 are named by the canton, and 8 by the munieipality 
of Bienne. Tlie president, vice-president, and secretary constitute the 
executive committee. 

The sehool derives its income from tuitions, a cantonal subsidy, mu- 
nicipal appropriations, voluntary donations, and federal subsidies. 

During the scholastic year 1890-'9^1 the expenses of the school were 
28,114.11 feancs ($5,126.08) and the income 28,967.85 francs (|5,590.80). 

The tuition is 10 francs (11.93) per month for natives of SAvitzerland 
and 25 francs ($1.83) for foreigners. 

The tools and materials necessary for the practical and theoretical 
work are furnished at the expense of the pujiils. Only the larger 
mri chines and tools belong to the school. The products of the school 
beloug to the pupils, but the school has the right to order a certain 
number of pieces which must remain as school property. Pupils are 
also invited by the commission to leave samples of their work in the 
school museum. 

Pupils taking the course in mechanics furnish neither tools nor 
materials, but the work done belongs to the school. The materials for 
drawing and theoretical instruction are furnished by the x)upils. 

Pupils in order to be admitted must be at least 11 years of age, and 
must, have finished the primary education prescribed by law. Candi- 
dates are examined for admission. 

SCHOOL OP "WATCHMAKING, PORENTRUY. 

This school was founded in 1883. It is one of the municipal and 
state institutions. 

The complete apprenticeship covers a period of three and a half 
years. It comprises, suceessiv^ely, rough work, mechanisms for key and 
stem-winding, wheel work, cylinder and anchor escapements, and finish- 
ing, mounting'^, regulating, and testing watches. For partial or special 
apprenticeships the work includes jewel setting, escapement work, 
pivot work, finishing escai)enients, regulatiQg, etc., and the course cov- 
ers from one to two y^ars according to the branch taken and the profi- 
ciency of the i>upil. All time lost, whether justified or not, must be 
made up after the expiration of the term of apprenticeship. The 
theoretical instruction comprises theory of watchmaking, arithmetic, 
bw)kkeeping, and drawing. 

The school is in session in summer from 7 a. m. to 7 p. m., with two 
hours' intermission, and in winter from 8 a. m. to 6.30 p. m,, with one 
and a half hours' intermission.. It is open daily except Sundays and 
holidays, and three weeks' vacation. 



CHAP. X.: — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 527 

The teaGliing personnel consists of a director, who is also instructor 
of practical work, one instructor of practical work, a professor of arith- 
metic, one of bookkeeping, and one of drawing.. 

On. May 1, 1890, 9 male and 9 female pupils attended the school. 
They were at work as follows : One at finishing, 2 at placing anchor 
escapements, 1 at pivot work and finishing cylinders, 1 at finishing 
cylinder escapements, 5 at setting escapements, 3 at regulating, and 5 
at cylinder pivots. During the year following 9 of these finished their 
apprenticeships, and all of them easily fouud i30sitionSi One was per- 
mitted to leave Before the expiration of his term. At different times 
duriug the year ending April 30, 1891, 8 new pupils entered, leaving 
at the end of the scholastic year 16 pupils. The maximum number at 
any one time d^ieg; this year was 23 pupils. 

E'o record is kept of former pupils' present occupations. ^Nearly all 
are occupied in the watchmaking industry. 

The administration of the school is in the hands of a commission of 
seven members, three of whom at least must be watchmakers. Three of 
them are named by the state, three by the municipality, and one by the 
communes which subsidize the school. The president, vice-president, 
and secretary constitute the executive committee. 

The expenses of the school are covered by state subsidies, subsidies 
from communities of the district of Porentruy, tuitions^ private dona- 
tions, and federal subsidies. 

The following is the budget from January 1 to December 31, 1890 : 

INCOME. 

Brouglit forward from last year $336. 75 

Subsidies : 

State of Bern 482. 50 

Municipality of Porentruy 386. 00 

Federal government (500 francs special) 579. 00 

Communities of the district 69. 96 

Tuitions 192. 29 

Furnishings, sale of, to pupils 111. 44 

Commissions on work sold for pupils 48. 55 

Sale of surplus stock of watches — 57. 90 

Total 2,264.39 

EXPENDITUEES. 

Salary of director 636. 90 

Salary of teacher of practical work. 579. 00 

Salaries of teachers of theoretical work 138. 58 

Eent of building . 38.60 

Interior expenses, heating, lighting, etc 70.86 

Furnishings (tools, etc.) to he sold to pupils 152.97 

Purchase of tools for the school 10. 81 

Furniture 40. 48 

Total , . 1,668.20 

The tuition is from 5 to 20 francs (97 cents to $3.80) per month, the 
amonnt depending Hjp@n the eircumstances oi the p^pihs^ sm^ ®£ th« 



528 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

school itself. In tlie case of worthy pupils with small means the tuition 
is sometimes partially or entirely remitted by the commission. The 
materials and smaller tools are famished at the expense of the pupils. 
The pupils obtain the proceeds from the sale of their work, but a com- 
mission of 20 per cent, is charged for the use of the larger tools and 
machinery owned by the school. 

Pupils in order to enter the school mu§t be at least 14 years of age 
and must possess the education prescribed by law for pupils leaving 
the primary schools. They are not admitted when over 22 years of age. 
Pupils enter into a contract of apprenticeship with the commission of 
the school. When pupils are non-residents they must name some one 
in Porentruy who will be responsible for them. During the first three 
months pupils are on probation, and may be dismissed if found incom- 
petent for the work. 

SCHOOL OF WATCHMAKING, SAINT IMIER. 

This school was founded in 1866. It is one of the municipal institu- 
tions of Saint Imier. 

The instruction comprises, successively, rough work, wheel work, es- 
capements, finishing, regulating, and testing. 

The first year is devoted to making rough work, wheel work, and the 
nieclianisms for winding j the second year, to anchor and cylinder 
escapements, makiug and finishing the parts, and setting and mounting 
themj the third year, to finishing and mounting, incasing, regulatiug, 
and repairing watches. 

The theoretical work comprises the following courses : 

First year. — Algebra and trigonometry, two hours j mechanics (stat- 
ics), one hour 5 geometry, one hour; theory of watchmaking (time and 
its units; true time, mean time, sidereal time; definition of a time- 
piece; iDrincipal organs — (1) the motive force, (2) wheel work, (3) escape- 
ments, (4) regulators — first part: motive force — weights and springs; 
secoDd part: wheel work — determining the diameters of wheels and 
pinions, determinirig the distance of centres of rotation, determining 
the form of the toothed wheels and the fly of the pinions), two hours; 
drawing (geometrical figures — their x>roxjerties (1) in a plane, (2) in 
space; i)rojections, etc.; drawing the curves of gearing, cycloids, epi- 
cycloids, hypocycloids, the evolvent of the circle), four hours. 

Second year, — Mechanics (dynamics), two hours; cosmography (of 
the sphere, solar system, diurnal and annual rotations of the earth, 
measurement of time, sun dials, latitude, longitude, determining longi- 
tude by the chronometer), one hour; theory of watchmaking (third 
part : escapements^study of anchor, cylinder, and other escapements), 
two hours; drawing (shading in ink, gearing employed in watchmaking, 
drawing cylinder, anchor, and other escapements, drawing of parts in 
the horizontal, vertical, and profile), four hours. 

Third, year. — Mechanics (practical study of the transmission of mo- 
ion), two hours; physics (heat, compensation, optics, principal instru- 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SVv^ITZERLAND. 529 

ments, electricity, electric clockSj telegraphy, clieiiustry, study of metals 
used ill watclimaldng, alloys), one hour; theory of watchmaking (fourth 
part: regulators — the pendulum, determining the excess of teeth in 
wheels and the flies of pinions, plans of calibers, etc. ; review of the 
whole subject), two hours; drawing (draughting tools and machinery^ 
outlines of calibers, Phillips's curves). 

The school is in session daily, except Sundays and holidays, from 7 
a. m. to G X). m. in summer and from 8 a. m. to 7 p. m. in winter, with 
an intermission of one hour at noon for dinner. The theoretical instruc- 
tion is given in the evening whenever it is possible. Theoretical work 
during the first year occupies ten hours a week, during the second and 
third years nine hours. The remainder of the time is given to practical 
instruction. 

The teaching x>ersonnel consists of a director and teacher of the 
class in regulating; a teacher of the second year's class in escape- 
ments; two teachers of the first year's class in rough and wheel work; 
a teacher of the special class in escapements; ateacher of mathematics, 
bookkeeping, and commercial arithmetic; a teacher of the preparatory 
class in French, arithmetic, history, and geography. 

At the end of the scholastic year. May 1, 1891, the attendance was 
35 pupils, classed as follows : First year's class, 9 pupils; second year's 
class, 10 pupils ; third year's class, 4 pupils ; special class in escapements, 
12 pupils. During the year 3 finished their three years' apprentice- 
ship, and 6 completed the special course in escapements. 

The present scholastic year, 1891-'92, opened with 51 pupils, of 
whom 20 attended the special class in escapements. No record is 
kept of the present occuijation of former pupils. With few exceptions 
all are said to be engaged in the watchmaking industry. 

The affairs of the school are conducted by a commission of nine 
members named by the municipal council and three members ap- 
pointed by the state of Bern. Two-thirds of these must be watch 
manufacturers. 

The expenses of the school are covered by tuitions, state subsidies, 
municipal appropriations, interest on the capital, private donations, 
and by federal subsidies. Following are the receipts and expenditures 
during 1890: 

INCOME. 

MTinicipal subsidy (Saint Imier) $820. 25 

State subsidy (Bern) l^ 158. 00 

Federal subsidy (Swiss government) 1^ 486. 10 

Tuitions 641. 72 

Private donations 692. 87 

Receipts from bureau for testing timepieces 12. 83 

Tools and materials sold to pupils 73. 34 

Sundries 6. 91 

Interest on special funds 25. 48 

Total 4,917.50 

S. Ex. 65 34 



530 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

EXPENDITURES. 

Salaries of director and teacliers 2, 577. 05 

Rent, janitor, lighting, and lieating 64:6. 84 

Purchase of tools and furnitnre, and repairs 576. 76 

Materials for instruction 206. 18 

Library 71. 09 

Bureau for testing timepieces ". 142. 23 

Tools and materials to be sold to pupils 156. 42 

Museum 128. 17 

Sundries 287. 84 

Payment on debt (first mortgage) 138. 34 

Deficit of last fiscal year (1889) 173.70 

Total 5,104.62 

Excess of expenses 187. 12 

The value of tlie stock and of the special fund is estimated at 
28,771.07 francs ($5,552.82). 

The tuition varies with the circumstances of the pupils and the 
financial condition of the school. It averages about 10 francs ($1.93) 
I)er month. The rates are made by the commission. The commission 
may remit the tuition, i^artially or entirely, in cases of deserving per- 
sons without means. 

Before being admitted i^upils must be at least 14 ye.ars of age and 
must have finished the primary education x)rescribe(l by law. They 
must, in addition, pass an examination for admission. A contract of 
apprenticeship must be signed by the iDarents or guardians residing in 
the district. Pupils leaving before the termination of this contract 
must iiay a fine, determined by the conmiission, which fine can not 
exceed the amount that would have been i^aid for tuition during the 
unexpired time. 

The work done by the pupils belongs to them, but they must pay for 
all the tools and materials that they use except the larger machinery. 
Pupils often donate certain i3ieces to the school museum. 

The first three months pupils are onx)robation, and may be dismissed 
if found incompetent. Pupils taking special courses, such as in escape- 
ments only, may be apprenticed for a shorter time than three years. 

SCHOOL OF WATCHMAKING- AND MECHANICS, GENEVA. 

This is a municipal institution. The object of the watchmaking divis- 
ion is "to give complete instruction in tlie art of watchmaking, so as to 
make able and well informed watchmakers, thereby increasing the j)ros- 
l)erity and renown of the Geneva work." The division for mechanics 
aims "to give workTngmen in that line a more comxDlete theoretical 
knowledge than can be obtained in workshops, together with a practical 
training." 

The theoretical instruction in the watchmaking school comprises 
mathematics, mechanics, kinematics, technical drawing, elements of 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 531 

physics and chemistry, astronomy, and theory of watchmaking. In- 
struction in bookkeeping is optional. The practical work comprises 
two divisions — the sni^erior and the inferior. The inferior apprentice- 
shij) comi)rises the following work, covering, in all, three years: 
Eongh work, mechanisms for winding, wheel work, cylinder and anchor 
escapements, work by the mechanical process. The superior api)ren- 
ticeshix) can be taken only after having finished the inferior. It com- 
prises the following work, covering two years: Class in escapements, 
construction by the mechanical process (machine work), movements, 
finishing and regulating. In this division pui)ils have the liberty of 
choosing the class which they desire to enter. Otherwise all instruction 
is obligatory. The superior apprenticeshix) is intended for iDcrsons who 
desire to fit themselves for directors of workshops. 

In the mechanical school the theoretical work com]3rises mathemat- 
ics, mechanics, i)hysics, chemistry, elements of descriptive geometr^^, 
technical drawing and its application to the work. Bookkeeiiing is 
optional, all else is comx)ulsory. The practical work comprises three 
divisions : Elementary division — metal and wood work without the use 
of machinery 5 intermediate division — machine work, fitting; superior 
division — instruments of precision and physical apparatus. Pupils of 
this last division can make a specialty of watchmaking machinery, in 
which case they enter the watchmaking school for practice in the ma- 
chinery there. They follow the theoretical work of the school of 
mechanics, however. The course of study in the school of mechanics 
covers three years. 

The faculty of the two schools consists of a director, who also gives 
theoretical instruction; oneteacher of rough work; one, of escapements; 
one, of wheel work; one, of mechanisms for winding; one, of move- 
ments; one, of finishing and regulating; one, of machine work; a 
teacher of mechanics and an assistant. 

The attendance during the year ending June 30, 1891, was 50 pui)ils 
in the school for watchmaking and 30 in the school for mechanics, 
making 80 pupils in all; of. these 21 were foreigners. 

With few exceptions the pupils remain in some capacity in the 
watchmaking industry, either as manufacturers, superintendents, fin- 
ishers and regulators, or as merchants or repairers of watches. 
. This school is a municipal institution and under the jurisdiction of 
the administrative council. For the administration and general 
sux)ervision the administrative council is assisted by a consulting com- 
mittee of twenty members, appointed by the administrative council, 
composed as follows: Three nominated by the manufacturers' asso- 
ciation, three by the watchmakers' association, two by the society of 
arts, and twelve nominated by the council itself. The administrative 
council, with the advice of this committee, appoints all functionaries 
of the school, makes all interior regulations, i)repares the programmes, 
and determines the duties of officers and emi)loyes. The consulting 



532 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

committee has supervision over all that concerns the iustruction and 
interior administration of the school. Once a year it makes a report 
of the progress of the school. For the government and supervision of 
the school for mechanics the administrative council is assisted by a 
committee of five members, appointed for two years by the said council. 
The duties of this committee are similar to those of the one appointed 
for the watchmaking school. 

The expenses of the school are defrayed by a sum annually carried 
in the budget of the city, by federal subsidies, and by tuiticms. The 
income and expenses as shown by the budget of 1891 were as follows : 

INCOME. 

Federal subsidy $3,019.80 

Tuitions 868. .50 

Municipal appropriation 5, 885. 22 

Total 9,773.52 

EXPENDITURES. 

Salaries of seven teachers of practical work 4, 863. 60 

Theoretical instruction (given by the director) 965. 00 

Salaries of the instructor and assistant of the school for mechauics 1, 003. 60 

Salary of concierge (janitor) and materials for cleaning 347. 40 

Repairs of machinery, tools, etc 386. 00 

Purchases of tools 1, 158. 00 

Supplies for the classes for mechanics 231. 60 

Tools awarded to Geneva i)upils 154. 40 

Sundry exjienses, compensations, etc 663. 92 

Total • 9,773.52 

The tuition for either school is 5 francs (97 cents) per month for natives 
of Switzerland and 25 francs ($4.83) per month for foreigners. Chil- 
dren of foreigners who have lived in Geneva at least six years are ad- 
mitted for the same tuition as Swiss children. An extra charge is 
made for the superior division of the watchmaking school, but the 
amount varies. 

To be admitted pupils must be at least 14 years of age for the 
watchmaking school and 15 years for the school for mechanics; they 
must apply in writing to the administrative council, and must have 
an education corresponding to that received in the first year of the 
ecole professionnelle (high school) of Geneva for the watchmaking 
school and to that received in the second year of the ecole professionnelle 
of Geneva for the school for mechanics. The parents or guardians 
of the pupils must agree in writing to the regulations of the school, 
and are held personally responsible for any damages caused by the 
pupils. Parents who do not live in Geneva must find some resident 
who will assume this responsibility. Workingmen desiring to perfect 
themselves in any one branch can be admitted by special authority of 
the council. Some of the tools, such as machines or larger articles, 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 533 

are furnislied by the adniinistratiou, wliile smaller tools must be paid 
for by the pupils. 

The committee of consultation designates each year a jury for con- 
ducting the examinations. This jury reports to the committee. A 
separate jury is selected for each of the two scTiools. The juries also 
decide upon the special awards to be given to pupils of their respec- 
tive schools. The i)U];)ils who have passed satisfactorily their appren- 
ticeship, either in the inferior or superior divisions of the watchmaking 
school or the school for mechanics, obtain a certilicate indicating the 
l)ercentage obtained in each branch of their work. Money prizes are 
awarded to the most meritorious pupils. These are generally provided 
by watch manufacturers or others desirous of encouraging the pupils. 

SCHOOL FOR CARPENTERS AND SHOEMAKERS, BERN. 

This institution was founded in 1888. It is a municipal institution. 

The object, according to a resolution of the municipal council, is *'to 
enable young persons leaving school to thoroughly learn some useful 
trade J to meet the increasing working force of foreign labor by placing 
the domestic labor on a higher plane of efficiency; to elevate skilled 
labor in general by giving to workingmen a thorough training in the 
theoretical, artistic, and practical features of their work ; and, further, 
to investigate and place before the members of the various trades the 
results of the latest industrial improvements." 

Although the object of the institution is to encourage all the various 
trades, such as carpentry, shoemaking, tailoring, iron work, etc., it has 
not yet been possible to establish workshops for more than the first 
two trades. 

The following is a detailed programme of the work in the shoemaking 
department: 

First half of first year — hand work on uppers; cutting soles, shaping 
bottoms, and performing other work relating theieto; determining the' 
different qualities of sole leather. Second half of first year — repetition 
of previous work; finer bottom work with edging; nailed bottom work; 
shoe repairing. 

First half of second year — repetition of previous work; more diffi- 
cult bottom work with edging; fancy bottom work. Second half of 
second year — repetition of previous work; making plaster casts of 
feet; study of the anatomy of the foot; last making; practical and eco- 
nomical cutting of hides; making uppers; sewing machine work. 

First half of third year — repetition of previous work; simple work 
according to measure; taking measurements; constructing lasts ac- 
cording to plaster casts and measurements; cutting i^atterns according 
to the geometrical system; study of the various ways of treating the 
feet; study of the materials used in shoemaking; introduction and use 
of auxiliary machines; reckoning the cost of production; fancy work 
on uppers. Second half of third year — repetition of previous work; 



534 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

ordinary and artistic tanning j studying tlie effects of tanning on the 
qualities of leather; designing new models and styles of shoes; esti- 
mating cost and materials necessary for establishing a shoe store or 
factory; intercourse with customers ; learning the sources from AYliich 
raw materials are obtained: manner of storing and preserving stock; 
all the details of shoe manufacturing. 

The theoretical work in this department consists of drawing, book- 
keeping, business correspondence, and French language. Special atten- 
tion is given to the best methods of utilizing the different parts of hides 
and cutting them economically. Pupils who have advanced sufficiently 
to make entire shoes take the measurement of the feet of customers 
and take the orders in the i^resence of an overseer. The same pupil 
who does this cuts the hides and prepares alone every part of the shoe. 
While doing so he estimates and keeps strict account of the cost ot 
every x)art as well as of the value of his time and of the other materials. 
When the pair of shoes is finished he renders a detailed account of 
the cost of iiroduction of the same. 

The following is a detailed x)rogramme of the work in the carpentry 
department: 

First half of first year — sawing, planing, and chiselling; completing 
simi^le articles, such as shelves, footstools, and similar pieces. Second 
half of first year — setting, sharpening, and arranging tools and appli- 
ances; making articles requiring plane surface work. 

First half of second year — fitting together plain i)ieces; veneering. 
Second half of second year — -joining and building large pieces of 
furniture; joining veneered work; simple dovetailing; scroll work. 

Third year — sketching pieces of furniture, drawing the plans and ex- 
ecuting the work according to specified dimensions; instructions in 
taking measurements; small metal work, such as exercises in filing, 
tool making, etc; constructing patterns for machinery; building entire 
pieces of furniture of all styles; studies in reference to the uses of 
different kinds of wood in the various states of dryness; estimating 
cost of production ; every detail of cabin etm akin g. 

The theoretical work, first year, consists of free-hand, technical, 
and geometrical drawing, and studying the different varieties of wood; 
second year, technical and ornamental drawing, modelling, and tech- 
nology and stereometry; third year, technical and ornamental drawing, 
perspective, modelling, the orders of architecture, styles of ornamenta- 
tion and their different historical periods, intercourse with customers, 
learning the sources from which materials are obtained, estimating the 
cost and materials needed for establishing a carpenter shop. Bookkeep- 
ing, arithmetic, correspondence, and German composition are optional. 

In the workshops each puirll, as a rule, plans and finishes every 
l)iece of work he handles, and prepares his own drawings from specifi- 
cations. Work rarely passes from one hand to another. 

The school is in session daily, except Sundays and holidays, from 7 
a. m. to 6 p. m., with an intermission of one and one-half hours at noon. 



CHAP. X. ^INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 535 

Six hours per week are devoted to drawing and theory in the shoe- 
making department and nine hours loer week to drawing, modelling, and 
theor}^ in the carpentry department; tliis is generally given in the 
morning. Every evening one hour is given to business correspondence, 
bookkeex)ing, composition, and French language. The rest of the time 
is given to j)ractical work. 

The apprenticeship extends over two or three years in the shoeinak- 
ing department and three years in the carpentry department. 

The teaching j)ersonnel consists of a director, who is also chief instruc- 
tor in the shoemakiug department, an assistant director, who is chief 
instructor in the carpentry dei)artment, five instructors, two overseers, 
and two specialists. 

In July 1891 the attendance was 15 pux)ils in the shoemaking shops 
and 33 pupils in the carpsntry shops. Since the opening of the schools 
6 pupils graduated from the shoemaking department after a two year 
and 4 after a three year apprenticeship. Seven i)upils graduated from 
the cari)entry shops. Pupils who are not fitted for the more important 
work in shoemaking are compelled to terminate their apprenticeshi|) 
at the end of the second year. Of the 10 graduates of the shoemakiug 
department 1 is in Lausanne, 1 in Geneva, 2 are in Bern, 1 in France, 
1 in the United States, and 4 could not be traced. The first G are ail 
working at their trades as shoemakers. Of the 7 carpenters who fin- 
ished their apprenticeships 6 are in positions as carpenters in Switzer- 
land; the seventh could not be traced. 

The municipal government of Bern has direct jurisdiction over this 
institution. The affairs of the school are conducted by a commission 
of eight persons selected by the municix)al council. 

The income of the institution is derived from the sale of finished 
products, national subsidies, cantonal subsidies, and municipal appro- 
priations. The income and expenditures for the year 1890 were as 
follows: 

ShoemaMng dejjartment. 

INCOME, 

Sale of linislied products $3, 360. 41 

Federal subsidy 1, 717. 70 

Cautoual subsidy 1, 717. 70 

Municipal appropriation 1, 732. 02 

Total 8.527.83 

EXPEXBITURES. 

Salaries of director and chief instructors 2, G95. 83 

School supplies (hooks, drawings, etc.) 149. 56 

Utensils (machines, tools, etc. ) 855. 74 

Furnishings (purcliases and repairs) 233. 35 

Lighting, heating, and janitor 503. 23 

Sustenance, midday meals for pupils 1, 122. 34 

Eaw materials and pay of some instructors and pupils 2, 967. 78 

Total 8,527.83 



53 G REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Carpentry department 



INCOME. 



Sale of fiiiislied products $^,639.65 

Federal subsidy 1,725.42 

Cautonal subsidy 1, 725. 42 

Municipal apiDroiiriation : 1, 738. 74 



Total 7,829.23 

EXPEXDITURES. 

Salaries of director and chief instructors 2, 382. 14 

Scliool supplies (books, drawings, etc. ) 199. 31 

Utensils (macbines, tools, etc. ) ], 134. 83 

Furnisbings (purchases and repairs) 237.01 

Lighting, heating, and janitor 426. 77 

Sustenance, midday meals for pupils 1, 382. 76 

Ra^Y materials and pay of some instructors and pupils 2, 066. 41 

Total 7,829.23 

All instruction is gratuitous. A dinner is furnished at noon to all 
pupils at the expense of the institution. Upon entering pupils are 
indentured as ai)prentices. If they leave the school, or are dismissed 
for bad behavior, before the expiration of the apprenticeship their 
parents are subject to a heavy fine. To be eligible for admission pupils 
must possess the requisite health and mental fitness for beginning an 
ai)i)renticeship. They must present their certificates of education, 
showing that they have completed their term at school as required by 
law. A certificate of birth and one of good behavior must also be 
liresented. In the beginning preference was given in the carpentry 
department to i)ersons who had attended manual training schools, but 
it was soon discovered that they were not better in skill and efficiency, 
after the first few days, than other pupils. The preference was there- 
fore removed. 

An examination of the pupils and an exhibition of their work is held 
each year. Prizes and diplomas are distributed on these occasions. 
The commission which awards the i)rizes and diplomas sometimes ad- 
mits to the i)rize competition the work of one and two year pupils. 

In order to constantly encourage pupils to careful and diligent work 
a special system of compensation is provided for. A certain time 
value is fixed for the execution of each kind of article. Pupils are re- 
quired to accomi)lish the work required in this time schedule. All 
work done properly in excess of the schedule requirement is paid for 
in money each week to the pupils performing it. This tariff system 
is considered a very important feature of the shop work, for it has been 
found that since its introduction pupils work more willingly and with 
greater zeal. All are anxious to make their first earnings in life as 
great as possible, and as a consequence they work to their full capacity. 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 537 

The work, in order to be accepted, must be of a certain degree of ex- 
cellence. 

An interesting feature of tliis scliool is tlie salesroom where all ar- 
ticles are sold to the public and orders are taken. The aim of the com- 
mission is to sell the articles here as nearly as possible at the retail 
market price. Notwithstanding this, the sales generally equal the 
production. This is due to the fact that although the articles are not 
cheaper than at other establishments, they are known to be made of 
the best material, and made with the greatest care. The establish- 
ment of this salesroom aroused considerable i)rotest on the part of shoe 
and furniture manufacturers on account of the comjoetition it created. 
Various other schemes for disiDosing of the goods had been tried with- 
out success, and, as something had to be done Avith the product, this 
was found to be the best way out of the difficulty. It is considered 
that as the number of pupils is limited and as the same prices are 
maintained as in other stores, the comi^etition of this school is not 
sufficient to justify the protests of the manufacturers. This is the 
view taken by the municipal government of Bern. 

Besides the ordinary tools and accessories the workshops contain 
the latest improved sewing machines, a last making machine, and in 
the carpenter shops a large scroll saw. These are worked by a gas 
motor. 

SCHOOL OF METAL WORKING, WINTERTHUR. 

This school was founded in 1888 as a part of the industrial museum 
at Winterthur. It is a state institution. The object of the school is '-to 
educate, by means of practical and theoretical training, able working- 
men in -the various branches of fine metal work." The course of in- 
struction covers three years. 

The practical work is as follows : 

First year. — Preliminary work — exercises at the lathe, vise, forge, 
and auxiliary machines,- simple iron work; i)ractice in the handling 
of tools, the haunner, file, chisel, etc; simple tin and sheet iron work — 
foldmg, bending, stamping, riveting, and soldering. 

Second year. — Practice in the execution of exact work, such as machin- 
ery, etc.; fancy mountings; simple rosettes; chisel work; executing forged 
tendrils, leaves, and flowers; tin. and sheet iron work, especially for 
architectural pieces. 

Tlm^d year. — In this year the work of the pupils depends upon their 
chosen i^rofessions : (1) For mechanics — executing exact tools and in- 
struments, single parts for machinery, constructing simple machinery 
and apparatus, turning; (2) for building construction workers — orna- 
mental mountings and locks, engraving and forging rosettes, trellises, 
and lattice ornaments ; (3) for artistic iron workers — etching and en- 
graving on iron, stamx)ing and chasing various ornaments, leaves, and 
flowers in iron. 



538 REPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

The tlieoretical work is as folloAYS : 

First year. — German language — exercises in reading prose and poetry, 
articulation, exercises in original composition, narratives and descrip- 
tions, attention being given to ortliograpliy, grammar, stjde, and \wa\- 
mansliix)^ aritlimetic — wliole nninbers, fractions and decimals, ratio 
and x)roportion, percenta^^e, interest, discount, square ,and cube root^ 
practical applications; geometry and geometrical drawing — the rela- 
tions of i^oints, lines, polygons, and circles, the measurement of lines 
and plane surfaces, geometrical drawing as far as it relates to metal 
work, ornamentation by lines andx^^^^^^ surfaces, engrossing; study of 
perspective — plane figures and geometrical bodies, elevations and sec- 
tions according to scale, problems in lines and x>lanes, intersection of 
lines, planes, and solids by other solids (in the i)erformance of these 
exercises attention is also given to sketching without the nse of the 
rule and compasses) ; physics — general properties of matter, mechanics, 
heat, its sources and nature, expansion through heat, specific heat, trans- 
mission of heat, the steam engine, magnetism, properties of the m^ag- 
net, terrestrial magnetism; free-hand drawing — simple surface orna- 
ments for metal work, shading in India ink, application of simple water 
colors. 

Second year. — German language — exercises in reading and speaking, 
explanation of technical terms, practice in writing business forms, such 
as insertions, certificates, receipts, bills, orders, contracts, etc.; arith- 
metic — partnership, stock and coin calculations, comi)ound interest, 
drafts and checks, accounts current; geometry and geometrical draw- 
ing — geometrical solids, measurement of surfaces and contents, draw- 
ing ellipses, si^irals, screw threads, etc., cog constructions; perspec- 
tive — taking up simple articles used in the metal industry, tools, etc., 
drawing according to scale, applications to drawing of tube work, 
cornices, etc. ; physics — frictional and galvanic electricity and the most 
useful applications, light, its nature, reflection, refraction, the spectrum, 
the eye, optical instruments, elements of chemistry; technical dravv-- 
ing — iron fastenings, clamps, ties, screws, bolts, etc., mountings and 
sashes for windows, shutters and doors, locks (these from the black- 
board, from copy, and from models), architectural profiles, etc.; free- 
hand drawing — forged and other metal work, esxDecially of outlines from 
models and from copy. 

Third year. — German language — exercises in reading, speaking, etc., 
business correspondence and intercourse, etc.; cost of production — cal- 
culating the weight and cost of metal work, making estimates on con- 
struction work; bookkeexDing — object, arrangement, and books for sin- 
gle entry bookkeeping, keex^ing a set of books for an iron working 
establishment, etc. ; technology of metals — study of raw materials, iron, 
steel, tin, zinc, lead, and copper, alloys, important x^roductions of the 
metal working industry, tools and machinery used in the industry, 
arrangements and appliances for casting and forging; elements of ma- 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 539 

cliiue construction — rules for constructirig aud drawing simi)le parts 
as fittings, appliances for transmitting motion, and otlier details, tools, 
apparatus, etc.j technical drawing — door panels, railings, trellises, iron 
doors and shutters, window frames, skjiights, ceilings and supports, 
roof constructions, machinery, etc., from copy and models j free-hand 
drawing and modelling (ai:)i)renticesin artistic iron work only) — i^lastic 
ornaments for artistic iron work, taken from casts, metal models, and 
coi)5^, designing decorative metal work, modelling ornaments for metal 
work. Pupils are also iDermitted to take lessons in foreign languages 
at the cantonal technikum without extra charge. 

Tlie school is in session daily except Sundays, holidays, two weeks' 
vacation in April, and one week from Christmas to iSTew Year's day. 
In the fall the theoretical work is sometimes dispensed with during 
a few weeks, the time then being entirely given to x>i'^ctical work. 
Following is the schedule of time given to each study per week: 

COURSE OF STUDY. " 



Subject. 


Honrs 


per 


week. 


First year. 


Second 


vear. 


Third year. 


Practical work 


2G 

24 

2 

2 


30 

23 

2 

2 

". 


30 


Thcoi'etical 'work . 


23 




2 


j4,ritliTnetic 






2 






2 




4 
8 
2 


2 
3 
2 




Perspective 








1 




G 


4 


8 




4 


TecliuicaT drawino' ' 


8 


12 




4 


1 







The instruction in free-hand drawing and modelling is only for pui)ils 
who take the apprenticeship) in artistic iron work. These pupils dis- 
I)ense with the study of machine construction, and take only four in- 
^€ad of twelve hours in technical drawing during the third year. 

The teaching personnel consists of a director, three instructors of 
practical work, and one teacher of theoretical work. The instruction in 
drawing and similar subjects and in bookkeeping is given at the can- 
tonal t'Cchnikum. 

At the end of the year 1890, 42 i)upils attended the school, of which 
30 were apprenticed for the full term and 12 took special courses. 
There were no graduates when the school was visited, as it had existed 
only two and one-half years. 

The affairs of the school are administered by a special committee of 
five members selected from among the board of trustees of the State 
Industrial Museum of Winterthiu\ of which institution this school is a 
branch. The school is supported by tuitions and by state and federal 
contributions. 

An admission fee of 10 francs ($1.93) is paid upon entry, and 40 



540 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

francs ($7.72) per year if tliey serve an entire apprenticeship, and 200 
francs ($38.60) if a partial apprenticeship. Special rates are made 
for such as are not apprenticed, but simply attend for a limited time. 

The following qualifications are required for admission: An age of at 
least 15 years ; a certificate of graduation Irom the higher primary 
schools of Zurich (a total of 9 years' school attendance) or from schools 
of a similar grade ; bodily strength. Pupils are on probation the' first 
tvro months of attendance j if found incapable they are dismissed. 
Admission to the school is i3ermitted as a rule only at the beginning of 
each scholastic year. In exceptional cases pupils are admitted for one 
year or more without the theoretical instruction if they have already 
obtained a theoretical education in some technical high school, or intend 
to visit one later. AiDprentices and other workingmen who have but 
httle time and money to spare can attend for a much shorter time, and 
may take only the practical or only the theoretical course or both. 
Intelligent worthy men may obtain entire or partial free scholarships, 
either as apprentices or for shorter courses. 

SCHOOL FOR WOOD CARVING-, BRIBNZ. 

This school was founded in 1883. It is a municipal institution. Its 
object is to educate young men for the profession of wood carvers by 
giving them the advantages of practical and theoretical instruction. 
The course of instruction comprises free-hand and technical drawing, 
modelling, composition, study of styles of ornamentation, and wood 
carving. Besides the usual styles of ornamentation special attention 
is given to the naturalistic style peculiar to that country, such as 
Alpine plants, animals, and other objects. 

For the regular school of apprenticeship the hours of work are as 
follows: Free-hand drawing, first class, three hours, second class, six 
hours, per week; technical drawing, each class three hours; modelling, 
each class seven hours; designing, first class only, three to four hours; 
study of styles of ornamentation, three hours per week. The rest of the 
time is devoted to the shop work. The hours of work comprise ten j)er 
day. The apprenticeship covers, as a rule, three years. The school is 
in session daily except Sundays and holidays and two weeks' vacation 
in summer. Special evening classes in drawing and wood carving are 
in session two evenings each week in the winter months for persons of 
all ages who can not afford to attend the day school. Special afternoon 
classes for school-boys in elementary drawing are held twice a week 
after the regular school hours. The teaching personnel consists of a 
principal, who is also teacher of carving, one other teacher of carving, 
and one teacher of drawing and modelling. 

At the close of the scholastic year 1889-'90 the attendance was as 
follows: Eegular day apprentices, 13 i)upils; special evening classes in 
drawing and wood carving, 27 iDupils; special afternoon classes for 
school-boys (elementary drawing), 55 puxnls ; total attendance, 95 pupils. 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 541 

No record is kept of pupils after leaving the scliool. jS'early all wlio 
serve the apprenticesliip either remain in the vieinity to carve orha- 
ments for tourists — an occupation peculiar to the mountain country in 
this vicinity and in Tyrol — or they obtain occupations in furniture 
manufactories for doing fine decorative work. The former generally 
live at home and sell their products either to traders or directly to the 
tourists. 

The affairs of the school are administered by a committee of nine 
I)ersons, three of whom are appointed by the canton Bern, three b}^ the 
municii^ality of Brienz, and three by the Protestant church of Brienz. 

The income of the school is derived from contributions from the Prot- 
estant chnrch, from the municipality, from the canton Bern, and from 
the federal government. 

The instruction is gratuitous. The wood, drawing materials, and all 
other school supplies, except carving tools, are also furnished gratis. 
An admission fee of 10 francs (11.93) is required upon entering the 
school. Pupils who enter as apprentices deposit 50 francs ($9.65) as a 
security for serving out the entire time. At the end of the apprentice- 
ship this amount is refunded. The work done by the pupils remains 
the i)roperty of the school. During the second and third year of the 
apprenticeship the pux3ils obtain one-half of the proceeds from the sale 
of the articles made by them. In exceptional cases, where x)uj)ils are 
worth 3^, this arra;ngement is made for first year i^npils. 

The day school is open to all persons under 30 years of age who have 
finished the j)rimary education required by law. A contract of appren- 
ticeshij) is required. I^o special conditions of age or education are 
made for afternoon and evening pupils. 

SCHOOL OF SILK WEAVING, WIPKINGEN NEAR ZURICH. 

This school was founded in 1881. It is owned by the Association of 
Silk Manufacturers of Zurich and vicinity. Its object is to perfect 
young men in the higher branches of work of the silk weaving industry, 
such as mill superintending, and work in the designing, arranging, and 
finishing departments. It is also intended for the education of manu- 
facturers and dealers of silk textiles. 

The course of study covers two years as follows : 

First year. — Plain weaving (Schaftiveherei). Practical work: Hand 
weaving — winding, warping, drawing-in, piecing, preparing looms, 
card making, spooling, harness mounting, weaving on the Zurich and 
Lyons looms, velvet, gauze, and ribbon looms, with the hand and 
fly shuttle, shaft machine, etc., manufacturing taffetas, serges, satins, 
armures, velvets, plushes, gauzes, pekins, bayaderes, and checked goods; 
power loom weaving — building, fitting, adjusting, and taking apart 
power looms, Avinding, warping, and spooling, preparing, arranging 
cards, etc., weaving on the power looms, plain and treadle work, etc., 
manufacturing taffetas (pupils may also begin on the Jacquard loom). 



542 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

simple and combiued treadle work, etc. Theoretical work: Lectures — 
lusrtorical development of the silk industry and its present condition 
in the different countries, silk culture, spinning, twisting, grading of 
fineness, drying of raw silks, properties, classification, and means of 
djeing silks (the school possesses contrivances for illustrating the 
methods of spinning and weaving silks), on preparing silk and half 
silk tissues 5 instructions in dr a wing-in and piecing, the weaving, 
finisliing, and uses of silk textiles, such as taffetas, serges, satins, 
armures, bayaderes, pekins, and carreaux, velvets, plushes, and gauzes, 
mill bookkeeping and calculating j theory of hand loom weaving — 
description and explanation of the various looms, utensils, and work 
connected with hand loom weaving and i)reparation of x>lans and draw- 
ings of the samcj theory of power loom weaving — description and 
explanation of the various looms, auxiliary machines and contrivances 
connected with shaft loom weaving, and preparation of the necessary 
drawings, instruction in mechanics, the parts of weaving machinery, 
and technical drawing j free-hand and pattern drawing — instructions 
in drawing from copy and in designing striped and checked patterns, 
science of colors (this part is intended to educate the taste for form and 
color; such pux)ils as intend to become pattern designers may increase 
the time spent in this work by dispensing with some other branches). 
Second year. — Jacquard weaving. Practical work: Hand loom weav- 
ing — preparatory work for weaving, card cutting and binding, weaving 
on Jacquard looms with single harness and with lift shafts, with 
lowering healds, with damask appliances, looms for fancy weaving, 
etc., manufacturing liseres, lances, broches, mexicaines, damasks, mar- 
quises, matelasses, and figured velvets; power loom weaving — pre 
paratory work as above, weaving with single harness and with lift 
shafts on the various looms for manufacturing liseres, lances, damas- 
ses, figured gauzes, and smooth double backed velvets. Theoretical 
work : Lectures — on the origin of the raw silks, the x>roperties, and 
the most judicious employment of the same in manufacturing, on floss 
silk, cotton, and wool, their manipulation, numbering, and their em- 
ployment in mixing with silk, on establishing and managing a silk 
manufactory; instructions in i3reparatory work, in designing pat- 
terns for liseres, lances, broches, mexicaines, damasses^ marquises, 
matelasses, damasks, brocatels, lamjoas, figured velvets, and gauzes, 
in the mathematics of Jacquard weaving; theory of hand loom 
weaving — explanations of the work incidental to Jacquard hand loom 
weaving, preparatory work, transferring designs, card cutting and 
binding, the various co7itrivances, tools, and machines used in this 
work, and the preparation of the necessary drawings; theory of 
power loom weaving — description and explanation of the uses of the 
various kinds of power looms and auxiliary machines for Jacquard 
weav^ing, the preparation of cards, executing the necessary draw- 
ings, instructions in draughting machinery; free-hand and pattern 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 543 

drawing — instructions in drawing from copy and from textiles, design- 
ing figured i^atterns Ibr cravats and dress goods, styles of ornamen- 
tation (x^upils desiring to become designers of Jacquard j^atterns can 
arrange to devote more time to drawing tlian others). Annual excur- 
sions are made to establisliments where silk is manufactured, such as 
factories for twisting thread, dye-works, weaving mills, dressing and 
finishing rooms, silk drying works, machine shops, etc., for the i)uri)ose 
of giving the pupils an idea of the more x>ractical work. 

In order to give pupils the best opportunities possible for pursuing 
their studies an extensive library of technical works and a rich 
collection of old textiles have been bought for the school. These are 
at the disposal of the impils every Saturday afternoon. The school 
possesses all necessary machinery and appliances, which are replaced 
or supplemented from time to time by the latest improvements. At 
present the school possesses 24 hand looms, of which 9 are Jacquards, 
and 18 power looms, of which 6 are Jacquards. 

Following are the average number of hours per week devoted to each 
branch : 

COUESE OP STUDY. 



Subject. 



First year. 



j Second year. 



W^inter. Siinimer. \ Wiiiter. Summer. 



Practical -nork 

Silk culture, history of silk industry, etc 

Drawiug-in and piecing. 

Preparing cards and study of materials 

Mill bookkeeping, mathematics of ^yeaYinJ 
colors, etc. 

Theory of liand loom weavin g 

Theory of power loom -wearing 

Technical drawing 

Pree-hand and pattern drawing 

Styles, raw materials, manufacture, etc 

Written exercises 



study' of 



Total 



13 1 

2 '. 
I 

3 I 
i 

^ I 



50 



44 



17 



50 



The school is in session daily, except Sundays and holidays, from 8 
a. m. in winter and 7 a. m. in summer until 6 -p. m., with an interjuission 
of two hours at noon. The school has a vacation of ten days at Christ- 
mas, one week at Easter, three weeks in July, and two weeks in Octo- 
ber. Pupils have access to the school during vacation time for the 
purpose of doing practice work. 

The instruction is conducted by the director who, besides being in 
charge, teaches the theoretical branches of raw materials, silk manu- 
facture, and weaving; one teacher of practical and theoretical work re- 
lating to hand loom w'eaving; one te cher of i)ractical and theoretical 
work relating to power loom weaving, and of technical drawing; one 
teacher of free-hand and pattern drawing, the i)reparation of cards for 
Jacquard looms, etc. 

During the scholastic year ending October 1890 the attendance 
was 32 pux)ils in the first year's class and 13 pupils in the second year's 



544 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

class. Of these only one was a foreigner. Since the school was founded 
it has been attended by 270 pupils. 

I^early all the graduates are employed in the various branches of 
the silk industry J some are proprietors or sons of proprietors of 
weaving establishments, some superintendents, overseers, or master 
weavers. Yery few work as ordinary weavers. It is estimated that 
95 per cent, of the graduates are still at occupations in the silk indus- 
try. Ko exact record is kept. 

The school is under the administration of a commission composed of 
seven members, of which one is selected by the cantonal government, 
three are selected by the municipal government, and three by the As- 
sociation of Silk Manufacturers of Zurich. 

The income is derived from federal, cantonal, and municipal sub- 
sidies, tuitions, private donations, and from the treasury of the Asso- 
ciation of Silk Manufacturers of Zurich. During the scholastic year 
ending October 1891 the income and exiDcnditures of the school 
amounted to about 34,000 francs ($6,562). 

The tuitions are as follows : Citizens of Switzerland, 200 francs ($38.60) 
for the first year, 300 francs ($57.90) for the second year; foreigners, 
300 francs ($57.90) for the first year, 500 francs ($96.50) for the 
second year. Worthy persons without the necessary means may ob- 
tain free scholarshii)S and compensation. Pupils may purchase the 
goods they weave for the cost price of the raAV materials. The draw- 
ing and writing materials must be furnished by the pupils; all other 
supplies are provided by the school. 

The requirements for candidates for admission are — a sufficient school 
education to make them capable of pursuing the studies required, a 
practical previous experience in weaving, and an age of at least 16 
years. An examination in German composition, arithmetic, and weaving- 
must be passed before the commission before pupils can be admitted. 
They must be competent to weave a simjDle x>iece of silk goods with- 
out flaws. The capacity of the school is for 32 first year and 16 second 
year loupils. If the applications exceed the vacancies preference is 
given to natives of Switzerland. 

SCHOOL OF "WEAVING, WATTWYL. 

This school was established in May 1881. It is a private institution, 
founded and owned by the Cantonal Society for the Advancement of 
Public Utility {Kantonale Gemeinniltzige Gesellschaft) of canton Saint 
Gall. 

The object of the school is to produce able, practical master weavers, 
designers, and manufacturers of the various textiles, and to educate 
young men devoting themselves to the mercantile branches of the 
industry to a proper understanding of the materials and goods and 
the cost of producing and manner of calculating the same. 



CHAP. X. INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 545 

The course of study is for one year, and for tliose having experience 
in weaving it may be only six months. Tlie work comprises all the 
details of a cotton or woollen weaving mill, weaving plain goods, coarse, 
fine, and complicated patterns, woollen plushes for slippers and up- 
holstering, Turkish towelling, etc., on the hand and power looms, Jac- 
quard looms, etc., performing the preparatory work on the looms, exam- 
ining and finishing the goods, designing patterns and preparing cards 
from copy, from goods, and from original compositions. The technical 
work is arranged to come hand in hand with the practical, and in- 
cludes technical drawing, study of materials, values, cost of production, 
and mathematics of weaving. Pupils are also taught in taking apart, 
putting together, and repairing looms and auxiliary machines. There 
are 6 power and 15 hand looms. A 9-horse power gas engine furnishes 
power for the looms and the electric light dynamo. A collection of 
works by the best artists is at the disposal of the j)upils for consultation 
while designing patterns. 

The school is in session daily from 8 a. m. to 5.30 p. m., with an inter- 
mission of one hour and a half at noon. The school is closed two 
weeks in May and two weeks in October, eight days at Christmas, 
and on Sundays and holidays. Classes are formed twice a year — 
in May and in October. The time devoted to theoretical and practical 
instruction varies with the work and with the previous knowledge of 
the pupil. On an average about one-half the time is devoted to each. 
One director and two assistants impart all the instruction. 

The attendance at the close of the scholastic year ending April 9, 
1831, was 36 x)upils. Of these 6 were foreigners. During the ten 
years of its existence the school had up to April 1891, 263 pupils. 
The pupils are either sons of manufacturers and dealers in textiles, 
practical weavers who desire to x^erfect themselves and become master 
weavers, designers, sui)erintendents, or other higher iiositions, or 
pupils direct from school. Those of the first two classes have as a 
rule sufficient experience to finish the course in six months. The last 
named remain one year, after which they become weavers and are 
advanced, generally in about three or four years, to higher positions. 
Yery few of the pupils who have attended the school ever leave the 
textile industry. I^o record is kept of the present occupation of 
ex- students. 

The affairs of the school are administered by a commission selected 
by the Cantonal Society for the Advancement of Public Utility. The 
income of the school is derived from state and federal subsidies, tuitions, 
private subscriptions, and from the treasury of the cantonal society. 
The expenses of the school amount in all to about 20,000 francs ($3,860) 
per year. 

The tuition is 100 francs ($19.30) per year for citizens of Switzerland 
and 300 francs ($57.90) per year for foreigners. Free or partial scholar- 
ships are" granted in the cases of persons with small means who are 
S. Ex. 65 35 



546 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

considered worthy by the commission. All xjatterns, tools, and mate- 
rials for instruction are furnished by the school. 

Pupils must be at least 15 years of age, and must have completed 
the education required by law in order to be eligible. Their apphca- 
tions must be accompanied by certificates of diligence and good conduct 
from their last employers. 

TRADE SCHOOL FOR LADIES' TAILORING AND NEEDLEWORK, 

ZURICH. 

This school was founded in 1889. It is a private institution. Its 
object is to prepare young women for the professions of ladies' tailors, 
seamstresses, teachers of female manual training in the i)ublic schools, 
and to teach general needlework. 

The school comprises three divisions, as follows : The division for 
ladies' tailoring; the division for plain sewing; the division for special 
courses in ladies' tailoring and needlework. 

The ladies' tailoring division consists of a preparatory school (two 
years) and the trade school proper (one year). In the former instruc- 
tion is given in hand and machine sewing, beginning with practical 
exercises in sewing, hemming, plaiting, and gathering, followed by the 
preparation of finished garments, etc., and this by elementary work in 
cutting and fitting; also free-hand and geometrical drawing, arithmetic, 
bookkeeping, and comx)osition. In the trade school proper (third year), 
where pupils can enter only after having comx)leted the two years of 
the preparatory school or served tv»^o years with a ladies' tailor, the 
instruction consists of prex)aring dress patterns, cutting, fitting, and 
finishing all kinds of garments, costumes, etc. Pupils are gradually 
advanced from very simple to the most difficult work. 

The division for plain sewing consists also of a preparatory and a 
trade school, of one year each. In the former the work consists of sew- 
ing by hand and machine, beginning with practical exercises in all 
kinds of sewing, hemming, x)laiting, gathering, etc., and followed by 
finishing garments, such as ladies' chemises, etc. ; the instruc-tion also 
includes free-hand and geometrical dravfing, arithmetic, bookkeex)ing, 
and comi)osition. In the trade school proper (second year), where 
X)upils can enter only after having joassed through the preparatory 
school or possessing the proficiency attained there, the course is as 
follows: Cutting of all kinds of linens and underwear, drawing pat- 
terns according to measure and directions, sewing and finishing the 
garments and other articles. Pupils begin with simple pieces and 
gradually advance until they are capable of making all kinds of 
linens, etc. 

After finishing either one of the two i)rincipal courses of study pupils 
may enter the workshops of the school, where goods are made for cus- 
tomers and where a better i)ractical experience can be had. Instruction 
there is gratuitous. 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 547 

.The special courses are as follows : 

Ladies' tailoring — course in cutting for ladies' tailors, six weeks, 
six hours instruction daily, 30 francs (85.79); course in dressmak- 
ing and cutting, for housewives and daughters, three months, six hours 
daily, 50 francs ($9.65), sewing machine 5fi"ancs (97 cents) extra; even- 
ing course in cutting and pattern drawing for plain garments, six 
months, three evenings per week from 7 to 9 j). m., 25 francs ($4.83). 

Linens — plain sewing by hand and machine, six months, three even- 
ings per month, 6 to 8 p. m., 1 franc (19 cents) per month; cutting linens 
for home use, four to live months, six hours daily, 50 francs ($9.65), 
sewing machine 5 francs (97 cents) extra; cutting gentlemen's linens 
and underwear, four weeks, four hours daily, 30 francs ($5.79); cut- 
ting and finishing gentlemen's linens and underwear, four weeks, eight 
liours daily, 40 francs ($7.72). 

Course for teachers of manual training in the imblic schools, six 
months, daily, full time, 80 francs ($15.44). 

The school is in session daily except Sundays and holidays, and four 
weeks' vacation in summer. For the regular pupils the hours of 
work are from 7.30 a. m. in summer and 8 a. m. in winter until 6 j). 
m., and Saturdays until 4 p. m., with an intermission of two and one- 
half hours at noon. The time devoted to theoretical and x)ractical 
work varies with the pupils and tlie nature of the work on hand and 
can not be specified. 

The teaching personnel consists of one teacher for the regular course 
in ladies' tailoring, one teacher for the special courses, one teacher of 
plain sewing, and three tea-chers for the theoretical branches. The 
last three devote only a portion of their time to the school. 

The following table shows the attendance during the scholastic year 
ending Ax>ril 1891: 

Pupils. 

Preparatory school for ladies' tailoring 9 

Trade school for ladies' tailoring 5 

Preparatory school for ijlain sewing (linens and underwear) 7 

Trade school for plain sewing (linens and underwear) 12 

Two special courses for ladies' tailoring (cutting) 26 

Three special courses in dressmaking and cutting for hoasewives^ etc 34 

One special course (evening) in cutting and pattern drawing 14 

One evening course in plain sewing (linens, etc. ) 12 

One special day course in cutting (linens, etc.) 4 

One special day course in plain sewing (linens, etc.) 12 

Employed in workshops (regular) 5 

Total, regular pupils 38 

Total, special course pupils 102 

Total attendance 140 

Xo record is kept of the pupils after they leave the school. Of the 
eighteen who had graduated three were known to be employed at the 
occupations for which they had studied; two had become teachers of 
manual training for girls in the public schools; the rest could not be 



548 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

located. I^o information whatever could be obtained regarding occu- 
pations of pupils of the special classes. The total attendance since the 
establishment of the school up to April 1891 was 200. 

The aftairs of the school are administered by a committee of ten mem- 
bers who represent the various communities, societies, and state gov- 
ernment that contribute to the sui)port of the same. A board of five 
directors, of whom two are women, has immediate control over the con- 
duct of the school. This board is elected by the committee of repre- 
sentatives. 

The expenses of the school are met by contributions from societies 
for the advancement of public utility, from various communities aiid 
private individuals, by subsidies from the cantonal and the federal gov- 
ernment, by tuitions, by sale of work, and by the income fr'om the capi- 
tal. During the year 1890 the income and expenditures v/ere as fol- 
lows: 

INCOME. 

Contributions and sabsidies $2^ 171. 25 

Income on capital 97 03 

Tuitions 746.91 

Sale of school supplies to pupils 268.64 

Proceeds from tlie sale of work 1,228.91 

Total 4,512.74 

EXrENDlTUEES. 

Rent, heating, lighting, and service 954.38 

Salaries of teachers 1,507.54 

Furniture 403.14 

School supplies 24 1 .51 

Materials for practical work 1,064.37 

Library 19.46 

Advertisements, printing, stationery, etc 335.04 

Total... 4,525.44 

Young women who sign a contract of apprenticeship for the full term 
of three years in the division for ladies' tailoring pay an admission fee 
of 5 francs (97 cents), and obtain the instruction gratuitously. Those 
not signing the contract pay 50 francs ($9.65) X3er year during the first 
two years, and obtain the third years instruction gratuitously. Puinls 
who have been prepared elsewhere and enter the third year's class 
pay 80 francs ($15.44) for the year. Pupils signing the contract of 
apprenticeshii) in the division for plain sewing -pay an admission fee 
of 15 francs ($2.90), and nothing more. Others pay, in addition, 35 
francs ($6.76) for the first year. Those prepared elsewhere, and enter- 
ing the second year's class, pay 80 francs ($15.44) for the year; others 
pay 50 francs ($9.65). The fees and tuitions for the special courses 
have been indicated in the programme. In any of the classes the 
tuition may be entirely or partially remitted in the cases of iDersons 
without means who are considered worthy. These may also in time 
receive stipends, for which purpose a specially donated fund exists. 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. o49 

Pupils must be at least 16 years of age to enter either of the two 
trade divisions. To enter tlie preparatory class in ladies' tailoring 
tliey must be 14 years of age and in tlie case of the plain sewing pre- 
paratory class tliey must be 15 years of age. Tliey must have an edu- 
cation equal to that required for graduates from the second year of the 
higliCr i^rimary schools (a total school attendance of eight years). Ma- 
terials, utensils, and school supplies are furnished by the pupils. Sew- 
ing machines are furnished gratuitously, except where otherwise indi- 
cated. All regular pupils are placed on about two months' probation. 

At the close of each scholastic year examinations take place and an 
exhibition of work. On the basis of these results certificates of gradu- 
ation are issued. Pupils from the preparatory classes and others can 
enter the trade schools proper only after having i^assed a satisfactory 
examination. At the end of each quarter pupils obtain reports con- 
cerning deportment, scholarship, and results accomplished. 

TRADE SCHOOL FOR -WOMEN. BERN. 

This school was founded Msij 1883 as a private institution. It aims 
to educate women of all stations in life by practical and theoretical 
instruction in such needlework as is necessary in an ordinary house- 
hold, or for the occupations of seamstress and ladies' tailor. 

The course of instruction comi)rises the three principal branches — 
I)lain sewing, ladies' tailoring, and embroidery workj and siDccia) 
classes in ironing, cooking and housekeeping, mending, and making 
children's garments. The first three require three and one-half months 
each, the latter a much shorter time. For the princii)al branches draw- 
ing i§ included and is com^mlsory. Instruction in plain sewing com- 
prises — ^haud and machine work; the different kinds of stitches; cut- 
ting and finishing linens for children, women, and men; mending and 
darning different kinds of goods; handling the sewing machine; pat- 
tern drawing; free-hand drawling, for educating the eye and the taste 
of the puT)i], and to serve as a foundation for pattern drawing. The 
ladies' tailoring branch comx)rises — taking the measure; cutting and 
fitting; sewing and trimming dresses for ladies and girls; making all 
kinds of women's garments according to fashion plates ; altering dresses ; 
pattern and free-hand drawing. The embroidery work comprises — all 
kinds of white and colored embroidery on linen, cloth, silk, and velvet; 
transferring drawings on the goods to be embroidered; free-hand draw- 
ing. The courses in cooking last six days each, and comprise the man- 
ner of arranging meals so as to be wholesome and palatable. At the 
beginning of each class the teacher i)repares a bill of fare for the 
whole course. The dinner (at noon) consists of one kind of souj), one 
kind of meat, one kind of farinaceous food, and one kind of vegetable. 
These are prepared in all the different ways customary in a good Swiss 
household. The supper consists of soup or coffee with milk and one 
kind of meat or other article of food. Attention is also given to warm- 



550 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

ing up and rearranging tlie remnants of a previons meal. From 9 to 
10 a. m. theoretical instruction is given^ that is explanations of the 
manner of preparing meals from text books on cooking From 2 to 4 
p. m. notes are made by pujiils of special points of importance in the 
household duties, and instruction given in household boi^keei)ing. 

The school is in session daily excei^t Sundays and^ holidays. Dur- 
ing the year ending December 1890 there were three courses each in 
the following branches: Plain sewing, ladies' tailoring^ embroidery, 
mending, ironing, making children's clothing, and cooking. Each of 
the courses in -plvdn sewing, ladies' tailoring, and embroidery covered 
three and one-half months, classes being in session seven hours daily, 
except on Wednesdays and Saturdays when there were only three 
hours' work; three hours per week were devoted to drawing. The 
classes in ironing were each at work three and one-half hours every 
Wednesday and Saturday afternoon during fourteen weeks. Classes 
in mending and in making children's clothing were each in session 
twenty hours per week for four weeks. The classes in cooking were 
each at woik from 9 a. m. to noon and from 2 to 6 -p. m. during one week. 

The teaching force consists of one teacher for the classes in i^lain 
sewing, mending, and embroidery, one for the class in ladies' tailoring, 
one for the class in ironing, one for the cooking classes, and one for 
drawing; these are all females. 

The attendance of the school has been as follows during the years 
of its existence: 

ATTE:N^DA]srCE OF PUPILS. 



Class. 


1888. 


1889. 


1890. 




18 
14 


31 

1 

21 


23 


T.^flipc?' tAiloriTior . 


31 




2 






10 






21 














20 


27 









E'o record is kept of the occupations of former pupils and no informa- 
tion could be obtained. Most of them attended simply to perfect them- 
selves in their household work and to make articles and wearing ap- 
parel used in the family. Some of them are dressmakers and seam- 
stresses who work at home or go out by the day. Yery few are said to 
be emxdoyes in establishments. 

The affairs of the school are conducted by a commission of three 
gentlemen and two ladies selected from among the members of the society 
vvhich controls the school. The chairman of this committee is the 
director of the school. This commission has entire control of the 
interior arrangement of the school, determines the rates of tuition, 
arranges the courses of study, represents the school in all business 
transactions, and recommends the salaries of teachers and their appoint- 
ment or dismissal. A ladies' committee of five members is ai)pointed 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 551 

for con suit rition in niatters of a tecliiiical nature. The society has a 
niemhershix) of 232 persons of botli sexes resident in the city of Bern. 
The expenses of the school arc mtifcby subsidies from the city of Bern, 
the canton oi Bern, and the federal government, by tuitions, by inter- 
est on capital, and when necessary by dra^Ying on the reserve fund. 
During the year 1890 the income and expenditures were as follows: 

INCOME. 

Subsidy from the city goverument $289. 50 

Subsidy from the state government 115. 80 

Subsidy from the federal government 173. 70 

Tuitions , 43;). 10 

Interest on capital 14. 04 

Drawn from reserve fund 41. 95 

Total 1,065.09 

expp:ts'dituiies. 

Salaries of teachers 778. 50 

Rent; light, heat, and janitor's services 138. 90 

Furniture, school supplies, fashion plates, etc 60. 23 

Printing and advertising 81. 46 

Repairs, special expenses for sundries 6. 00 

Total 1, 065. 09 

During the same period the income and expenditures of the cooking 
school were as follows: 

INCOME. 

City contribution $38. 60 

Bernese Society for the Advancement of Public Utility 30. 53 

Total ■ 69.16 

EXPENDITURES. 

Purchase of articles of food 1-9. 56 

Advertisements, kitchen utensils, text books, etc 18. 72 

Comxiensation of special instructors 30. 88 

Total 69.16 

The tuition was — for dressmaking, 40 francs ($7.72), for plain sewing, 
30 francs ($5.79), and for embroidery, 20 francs ($3.86), for the course of 
three and a half months ; this included lessons in drawing. For former 
X)upils who wished to reenter, 4 francs (77 cents) per week. For tlie 
special courses the tuition was 15 francs ($2.90) for ironing, 15 francs 
($2.90) per Aveek for making children's clothing, and 5 francs (97 cents) 
per week for course in mending. The instruction in cooking and house- 
keeping was given gratuitously. In cases where persons have not 
sufficient means to pay tuition it may be partially or entirely remitted in 
any of the classes. The materials and sewing machines must be fur- 
nished hj the pupils. All finished products belong to the pupils 



552 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

making them, but they can not be removed until the close of the course 
of study. 

Persons desiring to attend the school must be at least 15 years of 
age. and must have some previous training in needlework. They must 
be of good moral character. Pux)ils for the cooking school are selected 
by the public school authorities from among the poorest people j they 
must bind themselves to attend regularly the entire course. 

At the end of each course public exhibitions are made of the drawings 
and work done, and pupils obtain certifi.catesof proficiency, scholarship, 
and deportment. In the cooking school each pupil is examined on the 
last day. 

TRADE SCHOOL FOR WOMEN, BASEL. 

This school was founded August 18, 1879. It is owned by the Society 
for the Advancement of Public Utility of Basel. Its object is to edu- 
cate women of all stations in life in such work as pertains to their sex, 
and to place them in a position to perform such work independently. 

The instruction comprises the following courses: Plain sewing, and 
the pattern drawing, darning, and mending pertaining thereto j machine 
sewing, preparing all kinds of linens, such as underclothing, men's shirts, 
infants' clothes, etc., and the pattern drawing and mending pertaining 
thereto 5 dressmaking and pattern drawing j white embroidery; artistic 
embroidery in colors; worsted work, such as network, crocheting, knit- 
ting, and other fancy work; mending and darning; ironing; inillinery; 
drawing; arithmetic and bookkeeping; special class in methods of in- 
struction for teachers of needlework. 

Instruction in plain sewing comprises the different kinds of stitches; 
their application to articles from the simplest to the most difficult, such 
as bed and table linens, and different kinds of linen garments; cutting 
and drawing patterns for these kinds of articles; taking measures and 
l^reparing garments according to dictated specifications; cutting and 
finishing the same indeiDcndently ; mending by i^iserting pieces by means 
of different kinds of stitches; darning on various kinds of goods in 
imitation of the material. 

Instruction in machine sewing comprises a study of the construction 
of the sewing machine; adjusting and cleaning the same; practice in 
ordinary sewing, straight lines, narrow borders, then gradually by 
means of the various attachments; the sewing of table and bed linens 
and garihents (particular attention is given to men's shirts and the 
insertion of various styles of bosoms); taking measures and mending 
as in plain sewing; pattern drawing, especially of more difficult linens. 

The instruction in ladies' tailoring comprises, in succession, all the 
different styles of dresses and other garments, and their execution from 
measure. The pupils must learn to draw and cut the patterns without 
assistance. 

Instruction in embroidery comprises instruction in the preparatory 
work; transferring the drawings on the goods; gradual practice in all 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 553 

kinds of white and colored embroidery. Tlie classes in wliite ami 
colored embroidery are separate. 

Instrruction in worsted work includes all styles of knitting, crocheting, 
network, fringe work, and work on frames. Work is done x)rincipally 
from patterns, either in the shape of drawings or worsted work. 

Instruction in mending and darning comprises mending practice 
X)ieces, garments, and linens. Darning consists first of simple cross- 
stitching, later of imitating damasks, etc. Darning by means of the 
lace stitches or meshes is practised first on cards, later on goods. This 
work is so perfectly done that when a piece of work is finished it is 
difficult to find the patches or to distinguish the darned work from the 
rest of the goods. 

Ironing is done first on ladies' chemises, etc., then on starched linens, 
such as collars, cuffs, men's shirts, chemisettes, lace curtains, and 
w^omen's dresses. 

Millinery work begins with folding and quilling, tying bows, etc., 
then trimming of hats. 

Instruction in drawing compri ses handling theT-square, the triangle, 
the compasses, and the construction of regular figures; later, elements 
of free-hand drawing; straight and curved line ornaments; flowers, 
leaves, vines, etc. ; elements of ornamentation, methods of ornamenta- 
tion, entwining, drawing and transferring ornaments for embroidery, 
etc.; straight and curved line ornamentation with braid and lace; colors 
and coloring effects; designing original patterns for embroidery, etc. 

Arithmetic and bookkeeping instruction comprises keex)ing business 
accounts, study of exchange, and such other branches as are required 
in a mercantile business. 

The course of instruction for teachers of needlework comprises one 
whole year's work. Beginning with simple meshes and stitches it 
gradually extends over all branches of needlework such as are taught 
in the public primary and high schools. 

The school is in session all the year except a.few weeks' vacation in 
summer and on Sundays and holidays. The course of instruction in 
each branch is about 4 months. Instruction in the principal branches, 
plain sewing, machine sewing, and ladies' tailoring, is given from 8 a. 
m. to noon and from 2 to 5 p. m. ; Wednesday and Saturday after- 
noons are free. For the special courses of embroidery, white and in 
colors, there are twelve hours' weekly instruction; for worsted work, 
mending and darning also twelve hours; for millinery, one afternoon 
of four hours; for arithmetic and bookkeeping, two afternoons of two 
hours each or four hours; for ironing, one afternoon of four hours. 
The class for teachers of needlework is in session two afternoons of 
one hour each per week. Drawing, four hours per week; this in the 
case of the three princiiDal courses is compulsory. 

The teaching personnel consists of a director who has supervision 
over the entire school^ but has no class. He at times delivers lectures. 



554 



KEPORT OF TflE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



His services are rendered gratuitously. Tliere is one teacher eacli for 
tlie conrses in i)lain sewing, machine sewing, ladies' tailoring, embroid- 
ery, worsted work, mending and darning, ironing, and millinery 5 and 
one teacher of arithmetic and bookkeei)ing. Instruction in drawing 
is given by the teachers of other branches. This with the dk-ector 
makes ten instructors in all. All of these, except the three for the 
l^rincipal conrses, devote only a portion of their time to the school. 

The attendance at the institution during the year ending December 
1890 was as follows: 

ATTEXDAXCE OE PUPILS. 



Class. 



December 

to 

April. 



April 

to 

August. 



August 

to 

December. 



Total. 



Plain sewing 

Iilacliine sewing 

Dressmaking 

Enibrcitlery in white 

Embroidery in colors 

Mending (including pupils of ccoliing scliool) 

Worsted work 

Millinery 

Ironing (including pupils of coolving-scbool) 

Bookkeeping (including pupils of cooking scliool). 
^Needlework, for teachers 



55 

85 
•78 
3S 
28 

1J5 
45 
45 

140 
70 
11 



Total. 



710 



The present occupation of former x)ui)ils is not known, as no record 
is kept of such information. A large majority of them have attended 
in order to be useful at homej some take in sewing and some v»^oik 
as seamstresses by the day 5 some are established in business, others 
are working as emx:)loyes in the lines for which they studied; over 
40 are known to be teaching needlework in public and i)rivate schools 
in Switzerland and foreign countries. In ten years the yearly attend- 
ance has increased from 72 to 710 jiupils, with the applications for 
admission greatly exceeding the capacity of the school. The number 
of pupils who have attended the school since its establishment amounts 
to about 2,400. 

This institution is under the supervision and direction of a commis- 
sion elected by the Society for the Advancement, of Public Utility. 
This committee has charge of the organization of the school and the prep- 
aration of the courses of instruction, appoints and dismisses the teachers, 
regulates their pay and duties, and, in connection with the ladies' com- 
mittee of the society, has direct supervision over the interior workings 
of the school. 

The expenses of the school are met by national subsidies, by regular 
contributions of the society, by tuitions, and by private contributions. 
Following are the income and expenditures for the year 1890: 



Balance irom last year $113. 13 

Contributions from the society 579.00 

Federal subsidy 579. 00 



CHAP. X. ^INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 555 

Other contributions 193. 00 

Reimbursement of money paid for rent 116. 07 

Tuitions 2,102.93 

Total : 3,683.13 

EXPEXDITUllES. 

Salaries of teachers 2, 075. 33 

Interest and payments on borrowed capital 663. 92 

Purchases and repairs 220. 31 

Heat, light, water, and janitor's services 402. 27 

Taxes, advertisements, journals, etc 76. 80 

Sundries 122.16 

Total .- 3,560.79 

Balance on hand 122. 34 

The tuitions for atteudauce are as follows: 

Courses in x^lain and machine sewing, each $5. 79 

Course in dressmahing 7. 72 

Courses in vrhite and colored embroidery, each 4. 83 

Courses in worsted Avork and mending, each 3. 86 

Irouing course 2. 32 

Courses in millinery, arithmetic, and boo]ihecj)ing, each 1. 93 

Course for teachers of needlework 1. 93 

For the three i^rincipal courses lustruction in clrawiug is included. 
All other i^upils pay 5 francs (97 cents) per week for drawing. 

In very many cases the tuition is partially, and in some cases entirely, 
remitted when it is found that applicants can not afford to pay the 
regular rate. The materials and the sewing machines must be fur- 
nished hj the pupils using them. The teachers indicate the work to 
be done, but the articles made belong to the pupils. These can not be 
removed until the end of the course. 

Eegular pupils must be at least 15 years of age and must have some 
previous knowledge of needlework. They can enter only at the com- 
mencement of a course, in April, August, or December. When the ap- 
plications exceed the vacancies the commission decides upon the accept- 
ance of the most eligible. Pupils upon enteriDg bind themselves to 
attend the entire course chosen. 

At the end of every course each regular pupil obtains a certificate 
of progress, diligence, attendance, and deportment. Pui)iis who dis- 
tinguish themselves through diligence, deportment, and good prog- 
ress may, after having attended the three principal courses and one 
special course in embroidery or worsted, obtain a graduating diploma. 

A school for cooking and housekeeping was founded in 1889 as a 
branch of the trade school. The object of the school is to educate 
young women in the duties of thorough housewives by means of prac- 
tical training and systematic scientific instruction. 

The instruction comprises cooking, washing, ironing, mending, darn- 
ing, purchasing and preserving foods of all kinds, arranging, heating,^ 



556 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

and lighting roomSj houseliokl booLkeeijirigj study of tlie uutritive 
properties of food and preparing meals in accordance therewith, and in- 
structions in hygiene and nursing. Careful attention is given to train- 
ing young TTomen in promx)tness, cleanliness, order, and thrift. 

The courses of study begin in December, April, and August, each 
continuing about four months. The school is in session from 8 a. m. 
to 8 p. m. daily exce^it Sundays and holidays. Dinner is served at 
noon, bread and coffee at 4 p. m., and a simple supper at 7 p. m. The 
time not emi)loyed in kitchen and household work is spent in the class 
rooms for ironing, mending (not including artistic mending), and book- 
keeping of the trade school, this instruction being included without 
extra charge. 

One matron is in charge of the cooking and household work. A 
physician dehvers lectures on nursing and bandaging, the latter with 
practical illustrations. Other branches are taught in the trade school, 
as stated. The director of the trade school is also director of the cook- 
ing school. The attendance during 1890 was 12 pupils each for the 
first and second courses and 24 pupils for the third course, making for 
the year 48 x)upils. Since the foundation there were in all 62 i)upils. 
These pupils attended in order to become more proficient at home 
and not to make cooking a profession. A few became servants. 

The administration is the same as that of the trade school. The 
income of this school is derived from national subsidies, regular con- 
tributions of the society, tuitions, and sale of dinners and coffee to out- 
siders. During the year 1890 the income and expenditures were as fol- 
lows : 

INCOME. 

Balance from last year $71. 54 

Contributions of the society 386. 00 

Federal subsidy... ." 193.00 

Tuitions .". 353. 19 

Dinners and coffee served to outsiders 133. 00 

Sundry receipts 26. 82 

Total 1,163.55 

EXPENDITURES. 

Salaries of teachers 542. 91 

Meat 152.58 

Bread 35,31 

Groceries, etc 79. 47 

Milk, butter, cheese, vegetables, eggs, etc 208. 14 

Sundries .' IG. 92 

Fuel (wood, coal, and gas) 63. 93 

Stationery, etc 9. 65 

Advertisements 10. 05 

Interest on borrowed capital 37. 63 

Total .1,156.59 

Balance on hand - 6.96 



CHAP. X. INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 557 

The tuition is 20 francs ($3.86) i3er montli. This includes tlie meals 
(dinner, supper, and 4 o'clock coffee) and class instruction in mending, 
(hiroing, ironing, and bookkeeping. For tlie class instruction in needle- 
work and ironir.g pupils must furnisk tkeir oayu materials, and articles 
when finished remain tlieir property. 

PuxDils must be at least 15 years of age. The commission makes the 
selections when the applications exceed the vacancies. Upon enter- 
ing the i)upils bind themselves to perform all the duties required of 
them, and to be obedient, industrious, and of good behavior. An exam- 
ination takes place at the end of each course. Pupils obtain certifi- 
cates of diligence, deportment, and proficiency. 

The school aims, above all things, to make good housewives, hence 
the addition of other branches such as mending, ironing, and lectures 
on hygiene and nursing. Not much attention is given to fancy cooking, 
the idea being mainly to teach pupils how to arrange the meals and 
bills of fare in order to have the food wholesome and nourishiug. 
The puiDilsmust also estimate the cost of every article and learn how 
to provide a substantial meal for a given number of persons at a given 
price. A comparison of the weight of pupils attending the school, 
made before and after their sojoium (four months), showed an average 
gain in Aveight of 2J pounds per iDupil. During this period the dinner, 
4 o'clock coffee and bread, and supper cost, on an average, 47J centimes 
(9^ cents) per head per day. This included food and fnel expenses. 

SCHOOL FOR SERVANTS, BERN. 

This school was founded May 1891 by the Women's Society for the 
Advancement of Public Utility of canton Bern. It is a private institu- 
tion. All pupils board at the school. 

The object is to give to young women desiring to become servants 
the advantages of a training in the duties required in a city house- 
hold, and to supply the rapidly increasing demand for good, competent 
servant girls. Young women coming from farms and villages to enter 
into service in city families generally have not the slightest conception 
of the proper arrangement of the work in the household, are very 
awkward in their demeanor toward visitors, in serving at the table, 
etc., and are often untidy in regard to their own i^erson. The school 
aims to correct such faults and to give the young women the necessary 
training and polish. Persons requiring servants can not always find 
such as are recommended for honesty, or are known to come from up- 
right parents. - At the school great care is talien in the selection of 
pupils, and during their attendance at the school opportunity is had 
of testing their qualities for honesty and diligence. As a consequcDce 
people obtaining servants from this school generally know what they 
are getting. 

As this is to some extent a philanthropic institution the course of 
study, or rather time of attendance, must be made as short as possible 



558 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

SO as not to keep tlie young women too long from gaining a livelihood. 
It is considered tliat three months are suiilicient to remove the objections 
which exist respecting country girls as servants. 

The following regulations of the school give a fair idea of the work 
done and system of training adopted : 

Kitchen duties. — Pupils detailed for kitchen work will appear in the 
kitchen at 6 a. m. in summer and 6.30 a. m. in winter j kindle the fires, 
IDrepare the breakfast, and blacken all the shoes j carry fuel, wash up and 
clean the kitchen, cook and prepare the dinner, wash the dishes, clean 
the range, and put the kitchen in order j prepare supper, wash up and 
clean the kitchen. 

HouseJiold duties. — Pupils detailed for household work will air the din- 
ing room, set the table, sweej), and dust the furniture j make the beds 
emi^ty the water, and put the bedrooms in order; sweep the halls and 
stair case ; clean and fill the lamps ) carry water and wood ; wash all 
soiled linens ; set the table at noon and remove the dishes afterward ; 
make purchases and do other errands; arrange the bedrooms in the 
evening; set the table for snipper and afterward remove the dishes. 

Instruction and lectures are given by the matron and by the p)astor 
of one of the churches in deportment, i^oliteness, hygiene, and ethical 
culture. The cooking consists of the simj^le preparation of the different 
kinds of foods, meats, farinaceous foods, vegetables, stewing and pre- 
serving fruit, etc. Instruction is given in mending garments, knitting, 
darning, etc., washing, ironing, and, in general, all the details of house- 
work. 

The following order of work is strictly enforced : Pupils must arise 
at 5 a. m. in summer and at 6 a. m. in winter; the beds must be made, 
the rooms arranged and aired; breakfast is prepared and served at G 
a. m. in summer and 6.30 a. m. in winter; distribution of the work 
equally among the impils; a slice of bread for each pupil at 9 a. m; 
dinner served at noon, consisting of soup, one kind of meat, and vege- 
tables ; on Mondays and Fridays fiirinaceous foods and fruit take the 
I)lace of meat; the school and sitting rooms must be aired and cleaned, 
the dishes washed, the kitchen X3ut in order, and other services per- 
formed; a slice of bread for each loupil at 4 p. m.; in winter and on 
Sundays in summer coffee is served with the bread; supper at 6 p. m., 
consisting of coffee, cold dishes, or what remains of the middaj^ meal; 
after the dishes have been washed and th^Q kitchen and rooms put in 
order the pupils will occupy themselves with sewing, knitting, etc., 
under the instruction and guidance of the matron; from 9 to 10 p. m. 
pujuls will be at liberty; at 10 p. m. all lights must be put out; pupils 
must at all times observe strict obedience to the matron; proper beha- 
vior, order, cleanliness, attention to duty and truthfulness are required 
of each pupil; on Sundays pupils who are not detailed for kitchen work 
are required to attend church services; Sunday afternoons pux)ils may 
make calls or take promenades, if permitted by the matron; they must 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 559 

return before 6 p. m. j they may occui)y themselves with readiog, letter 
writing, or conversation if they do not go out j all requests or complaints 
must be made to the matron, who will take the proper action or give 
the necessary advice. 

A matron is in charge of all the instruction. Lectures on hygiene are 
at times given by a physician and on deportment and ethics by a min- 
ister of the gospel. The two latter receive no comx)ensation. The ma- 
tron receives 500 francs ($9G.50) per year and board and lodging. 

The attendance is 12 ]pux)ils, which is the full capacity of the school. 
Twelve pui)ils had already finished their course and were in positions 
when the school was visited (ISTovember 1891). The attendance is 
limited to 12 pupils because it is considered that the matron could not 
give enough attention to each individual if the number were greater. 

The girls who have graduated obtained positions at once. The ap- 
plications for them have been^ so far, for three times as many as could 
be supplied. The matron can, therefore, be careful to i)lace the girls in 
families where they will be kindly treated. If girls lose their positions 
through no fault of then" own they can reenter the school and board 
there at a very small expense until they obtain other positions. This 
has not yet happened. 

A committee of ladies (members of the society which owns the 
school and who reside in Bern) has complete control over the affairs of 
the school, appoints the matron, fixes the tuition and other conditions 
of admittance, etc. 

The income is derived from fees for tuition and board which^ in maoy 
cases, are paid by charitable societies or individuals j by renting fur- 
nished rooms with board, the work necessarj^ for this being done by 
the x>upils; by hiring out more advanced pu]3ils for service, by the 
hour or day, in the families of members of the society. For this 
service a charge is made of 10 centimes (2 cents) per hour, or 70 
centimes (13J cents) per day. In nearly every case the girls, upon grad- 
uating, have entered families where they had previously worked in this 
way; the city of Bern has contributed 500 francs (196.50) toward 
furnishing the school j all deficits are paid out of the treasury of the 
Women's Cantonal Society for the Advancement of Public Utility. 
The tuition and board amount to 60 francs ($11.58) for the entire 
course of three months. 

Each girl desiring admittance must furnish the ofiicial certificate of 
birth, and a certificate of good conduct and morality from the author- 
ities of the town or district in which she lives. She must be at least 
15 years of age, but girls a little older obtain preference. 

The school when visited was a model of order and cleanliness. The 
bedrooms, kitchen, dining and sitting rooms were well aired, clean, and 
tidy. Every piece of furniture was properly placed and not a speck of 
dust was noticeable anywhere. The youug women were polite, plainly 
but neatly dressed, and all had a cheerful, healthy appearance. The 
school was visited at an unexpected time. 



560 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Applications for admissiou greatly exceed the capacity of tlie school, 
and, althongli it liad existed only six months, its usefulness was so 
apx)arent that the subject of founding several more was under consid- 
eration by the society. 

SCHOOL OP ART AND NEBDLB1770RK, ZURICH. 

This school was founded in 1880. It is a private institution. Its 
object is to thoroughly educate young ladies in the various useful 
branches of woman's work, in order to fit them for housewives, for 
industrial pursuits, or for teachers of manual training of girls. 

The instruction is divided into three principal branches — the indus- 
trial, the artistic, and the scientific and literary. 

The industrial branches comprise the following courses : Hand sew- 
ing — practice in the different kinds of stitches, mending and darning 
on different kinds of goods, cutting and finishing all kinds of linens 
and underclothing, theory of pattern drawing 5 machine sewing — cut- 
ting and finishing linens and underclothing, instruction in handling 
and adjusting the sewing machine and use of the various attachments, 
theory of i)attern drawing 5 dressmaking — latest methods of taking 
measurements and cutting, sewing, and trimming all varieties of gar- 
ments for ladies and children, preparing garments according to fashion 
plates, altering clothes, pattern drawing^ embroidery — various kinds 
of white, colored, and gold embroidery on cloth, silk, velvet, linen, etc., 
special drawing and painting (reproduction on different materials), 
study of styles and of color 5 worsted work — knitting, crocheting, net- 
work, tying, and working on frames, free-hand drawing j millinery; 
ironing; cooking and housekeeping. 

The artistic branch comprises — general instruction in free-hand and 
geometrical drawing, and perspective. Special instruction is given in 
drawing and painting from nature and painting on wood, silk, leather, 
porcelain, etc., and science of colors. 

The scientific branches comprise the following : Bookkeeping, arith- 
metic, and correspondence J languages — German, French, Italian, and 
English. Glasses for physical culture and dancing are given during the 
winter term, as well as lectures on hygiene. Lectures on general and 
special subjects are given at intervals without extra charge. 

Several i)ianos are also at the disposal of pupils who take lessons at 
the conservatory of music. Each branch requires three months, and 
the pupils or parents have the choice of the same. Only one of the i)rin- 
cipal industrial branches can be taken at a time, but one or more of 
the secondary branches may be taken in connection with it. Pupils 
may, however, take portions of the work required in the principal 
branches as secondary branches, or they may take only secondary 
branches if they desire. Lessons in gardening are given at times in 
season. 

The school is in session daily, except Sundays and holidays, from 8 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 561 

to 11 a. m. and 2 to 6 p. m. in summer, and from 8 a. m. to 12 m. and 2 
to 5 p. m. in winter. A vacation of from eight to twelve days is given 
at tlie end of every three months. 

The faculty consists of the director, three teachers of needlework, 
three of languages, two of drawing and painting, one of music, one of 
bookheeping, arithmetic, and correspondence, one of ironing, and one 
of cooking. These are all specialists. 

The attendance of the school during the first ten years of its exist- 
ence was as follows: Hand sewing and mending, 303 pupildj maclune 
sewing, 613 j dressmaking, 483; embroidery, 286; worsted work, 236 j 
millinery, 88; ironing, 156; drawing and painting, 151; bookkeeping, 
116; French language, 297; English, 126; Italian, 105; German, 116; 
housekeeping and cooking, 59. As each course is of only three montlis? 
duration, and as several branches may be taken simultaneously, the 
same pui3il may apj)ear a number of times in the above figures. There 
were 1,144 different persons in attendance altogether during the ten 
years. Of these 69 were foreigners, 8 being American residents. 

The pupils who attend this school are generally the daughters of 
the wealthier people who look upon this education as a sort of finish- 
ing off before leaving school entirely. Their object is to become what 
is considered the ideal housewife in Switzerland, that is, women w^ho 
possess not only a fair school education in science, literature, etc., 
but who can also manage or perform the duties of a household and 
beautify a home. Yery few graduates attend in order to earn a liveli- 
hood as employes. Some attended to learn the duties of teachers in 
industrial schools and are now in such positions. 

The administration of the school is entirely in the hands of the 
director. The school is supported entirely by tuition fees. 

The tuition per term of three months is as follows: Sewing by hand, 
etc., three and one-half days practical work and one day pattern draw- 
ing per week, 30 francs ($5.79); machine sewing, three and one-half 
days practical work and one day pattern drawing per week, 30 francs 
($5.79); cutting only, one-half day per week, 15 francs ($2.90); dress- 
making (including cutting), three and one-half days practical work, one 
day r)attern drawing, 45 francs ($8.69); embroidery, three and one-half 
days practical work, one and one-half days drawing, 30 francs ($5.79); 
worsted work, three and one-half days practical work, one-half day draw- 
ing, 30 francs ($5.79); artistic branches, 20 francs ($3.86); millinery, 
one-half daj per week, 10 francs ($1.93); ironing, one-half day per 
week, 10 francs ($1.93); bookkeeping, arithmetic, and correspondence, 
4 hours per week, 20 francs ($3.86) ; languages, each 20 francs ($3.86) ; 
lectures on hygiene, 10 francs ($1.93). Pupils taking one of the first 
six principal branches obtain lessons in languages at half i)rice. When 
two or more meiiibers of the same family attend simultaneously a re- 
duction of 10 per cent, is made in their tuitions. A limited number of 
pupils aTC taken as boarders at the school. These pay 200 francs ($38.60) 
S. Ex. 65 36 



5G2 EEPOliT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

for tliree montlis, exclusive of tuition. A diuiier at 1 franc (19 cents) per 
liead per day is furnislied to otliers wlio desire it. Tlie course in cook- 
ing can be taken on four half days per week for three months or, in 
connection with other branches, daily for six weeks. The tuition (ex- 
clusive of meals) is 20 francs ($3.86) per term, but only those taking 
board or one meal per day can enter the cooking class. - 

Pupils to be admitted must be at least 14 years of age. Special classes 
in needlework and drawing are given one-half day per week to younger 
persons. Pupils can so arrange their work as to be occupied at the 
sthool during the entire day, in which case they can finish all the branch- 
es in about one to one and a half years. Most pupils, however, take 
lessons only by the term of three months. Unavoidable absence of one 
week or more can be made np. The materials and sewing machines 
are furnished by the puj)ils, and all finished articles belong to them. 
Sewing machines can be rented at 4 francs (77 cents) per month. 

Pupils obtain, at the end of each term, certificates of diligence, prog- 
ress, attendance, and deportment. Pupils who have finished the terms 
in at least three branches, and who are thoroughly proficient and have 
been exemplary in dev)ortment, obtain graduating dii)lomas. Special 
dii)lomas are issued to persons desiring to become teachers of needle- 
work, provided they deserve them. 

This is the only female industrial school in Switzerland which in- 
cludes in its programme the instruction in all branches — industrial, ai-- 
tistic, and scientific — which is most necessary for a refined housewife. 
It is recognized in Switzerland as the model school for giving the fin- 
ishiug touches to the education of young ladies before they assume the 
responsibilities of liousewives. A gold medal was awarded to this in- 
stitution at the international exx)osition at Paris in 1889. 

SCHOOL FOR SERVANTS, LBNZBURG. 

This school was founded October 1889 by the Women's Society for 
the Advancement of Public Utility of canton Aargan. It is a private 
institution. All pui)ils board at the school. 

The object of the school is a twofold one — to offer to poor girls de- 
siring to become servants the advantages of a training in all household 
duties and to su|)ply the steadily increasing demand for good, comx)e- 
tent servants. 

The conrse of instruction is for three months. The pupils perform 
all the household duties required in the establishment. They alternate 
in their duties in the kitchen or the household work. In season gar- 
den culture is also attended to. Tiie time not required for housework is 
spent in needlework, such as plain sewing, mending, darning, and 
knitting. Washing and ironing are also included. The regidations of 
this school, as well as the working hours, are precisely the same as 
those of the school for servants at Bern, the latter school being mod- 
elled after this. The foUowiug, copied from the daily journal kept at 



CHAP. X. — -INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 563 

the school, ^>vill give an idea of tlie nature and cost of the meals fur- 
nished to pupils : 

July Ij 1S91. — Dinner— rice soup, Brussels si)routSj cutlets; suj^per — 
coll'ee, strawberry tarts; second dinner — meat soup, boiled beef, turnip 
sauce; supper — coffee, mashed potatoes, pot cheese; third dinner — 
coffee, cutlets; supper — oatmeal x)orridge; fourth dinner — oatmeal soux), 
liver cutlets, beans; supper — coffee, fried potatoes; fifth dinner — rice 
soup, roast pork, potatoes, lettuce; supper — coffee, butter, jam; sixth 
dinner — farinaceous souj), mashed i)otatoes, lettuce; supi)er — coffee, 
boiled rice; seventh dinner^ — oatmeal soup, ragout, sugar pease, turnips; 
supper — coffee, potatoes. 

By careful and economical arrangement of the victuals, which is the 
principal feature of the cooking, the average cost per head per day of 
the above meals was 43 centimes (8 J cents). During the month of July^ 
181)1, 577 dailj^ rations (breakfast of bread and coffee, dinner and sup- 
per as above) cost in all 248.70 francs ($48.00). E'early all vegetables 
are raised by the x)upils. Attention is also given to the preserving of 
vegetables and fruit, to baking different kinds of bread, cakes, and 
cookies. Meals, cakes, bread, and needlework are also prepared for 
customers. Pupils are also detailed for work in the families of mem- 
bers of the society for more practical instruction. Families obtaining 
such help pay a small compensation to the school. Pupils also have 
lectures on deportment, hygiene, cleanliness, etc. The instruction and 
training are conducted by a matron. 

The attendance of the school when visited was 12 pui3ils, the full 
capacity. Up to May 1891, 80 girls had attended the course, nearly 
all of whom entered service as domestics immediately upon leaving. 
A few returned to their homes. Pupils at once obtain positions when 
they have finished the course. 

A committee of members of the society resident in Lenzburg and 
Aarau has comi^lete control over the affairs of the school and makes 
all purchases of furniture, etc., and other arrangements. 

The income is derived from tuition and board of pupils, the renting 
of furnished rooms and board, sale of needlework, meals, bread, cakes, 
etc., town and private contributions, society funds, etc. The income 
and expenditures of the school in 1801 were as follows: 

INCOME. 

Tuition and Iboard of pupils $472. 85 

Sale of vegetables 5. 79 

Needlework, sale of 84. 92 

Work done l)y pupils in families 46. 32 

Sale of bread; cakes, etc 38. 60 

Contributions of tbe society for rent 115. 80 

Boarders in summer 115. 80 

Otber contributions 17. 37 

Sale of dinners 28.95 

Total , 926.40 



664 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

EXPENDITURES. 

Rent of building $115.80 

Salary of matron _ . . 115. 80 

Meals, fuel, etc 694. 80 

Total 928. 40 

Tlie tuition, including board, is 60 francs ($11.58) for three montLs. 
Of tliiSj 10 francs ($1.93) are returned to the pupils when they enter 
into service as domestics. During 1891, of 48 pupils who attended, 
8 pupils had entirely free scholarships and 6 pupils attended at half 
I)rice. These free scholarships are granted to poor girls \vpoTL the 
recommendations of church and orphan societies. Pupils upon enter- 
ing must be i)rovided with a certificate of birth and one of good 
character. Kot more than 12 pupils are taken at a time because it is 
necessary for the matron to give her attention to each individual. 
They must be at least 15 years of age. 

HOUSEKEEPING SCHOOL, BUCHS. 

This school was founded May 1888 by the Women's Society for the 
Advancement of Public Utility of canton Aargau. All pupils board 
at the school. 

The object of the school is to give to young ladies leaving school a 
good theoretical and practical training in all that relates to the duties 
of a housewife. Pupils are generally the daughters of the middle or 
wealthier classes. 

The term is for three months and comprises the following courses ; 

Theoretical instruction. — Science of cooking — instruction concerning 
the most important nutritive substances in food and the arrangement 
of the latter accordingly^, preparation of meals for the sick and for the 
healthy, preserving firuit and vegetables, methods of heating, suitable 
cooking utensils, fuel, etc.; science of nourishment — instruction con- 
cerning the chemical composition of the human body, its functions, its 
chemical changes, nutritive process, etc. ; hygiene — instruction regard- 
ing the care of the body, the sustenance, clothing, habitation, air and 
ventilation 5 washing and cleaning — instruction regarding the care of 
articles during the process of washing, washing linens and other articles 
of wearing apparel, especially as to the application of washing appli- 
ances and chemicals, etc.j bookkeeping — instruction in keeping simple 
practical household accounts j science of housekeeping in general j 
lectures on the moral-religious duties of a housewife. 

Practical instruction. — The preparation of meals for a good home 
table — this includes at present 31 varieties of soup, 19 ways of pre- 
paring beef, 25 of veal, 9 of pork, 4 of mutton, 11 of mixed meats, 4 of 
fish, 15 of poultry, 12 of game, 16 kinds of sauces, 37 ways of pre- 
paring green vegetables, 35 varieties of egg, milk, and farinaceous 
foods, 17 ways of serving omelets and eggs, 11 kinds of pastry, 11 of 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 565 

Tvarm puddings, 13 of cold puddings, 7 kinds of pudding sauces, 10 ot 
creams, 7 kinds of stewed fruits, 4 kinds of dough, 28 varieties oi 
cakes and tarts, 18 of small cookies, 7 of dumplings, and 9 of patties. 
For tlie purpose of giving tlie impils ample opportunity in the cooking 
of these articles orders for cakes, meats, etc., are taken from outsiders 
for dinners, parties, etc. A book of recipes is iDublished by the matron, 
covering all the dishes prepared at the school. This is sold only to 
X)upils to be used as a memorandum of the cooking learned at the 
school. The practical instruction also includes regular and proper 
arrangement of the dining room, the kitchen, the dining table, as well 
as the manner of serving j x)ractical points for buying food; instruction 
in washing, wringing, and ironing linens -, cleaning the bedrooms, sit- 
ting rooms, cellars, and in fact the whole house; instruction in the 
making of bed and table linens, garments, taking measurements, draw- 
ing i)atterns, cutting and fitting ladies' dresses, which are optional. 

There are no i^rinted or written regulations for the government of 
the school, because it is desired to have the inmates considered like 
members of a family rather than as i)upils. 

Pupils rise at 5.30 to 6 a. m. in summer and at 6.30 to 7 a. m. in 
winter. Breakfast is had soon after. At 9 a. m. a lunch of bread and 
fruit is served. At 11.30 they have dinner, consisting of one or two 
kinds of meat, soup, vegetables, dessert, etc. From 2 to 5 or 5.30 p. m. 
the time is generally devoted to needlework and theoretical instruc- 
tion. At 3 p. m. bread and coffee are served. At 6.30 or 7 p. m. sup- 
per is served, consisting of tea, meat, vegetables, pudding, etc. Pupils 
perform all the work of the school except the scrubbing. The matron 
has charge of the instruction. Once a w^eek the pastor of the neigh- 
boring church lectures on the duties of housewives and other ethical 
subjects. 

Only twelve young ladies are admitted to the school at a time. 
The applications for admission are generally twice the number of vacan- 
cies. Those applying are, as a rule, sisters, relatives, or friends of 
former pupils. The same pupils sometimes remain for two, three, or 
even four terms in order to obtain more practice. Since the school was 
opened in May 1888, 119 pupils have attended. They came from nearly 
all the cantons in Switzerland. They were young ladies who had 
finished their education but desired to i)erfect themselves in the duties 
of housewives. In many cases young ladies attended immediately 
before being married. 

A committee elected from among the members of the society has 
general supervision over the affairs of the school. 

The income of the school is derived from tuitions and the sale of 
food. It is slightly in excess of the current expenditures. The sur- 
plus is used for purchasing furniture and other household articles. 

The tuition is 180 francs (134.74) for the term of three months. This 
includes board and lodging. An extra charge of 5 francs (97 cents) per 



566 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

quarter is made for tlie use of the i3iaiio. Tlie materials for linens 
and other needlework are furnished by the pupils, and the finished 
articles belong to them. 

Pui:)ils not residing in the canton of Aargau must be provided with 
certificates of residence in Switzerland. Each pupil upon entering 
must have, besides her clothing, etc., 6 pocket handkerchiefs, G nai)- 
kins, 6 towels, 4 linen sheets, 4 large aiDrons, and a blacking brush. 

This institution is situated in a little village 20 minutes' walk from 
Aarau, in the midst of a large garden. It is furnished for the recep- 
tion of only 12 pupils. The building contains 11 rooms, 2 kitchens, a 
laundry, a cellar, closets, etc. A hot air furnace heats nearly all the 
rooms. The arrangements and ventilation of the bedrooms are as 
nearly x)erfect as they can be made. A x)iano and sewing machine are 
at the disposal of the pupils. The pupils seemed happy and healthy, 
and everything had a cheerful, homelike ai)pearance. Pupils are 
never x>ermitted to go out excei3t in grouiDS, or in company with the 
matron, and no gentlemen are permitted to visit them except their 
fathers £iTid fiances. 

HOUSEKEEPING SCHOOL, WORE. 

This school was founded in May 1880 by the Economic and Public 
Utility Society of canton Bern. All pupils board at the school. 

The object of the school is to train young ladies in industry and 
order, and to educate them in such a way as to make them capable of 
conducting independently a good city or country household. 

The programme comprises a knowledge of housekeex)ing, such as 
cooking, baking, preserving fruit, meats, and vegetables, making beds, 
washing and ironing, and in general all classes of work required in a 
household J garden and vegetable culture (only for the summer class) j 
needlework required in a household (no fancy work) ; lectures on ethics 
by the pastor of the village j lectures on hygiene by a physician,- nutri- 
ment (the subject treated in a chemical, physical, and economic sense). 

All practical work is done by the pupils under the supervision of 
the matron, no servants being kept in the establishment. There are 
three terms each year, two being of three months each and one of 
six months. Pupils must be up at 6 a. m. in summer and 7 a. m. iu 
winter 5 those detailed for kitchen work a little earlier. Breakfast is 
had soon after, dinner at 12 m., and supper at 6 p. m. The day is spent 
in the performance of household work and sewing. Pupils retire at 
9 p. m. A matron and one assistant are in charge of the instruction. 
On three hours per week lectures are delivered by the village pastor 
and by a physician. Four hours ])ev week are devoted to instruction 
in bookkeeping and other theoretical subjects by a teacher of one 
of the public schools. 

During the year 1890 the attendance was 21 pupils the first term, 
22 the second term, and 21 the third term. The number is generally 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 5G7 

limited to 21. Ux) to August 1801, 357 pui^ils had attended tlie 
school. They were daughters of the middle and wealthier classes who 
attended for no other i^ufpose than to become useful in their own 
homes. Sometimes the i)upils remain for a second term. 

The school is owned by a stock company, having a capital of 7,000 
francs ($1,351) in 70 shares of 100 francs ($19.30) each. The stock- 
li older s elect a board of four directors every three years, and the 
cantonal government appoints one, making in all five directors. 
These have immediate control of the affairs of the school, direct the 
interior arrangements, and make a report each year to the stockholders. 

The school is self-sui)porting. The cantonal government pays an an- 
nual subsidy of 500 francs ($96.50). This, with the tuitions, more than 
covers the expenditures. A slight iucome is also derived from the sale 
of vegetables, and from interest on the capital. The income and 
expenditures during the year 1890 were as follows: 

INCOME, 

Baliincc from last year's account $502.23 

Tuitions 2, 132. 65 

State subsidy S€. 50 

Interest 24.35 

Donations - 6. 13 

Sundries (sale of vegetables, etc.) 12.12 

Total - 2,773.98 

EXPENDITURES. 

Purchase of furnishings 65.57 

Food 934.45 

Fuel and light 109.86 

Yearly salary of matron , 193.00 

Yearly salary of assistant matron 96. 50 

Expenses for lectures^ teacher, per diem of directors, etc 154. 53 

Eent and insurance 196. 47 

Interest dividends to stoclvholders 57. 90 

Printing, reading and writing material, stationery, etc 43. 87 

Eepairs 52. 59 

Linens 17. 86 

Seeds, plants, and garden materials 16. 47 

Placed in the reserve fund 193. 00 

Placed in the library fund 6. 13 

Sundries 7. 64 

Total 2, 145. 84 

Balance on hand 628. 14 

The tuition is 130 francs ($25.09) for the three months' term and 250 
francs (818.25) for the six months' term. This includes board and 
room. The pupils must be at least 16 years of age when admitted. 
They must be provided with certificates of birth and residence in 
Switzerland. As the apx)lications greatly exceed the vacancies candi- 
dates must often wait a year or more for their turn to be admitted. 



568 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

This school was the outcome of a series of eight cooking courses 
held i)rior to 1886. That experiment led to the conclusion that in order 
to give thorough or even profitable instruction in cooking and house- 
keepingit was necessary to establish an institution where the pupils could 
live entirely during the term of instruction. The institution proved a 
success from its very beginning, both practically and financially. By 
placing the school in a smalltown, where rent was cheap, it was possible 
to get a large, well ventilated house with a fine garden, and at the same 
time the isolation which is often very desirable for a young lady's 
school. By the economic use of materials, which constitutes an impor- 
tant feature of the instruction, the expenses of the school amount, on 
an average, to 1.53 francs (29J cents) per pupil per day. 

IKDUSTEIAL AET SCHOOLS. 

These schools do not properly come Vvdthin the scope of trade schools, 
and are therefore described very briefly. 

The object of these schools is to prepare persons of both sexes for 
the various artistic professions, and to give instruction in technical 
and free-hand drawing, or artistic work, to artisans and others whom it 
may benefit in their vocations. 

Schools of this kind exist in Geneva, Zurich, Saint Gall, Chaux-de- 
Fonds, Lausanne, Bern, Basel, Freyburg, Bienne, Lucerne, and Heim- 
berg. The branches taught in these schools difi'er in some respects 
according to the particular industries prevalent in their vicinity. 

MUNICIPAI. SCHOOL OP ART, GENEVA. 

The Municipal School of Art at Geneva, founded in 1751, is the 
oldest in Switzerland. The school is attended chiefly by persons who 
are following some vocation, as apprentices, students, workingmen, 
etc., and who can devote some time to perfecting themselves in the 
artistic features of their work. On. July 3, 1891, it comprised the follow- 
ing divisions and branches: The preparatory division — containing 57 
pupils; the middle division — com^Drising a class in ornamental drawing 
and elements of architecture, 19 pupils; a class in object drawing, 56 
pupils; a class in modelling and ceramics, 36 male and 47 female pupils; a 
class in ornamentation, 53 pupils; a class in architecture, 29 pupils ; the 
superior division — comprising a school of arts applied to industry, 42 male 
and 6 female pupils; a school of fine arts, 43 male and 20 female 
pupils; a school of art from nature, 48 pupils; and a school of arts for 
young ladies, 166 iDupils. This makes a total attendance of 622 irapils 
for the scholastic year ending July 3, 1891. Attendance is gratuitous, 
it being a public institution. 

CANTONAL SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS, GENEVA. 

The school of industrial arts in Geneva more nearly approaches 
a trade 'school than the preceding. It is a cantonal institution sub- 
sidized by the federal government. The following are the subjects 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 669 

tanglit, and the attendance during the schohistic year ending July 

4,1891: 

Pupils. 

Class in figure and ornamental modelling 48 

Class in chased work, bronze, brass, plate, etc 25 

Class in sculpture in wood and stone 17 

Classes in artistic iron work : 

Day iiupils 7 

Nigbt pupils 14 

Class in wood engraving 18 

Class in ceramics, aquarelle, and composition 68 

Total 197 

Eighteen lectures on architecture, particularly Egyptian and Greek, 
were delivered during the year before all the classes. 

Instruction is gratuitous. Pupils are in two categories — regular pupils 
and those taking only certain hours. The regular pupils must be at 
least 14 years of age, and must attend at the same time the Municipal 
School of Art, the hours being apportioned between the two schools. 
Tlie irregular pupils are generally apprentices, workingmjen, or persons 
in mercantile occupations who desire to perfect themselves in certain 
lines of artistic work, but are occupied with their vocations the greater 
part of their time. These can be admitted by proving themselves com- 
petent to follow the course of instruction which they select. Studies 
are made from living models, plants, casts, and copy. A garden ad- 
joins the school for the use of the students. 

INDUSTRIAL ART SCHOOL, ZURICH. 

The Industrial Art School of Zurich educates persons of both sexes 
in such branches as are essential for the different industrial arts, more 
particularly draughtsmen, lithographers, drawing teachers, decorative 
painters, glass stainers, modellers, sculi)tors, carvers, gilders, potters, 
cabinetmakers, silversmiths, goldsmiths, etc. Below are given the sub- 
jects taught, the number of hours per week, and the attendance during 
the year ending April 1890 : 

COUUSE OF STUDY AND ATTENDANCE- 



Subject. 



Ornaineiital drawing 

Drawing fiowers and plants 

Object drawing 

Drawing the liuman head 

Posture drawing - 

Decorative painting 

Architectural drawing and exercises in composition. 

Painting on china 

Ornamental compositions 

Modelling 

Wood carving 

Styles 



Geometrical drawing 

Perspective 

Perspective free-Land drawing . . . . 

Method 

Technical drawing in worlishops . 
Carpenter workshops 



Summer half-year, 
1889. 



Pupils 



Hours. 



Winter half-year, 

1889-'90. 



Pupils. Hours. 



570 



REPOET Oli^ THE COZviMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



Tlie tuition is 30 francs ($5.79) x>er six months. An admission fee 
of 5 francs (97 cents) is paid in addition. Pupils must be at least 15 
years of age, and must have sufficient x>i'evious education to be able 
to follow the classes. They are put on probation for a limited time. 
Pupils are divided into two categories — those who attend regularly and 
study for some profession and those who attend only a few hours per 
day or week an€l devote their time to some other vocation. The former 
must attend two years, as a rule, in order to graduate. Those attend- 
ing the carpenter workshops serve an apprenticeship of three years. 
An extensive industrial museum, a library, and a reading room are at 
the disposal of pupils. 

DRAWING SCHOOL FOR TRADES AND INDUSTRIES, SAINT GALL. 

The Drawing School for Trades and Industries at Saint Gall teaches 
the various branches of drawing and modelling, but devotes special 
attention to embroidery designing and pattern enlarging, this being 
the prevailing industry in the vicinity. Pupils attend either regularly 
or by the hour. The classes during the year ending May 1891 were 
formed as follows: 

CLASSES AKD ATTENDANCE. 



Class. 



Attendance. 



Eirst three Second tliree Third three 
months. months. months. 



Eree-hand drawing 

Perspective . - 

Modelling 

Object drawing, 

Technical drawing 

Pattern enlarging 

Styles 

Drawin g from nature 

Pattern drawing (embroidery) . 
Drawing for weaving industry. 
Machine embroidery 



28 



20 



The i3upils studied for the following occupations: 

Pupils. 

Designers of patterns 51 

Enlargers of embroidery patterns 23 

Drauglitsmen 17 

Various trades 11 

Mercliants and manufacturers 10 

Amateurs , 2-0 

There were in all 135 pupils at the school during the year. Of these 
25 were female pupils, 12 had free scholarships, and 2 had stipends. 
One hundred and four attended the full time and 31 attended by the 
hour. 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 571 

The class in iiiacliine embroidery was recently inaugurated, but 
promises to be an important feature of the school. The course of in- 
struction for regular pupils is intended to cover three and one-half 
years. Certificates of graduation are not issued unless pupils have 
attended the full time. Fulfils must be at least 15 years of age, and 
are put on one to two months' probation before being considered regu- 
lar pupils. 

Besides the above i^rofessional branches of drawing the school has 
also two other divisions — the school for amateurs and the women's in- 
dustrial school. The former had, during the same period as above, the 
following classes for young ladies: E^eedlework, 20 pupils; i)aintiDg 
and drawing, IG pupils 3 study of styles and history of art, 8 puj^ils. 

The women's industrial school comprised the following classes; For 
teachers of needlework, 10 pupils; course in hand sewing and mend- 
ing, 15 Tjupils; machine sewing, 22 pupils; dressmaking, 14 x)npils; 
method, 15 pupils; pedagogics, 20 pupils; classes in. ironing, 37 x>upils. 

The other schools of industrial arts do not differ materially from 
the four described, and it is not necessary to describe them in detail. 

msTrruTioisrs foe the edugatio:^ of woekikg people. 

These are the most extensive technical institutions in S^vitzerland. 
They aim to give to workingmen and women opi)ortunities for devoting 
their leisure time to the study of free-hand and technical drawing, 
needlework, bookkeeping, and such other branches as serve to elevate 
working people both i)rofessionally and socially. 

The first school of this kind was founded in Switzerland in the be- 
ginning of the i)resent century at Zurich, by a private society. It was 
a drawlDg school for apprentices. From 1820 to 1830 schools were 
established at Aarau, Baden, and Zug on a similar -plan', from 1840 
to 1850 nine more were established; and from 1850 to 1865 seventy- 
eight more were organized. From that time to the present these even- 
ing and Sunday industrial schools increased very rapidly in number. 

In 1889, according to statistics collected by M. Grob, secretary of 
public instruction at Zurich, there were 1,184 of these schools in Switzer- 
land, in 743 of which the attendance of apprentices was obligatory and 
in 441 it was optional. The former were attended by 12,250 male 
pupils and the latter by 12,289 male and 2,177 female pupils — making 
a total attendance in 1889 of 26,71G persons. Most of these are simply 
diavriijg schools, while the others teach quite a variety of additional 
useful subjects. 



572 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



The following list of subjects tauglit in 87 of tlie principal schools of 
this kind during 1890 will give an idea of the various subjects treated: 

SUEJECTS TAUGHT IN INSTITUTI0:N^S TOE THE EDUCATION OF WORKING PEOPLE. 
[The list "was prepared by Eev. J". Cliristinger, national inspector of higli schools, Switzerland.] 



Subject. 



Per cent. 



Drawing (free-hand, technical, geometrical, etc.)... 

Modelling (in clay, gj'psimi, or wood) 

Architecture (theoretical) 

Geometry 

Bookkeepiug 

Penmanship or calligraphy 

Physics 

Chemistry 

Hygiene 

Technology 

Native language (composition, business forms, etc.) 

French, German, or Italian— not native 

English language 

History of native country 

Political and social economy 

Housekeeping, needlework, etc., for women 

Stenography 

Eeligion 

Gymnastics 



lOD. 00 

29.89 

12.64 

51.72 

48.28 

13.79 

9.20 

3.45 

2.30 

1.15 

35.63 

21.84 

2.30 

21.84 

1.15 

1.15 

2.30 

1.15 

1.15 



The 87 schools included in the above statistics obtain subsidies from 
the federal government. The instruction at these schools is mostly 
gratuitous, and is given in the evenings and on Sundays. The sup- 
port originally came from private individuals, trade guilds, and from 
societies for the advancement of public utility. Later most of them 
became municipal and cantonal institutions, and since the adoption of 
the federal resolution in 1884, granting subsidies to professional and 
industrial institutions of learning, a number have availed themselves 
of this assistance. 

Following is a description in detail of a number of the most impor- 
tant of these institutions : 



INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, RIBSBACH. 

This school was founded in 1879. It is supported by national subsi- 
dies, public school funds, tuitions, and the local trade guild. The income 
in 1889 was — national subsidy, 1,200 francs ($231.60), other contribu- 
tions, 3,190 francs ($615.67), expenses, 4,387.04 francs ($846.70); both 
sexes are eligible. The tuition is 2 francs (39 cents) for six months. 
Copy books and drawing x)aper are gratuitous. The school is admin- 
istered by a committee of the local trade guild and a representative of 
the district school board. The faculty consists of 12 teachers. The 
attendance was 195, of whom 73 were over 18 years of age. Instruc- 



tion is given all the year, 
to each are as follows : 



The courses of study and the hours devoted 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 573 

Sunday moruings: Hours. 

Free-hand drawing 3 

Geometrical drawing 3 

Persj)ective drawing 3 

Macliinery drawing 3 

Architect iiral and furniture drawing 3 

"Week day evenings : 

Modelling in clay 4 

German language (native) 3 

Arithmetic — 

First class 2 

Second class 2 

Bookkeeping 2 

Penmanship 2 

French language — 

First class : 3 

Second class 4 

Week days : 

Course in cutting for ladies' tailors 6 to 7 

SCHOOL FOR PROFESSIONAL IMPROVEMENT, WINTBRTHUR. 

This school was founded in 1862. It is supported by national sub- 
sidies, the local society for the advancement of public utility, the can- 
ton, and by tuitions. Tuition is 2 francs (39 cents) for six months. The 
government is by a mixed board, consisting of delegates from the 
school board, trade guilds and industrial societies, and the Techni- 
kum. The faculty in the summer of 1890 consisted of 10 teachers; in 
the ^Yinter of 1890-'91, 17 teachers. The attendance during the year 
1890-'91 was 313 pupils. Instruction is given all the year. Following 
are the classes and hours of each : 

Summer, 1890. 
Sundays : Hours. 

Free-hand drawing 3^ 

Linear drawing 2^ 

Sketching — 

First class 2^ 

Second class ^ 2J 

Mechanical technical drawing — 

First class 2| 

Second class 2-J 

Technical drawing for carpenters and builders 2^ 

Week day evenings : 

Modelling and wood carving 3 

Measurement of surfaces and bodies 1^ 

Penmanship 1 

Winter, 1890-'91. 
Sundays : 

Free-hand drawing 21 

Linear drawing 2^ 

Sketching — 

First class 2^ 

Second class 24 



574 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. 

Sundays — concluded. 

Mcclianical teclinical drawing — Hours. 

First class 2| 

Second class ^ 2^ 

Teclinical drawing for builders — 

First class 2^ 

Second class ^ 2^ 

Week day evenings : 

Free-hand drawing 2 

Modelling and wood carving 3 

History „ 1 

Commercial aritlimetic 3 

Bookkeeping 14 

Elements of mechanics J^ 

Perspective 1| 

Business forms li 

French language (foreign) 4 

WCRKINGMEN'S SCHOOL, BERN. 

This scliool was founded hi 1829. It is a private institution sub- 
sidized by the federal gOYernment. The tuition for the winter half- 
year is 6 francs (81.1G) -, for the summer half-year, 4 francs (77 cents). It 
is governed by 13 directors and 1 school board inspector. The faculty 
consists of 19 teachers. The attendance was 291 pupils, of whom 217 
were over 18 years of age. Instruction is given during the entire year. 
Following is the programme of instruction: 

Week day evenings : 

Ornamental drawing — Hours. 

Preliminary 44^ 

From casts 4.} 

Architecture, theoretical 3 

Technical drawing (one and one-half hours Sundays) 4^ 

Modelling 3 

Technical drawing, preliminary — 

First class 4^ 

Second class 4^ 

Technical drawing, architectural (one and one-half hours Sundays) 9 

Study of building and construction work (one and one-half hours Sundays) . 1^ 

Drawing from small iron models (one and one-half hours Sundays) 7^ 

Drawing from large iron models (one and one-half hours Sundays) 7^ 

Constructive models in wood 4.} 

Drawing for gardeners (one and one-half hours Sundays, in winter only) ... 1| 
Bookkeeping, arithmetic, and business forms — 

First class (one and one-half hours Sundays, in winter only) 3 

Second class (one and one-half hours Sundays, in winter only) 3 

Third class (one and one-half hours Sundays, in winter only) 3 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, ZURICH. 

This school was founded in 1873. It is supported by a special society, 
and subsidized by the city, canton, and federal government. Its income 
in 1889 was — national subsidies, 5,700 francs ($1,100.10), other contri- 
butions, 11,733 francs ($2,204.47). Total expenses, 23,688.35 francs 
($4,571.85). It is governed by a committee of the special society. The 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 575 

Aiciilty consists of 23 teacliers. Tlie attendance was 451 pupils, of 
wbom 151 were over 18 years of age. Following are tlie courses of in- 
struction and liours for each class : 

Week day eveuings : Hours. 

Free-liiind drawing 4 

Free-hand persx^ective drawing 2 

Modelling 4 

Aiitlimetic for apprentices 1^ 

Arithmetic for workingmen — 

First class 14- 

Second class I4. 

Geometry 1| 

Geometrical drawing 2 

Penmanshii^ , 3 

Calligraphy (engrossing) u 

Business forms — 

First class 1^ 

Second class 1 j 

Single entry bookkeeping 2 

History and constitution of Switzerland 2 

Technical drawing, etc., for shoemakers 2 

Technical drawing, etc., for tailors 4 

French language — 

First class 3 

Second class 3 

Third class. 3 

Sunday mornings: 

Technical drawing for paper hangers and upholsterers 3 

Technical drawing for masons and stonecntters 3 

Technical drawing for carpenters and builders 3 

Technical drawing for cabinetmakers 3 

Technical drawing for mechanics — 

First class 3 

Second class 3 

Technical drawing for locksmiths 3 

Technical drawing for tinners 3 

SCHOOL FOR PROFESSIONAL IMPROVEMENT, SAINT GALL. 

This institution was founded in 1860. It is supported by the com- 
munity and by national subsidies. Its income for the year 1890-'91 
^as — 1,995 francs (8385.04) from the federal government, 2,000 francs 
(.$3SG) from the local school board, 2^100 francs ($163.20) from the can- 
tonal government, and 2,300 francs ($143.90) from the board of trade. 
The tuition is — for the summer half-year, 4 francs (77 cents) and 1 franc 
(19 cents) for materials ; for the winter half-year, 6 francs (81.16) and 2 
francs (39 cents) for materials. The courses of instruction during the 
year 1890-'91 and hours per week for each class were as follows : 

Sunday mornings : 

Elementary free-hand drawing — Hours. 

First class 4 

Second clasa- ^ 4 

Sketching from nature -i 

Geometrical drawing 4 



576 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Week day evenings : 

Projection drawing — Hours. 

First class ^ 3 

Second class 3 

Sunday mornings : 

Architectural drawing — 

First class • .^ 4 

.Second class 4 

Machinery drawing — 

First class 4 

Second class 4 

Week day evenings : 

Free modelling 6 

Constructive modelling 6 

German language (native) 3 

Arithmetic and bookkeeping — 

First class 2 

Second class - 2 

Third class 2 

Fourth class 2 

Penmanship — 

First class 2 

Second class 2 

Geometry — 

First class 2 

Second class 2 

Physics 3 

History and constitation of Switzerland 3 

PROFESSIONAL ACADEMT, GENEVA. 

The division for men was founded in 1883. It is supported by the 
city and by national subsidies. The expenditures in 1889 were 12,350.45 
francs (82^383.64), of wMch 2,909 francs ($581.44) were from the federal 
governiQent. It is governed by the city school board. The tuition is 1 
franc (19 cents) per course. The faculty consists of 10 teachers. The 
attendance at the end of the year 1889 was 232 pupils, of whom 200 
were over 18 years of age. Instruction is given from October 15 to 
April 31. Following are the courses of instruction and hours per week 
for each class : 
Week day evenings : 

Free-hand drawing — "- Hours. 

First class 1| 

Second class 1^ 

Technical drawing for mechanics (two lessons) 4 

Technical drawing for locksmiths (two lessons) : 4 

Technical drawing for cahinetmakers (two lessons) 4 

Practical course for upholsterers (two lessons) 3 

Practical course in furniture ornamenting (two lessons) 4 

Practical course for tailors (two lessons) 4 

Practical course for shoemakers (four lessons) 8 

Chemistry . 2 

Penmanship (two lessons) 2 

Bookkeeping (two lessons) 4 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 577 

Tlie division for women was founded in 1885. It is sni)ported in tlie 
same manner as the division for men. The expenditures are included 
in tlie amounts shown for that division. A special committee of man- 
agement is appointed by the city. The attendance in 1889 was 459 
pupils, of whom 216 were over 18 years of age. The instruction com- 
l)rises two courses — one from September 1 to December 1, the other 
from January 15 to April 15. Tuition is 1 franc (19 cents) per course. 
The courses of study are given on week day evenings and comprise: 
Cutting ladies' garments, cutting children's garments, cutting 1 hi ens, 
machine sewing, each branch two lessons of one and one-half hours 
each; embroidery designing, one lesson of one and one-half hours 5 dry 
cleaning and ironing, two lessons of three hours each; calligraphy and 
bookkeeping, two lessons of one and one-half hours each. 

The federal government, by virtue of the resolution of the Swiss 
congress, adopted in 1884, expended during the year 1890 the sum of 
57,997 francs ($11,193.42) in subsidies for these institutions for the 
further development of the working i^eople. 

THE TEOHMKUM, WINTEETHUE. 

This school, founded in 1873 as a cantonal institution, fits young men 
for such positions as come between those of ordinary tradesmen and 
the higher professions. 

It contains six distinct divisions, as follows : A school for builders, a 
school for mechanical and electrical engineers, a school of industrial 
chemistry, a school of industrial arts, a school for surveyors, and a mer- 
cantile school. 

The school for builders aims to render the pupils comi3etent to exe- 
cute designs and mathematical calculations for all kinds of construction 
work, to superintend the latter, and to thoroughly understand the 
work incident to the building trades of masonry, carpentry, and stone 
cutting. It seeks to educate the pupils to a proper understanding of 
architecture and its relation to the work of building and constructing, 
and in general to fit them for the professions of architect and builder, 
and construction engineer. 

C0UI13E OF rN"STRUCTIOX LN" THE SCHOOL EOR BUILDERS, WIXTERTHUR. 



Subject. 



First half -year. 

Algebra 

Arithmetic 

Chemistry 

Drawing, free-hand 

Drawing, linear 

Geometry, stereometric 

German language 

Physics 

Total 

S. Ex. 65 37 



Hours 

per week. 



31 



Subject. 



Second half-year. 

Algebra 

Chemistry 

Drawing* architectural 

Drawing, geometrical 

Drawing, ornamental 

Geometry, stereometric 

German language 

Pnysics 

Science of building 

Science of construction 

Trigonometry 

Total 



Hours 
per week. 



578 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



COUPvSE OF IXSTEUCTIOl^" IN" THE SCHOOL EOH BinXDEES, "WINTEETHUPv-Conclucled. 



Subject. 


Hours 
per week. 


Subject. 


Hours 
per week. 


Third half-year. 
Drawin"", architectnrnl 


9 

4 
5 

i 
I 


Fourth 7iaZ/-?/sar— concluded. 
Science of construction 


7 






9. 


DraAving, ornaraeiital 


Study of building materials ! 2 


3iIatliL'aiLitics 


perintending, etc. 

Total 

Fifth half-year. 

-A.rcbitectural desifnin"* 


■^ 


!Miiieralo""y .. .... 


39 


Modellin"" ornanieiilal 




'i 


Sciem^e of construction 






Total 


39 


Bookkeeiiing 2 




Fourth half-year. 


a 

8 


Drawin "", perspective 


9 
i 

3 
1 
4 
1 

4 


CalciilatiEg cost of production 

Drawing, architectural 

Dra"wiTig ornamental ... ..... 


Heating and ventilation 

Modelling, ornamental 

Plumbing and liuhtiug 

Science of construction 

Study of building laws 

Study of eartiiwork and road con- 
struction. 

Total 


Making models for construction work. . 
Meclianics as applied to building 




41 





The scliool for meclianical and electrical engineers aims to perfect 
pupils for the positions of meclianical and electrical engineers, skilled 
mechanics, and foremen of machine shops. Pupils are taught to thor- 
oughlj^ understand the construction of machinery and such branches 
of theoretical work as are necessary to make them sui)erior in technical 
knovdedge to ordinary mechanics. It also offers opportunities to man- 
ufacturers for learning to understand and judge the mechanisms of 
machinery and engines. Special courses are given to persons inter- 
ested in spinning and weaving. Persons desiring to become electrical 
engineers follow the same course as the others during the first three 
half-years 5 during the fourth and fifth half-years they take a special 
course. 

COTJPvSE OF IXSTRHCTrOIs^ TS THE SCHOOL FOR MECHANICAL E:!s^GLN"EEPvS, 

Wlis'TEPTHUP. 



Subject. 



First half-year. 
(Same as in school for builders.) 

Second, half-year. 

Algebra .~ 

Chemistry 

Drawing," free-hand 

Drawing, geometrical 

Drawing, mechanical technical 

Geometry 

German language 

Physics 

Total 

Third half-ym.r. 

Algebra 

Drawing, geometrical 

Drawing, mechanical technical 

Geometry 

Mechanics 

Science of construction 

Strength and resistance of materials 
Physics 

Total 



Hours 
per week. 



32 



Subject. 



Fourth half-year. 

Cotton spinning, optional 

Drawing, mechanical technical 

MaTheruatics 

Mechanics 

Practice in machine construction 

Science of construction 

Statics 

Technology 

Total 

Fifth half-year. 

Bookkeeping 

Calculating weight and value of ma- 
chinery. 

Cotton spinning and weaving, op- 
tional. 

Geometry, practical 

Heating systems 

Mcclianics 

Practice in machine construction 

Science of construction 

Statics 

Water power, study of 

Total 



Hours 
per week. 



40 



40 



CHAP. X. INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION IX SWITZERLAND. 579 



COUESE OF IXSTEUCTIOX IX THE SCHOOL FOE ELECTRICAL ElfGIXEEES, 

TTIXTEETHUE. 



Subject. 


Hours 
per week. 


Subject. 


Hours 
per week. 


First three half-years. 

(Same as in school for mecliaiiical 
eDf ineers.) 


2 
6 

3 
6 

4 
7 
5 
1 
2 


Fifth half-year. 


2 


Chemistry practical . ...... .. 


8 


Fourth half-year. 


1 Dra-^ing,' mechanical technical, and 
practice in construction work. 
Electrotechnical practice and work . . . 
Electrotechnics principles of ........ 


10 
8 


Dra-n-ing. mechaDical technical, espe- 


4 




4 




Total 




Electrotechnical practice and work 

Alathematics ... 


36 






^Mechanics . ...... . 








Statics 












Total 


36 





The scliool of industrial cliemistiy fits pupils for tke positions of 
practical chemists in the arts and industries. Besides giving the 
necessary theoretical instruction in chemistry it affords pui)ils oi)por- 
tunities for making special studies according to their future vocations, 
such as for bleacliers, dressers, dyers, or printers of textiles. Piix^ils 
who desire to obtain positions where a knowledge both of chemistry 
and machinery is necessary often attend this school and that for me- 
chanical engineers in succession. 

COTJESE OF IXSTEHCTIOiT FN" THE SCHOOL OF CHE:y:iSTRY, WTN-TEETHITE. 



, Subject. 


Hours 
per week. 


Subject. 


Hours 
per week. 


First half-year. 
(Same as in school for bnilders.) 


3 
3 

4 
5 

4 
2 
8 
3 

1 


Fourth half-year. 
Bookkeeping' 


2 






5 


Second half-year. 


Descriptive studies of machinery and 
instruments. 


3 
6 


Chemistry 


' Laboratory work 


16 






2 


Drawing, technical - 


1 Technoloo"y chemical 


3 




Total 




German lan'^^nao^e ...... .. .. 






Fifth half-year. 


37 


Physics 












Total 


33 








6 
3 




3 
3 i 

18 
2 
2 
3 




TJiird half-year. 


Laboratory work . .'. 


'>0 






3 


Chemistry, analytical 


Technolo''"v chemical 




Chemistry, inor'"-anic . 


Total 




Chemistry, organic 


38 


Laboratory vrork 








Physics, chemical 




Technolo<'"Y, chemical 










Total 


36 

1 









580 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



The scliool for surveyors lias for its principal object tlie eclucatioD of 
yoniig men for the profession of surveyor by teaching such branches as 
will enable them to pass the state examinations required for this pro- 
fession. With this end in view pupils have, in addition to theoretical 
work, i^ractical exercises with the level and in making surveys accord- 
ing to the regulations required by law. It also aims to, fit pupils for 
the requirements of road, street, and other simple construction work, 
drainage, irrigating canals, etc., and in fact all work which comes within 
the scope of surveying. 

COURSE OF INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOL EOR SURVEYORS, WINTEETHUR. 



Subject. 



First half-year. 

Algebra ■ 

Arithmetic 

Chemistry 

Drawingrfree-hand 

Drawiua", linear 

Geography 

Geometry 

German language 

Penmanship 

Physics 

Total 

Second half-year. 

Algebra 

Calligraphy 

CheTT-lstry 

Draughting plans 

Drawing, geometrical 

Geography 

Geometry". 

(^erman language 

Physics 

Pla^nimetry an-d stereometry^ exercises 
in. 

Total 

Third half-year. 

Algebra 

Draughting plans 

-Drawing, geometrical 

Geometry 



Hours 
per week. 



34 



32 



Subject. 



I Hours 
i per week. 



Third half-year— coTicluded. 



German language 

Mineralogy 

Physics 

Surveying 

Trigonometry and logarithms 



Total 



Fourth half-year. 



Algebra 

Building mechanics 

Draughting plans and charts 

Geometry, practical 

Mathematics 

Planimetry, stereometry, trigonome- 
try, etc., exercises in. 

Science of construction 

Study of building materials 

Trigonometry, spherical , 



Total 



Fifth half-year. 



Chemistry, agricultural 

Draughting plans and charts 

Geometry, practical 

Earth and road construction work.^. 

Hydraulics and drainage 

Irrigation, etc 

Professional calculation 

Surveying 



Total 



34 



33 



31 



The school of industrial arts aims to fit pupils for designers, teachers 
of drawing, decorators, etc. By means of practical exercises and special 
instruction it offers (in connection with the school of chemistry) 
facilities for ceramic decoration, glass staining, and reproduction work. 
It gives a good foundation to all who desire to devote themselves to an 
artistic profession. 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 581 



COURSE OF INSTRUCTIOX IN THE SCHOOL OF IXDUSTETAL ARTS, WIXTERTHUE. 



S^-Joct. |pS°-e\. 


Subject. 


Hours 
per week. 


First half-year. 


4 
3 
18 
6 
3 
6 


Third half-year— conclndeil. 
Study of Ijuilding parts 










Study of styles 








Driiwiii*'' iree-taBd. 


Total 
















German language 


Fourth half-year. 




Modelling 








Total 


40 










Second half-year. 


3 
a 17 

2 
a 10 

2 
a6 






Drawing, industrial 


ol5 




Modelling 


a5 




Study of styles 


6 




Total 




Drawin f inclustrial . .. ............ 




Gernian'^language 


42 


Modelling 


Fifth half-year. 




Total 


40 


^ 




Drawin"' fTee-tand 


a 14 


Third half-year. 


a 14 

ol2 

2 

a6 




Dra'winf, free-liaiid .................... 


Modellino- 


a6 


Drawin"" industrial .. .... 


Study of styles 


4 




Total . 




Modeliiu "■ 


11 









a Instruction raries TNith. tlie proposed future occupation of tlie pupil. 

Tlie mercantile school aims to prepare young men for mercantile 
pursuits. Special attention is tlierefore given to languages and 
matliematics, besides such other studies as are essential in a mercantile 
career. Special courses of study are given in the knowledge of goods, 
including laboratory work for such as intend to enter business requiring 
such knowledge. 

COURSE OF tIs"STRUCTIO:N' UN" THE MERCANTILE SCHOOL, WIXTERTHUR. 



Subject. 



First half-year. 

Algebra 

Aritlrmetic 

Chemistry 

English language 

Fn-nch language 

Geography 

German language 

History, especially commercial 

Italian language 

Penmanship 

Physics 

Stenography 

Total 

Second half-year. 

Algebra 

Arithmetic, commercial, and book- 
keeping. 

Calligi-aphy 

Chomistry 

English language 

French language 

Geography 

Gerinau language 

History , 

Italian language 

Phjsics . . . r 

Stenography 

Total 



Hours 
per week. 



Subject. 



34 ! 



Third half-year. 

Arithmetic, commercial, and book 
keeping. 

Arithmetic, political 

Calligraphy 

Commercial economy 

Engli sh lang-uage 

Exchange 

French language 

Geography, commercial 

German language 

Italian language 

Eaiowledge of goods 

Total 

Fourth half-year. 

Arithmetic, commercial, and book- 
keeping. 

Aritlimetic, political 

Calligrapliy 

Commercial economy 

Commercial laws ..." 

English language 

French language 

Geography, commercial 

German language 

Italian language 

Knowledge of goods 

Total 



Hours 
per week. 



32 



582 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



Two hours' instruction per week is given in gymnastic exercises to 
all who desire to take part. Lessons in foreign languages may be 
taken also by pupils of the other divisions, three hours per week in 
French, English, or Italian being given those desiring it. Foreign- 
ers not thoroughly conversant with the German language can obtain 
extra instruction during the first half-year. Pupils, of all the tech- 
nical branches are at liberty to attend classes in the commercial 
school, provided it does not interfere with their own obligatory studies. 

Special classes for i)rofessional improvement are held for persons de- 
siring to become teacliers of drawing in schools. The following is the 
course of study for such classes: Perspective, 4 hours per week; archi- 
tectural drawing, 21 hours per week^ mechanical technical drawing, 15 
hours per week. 

Classes for all divisions are formed on the third Monday in April and 
the first Monday in October. Yacations are had for two weeks before 
the April opening, seven weeks before the October oj^ening, and ten 
days at Christmas. The regular hours of session are from 8 a. m. to 
noon and from 2 to 6 p. m. In special cases instruction is given as early 
as 6 a. m. and as late as 7 p. m. 

This institution does not undertake to educate pux)ils in manual 
work further than laboratory work, experimenting, or testing. It is in- 
tended that pupils of the school for builders and mechanical engineers 
should have served an aiDprenticesliip before entering. Where they 
have not done so they may, after having completed the three years 
at the Zurich high school, serve an apprenticeship in the trade 
school for metal workers, after which they can omit the first year's 
classes upon entering the Technikum. This latter step is generally 
taken by persons desiring to become mechanical engineers. 

During the school year of 1890-'91 the faculty was composed of 
18 professors and 13 instructors, their director being also professor of 
German and English. The attendance during the same year, 1890-'91, 
was as foUows : 

ATTEXDAK^CE AT THE TECBCNTEXTM, 18a0-'91. 





Classes of summer 1890. 


Classes of winter 1890-'91. 


School for— 


First 
half- 
year. 


Third 
half- 
year. 


Eifth 
half, 
year. 


Total. 


Tran- 
sient. 


Second 
half- 
year. 


Third 
haif- 
year. 


Eonrth 
half- 
year. 


TotaL 


Tran- 
sient. 




16 
61 

8 

7 

8 

18 


4 

86 

13 

8 

5 

18 


11 
52 

8 

11 
6 


31 
199 

29 

26 
19 
36 
14 


2 
4 

2 
14 

""iso" 


1 41 

1 108 

21 

9 
10 
29 


23 


12 

70 

11 

18 

7 
16 


76 
178 

32 

27 
17 
45 


8 


Electrical and nae- 
clianical engi- 
neers. 

Industrial chem- 
istry. 

Industrial arts . . . 

Survey ors 

Commerco 

Special courses 


6 

2 
24 

124 




















Total 


118 


134 


88 


351 


172 


218 


23 


134 


375 


104 



Total attendance in summer, 526; in winter, 539. During the sum- 
mer season 1890, 28 pupils had free scholarships with stipends amount- 



CHAP. X. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 583 

ing to 2,070 fraucs ($399.51), 17 liacl free scliolaTsliips witboiit stipends, 
and 7 transient pupils Iiad free admission. Daring the winter season, 
1890-'91, 30 pnpils liad free scholarships with stipends amounting to 
2,310 francs ($44:5.83), 21 had free scholarships without stipends, and 7 
transient pupils had free admission. 

]!:»J^early all graduates of this institution now hold positions of impor- 
tance in establishments, or are themselves proprietors. It sometimes 
happens that for positions of directors of manufacturing establishments 
and similar positions graduates compete successfully with those of 
higher technical institutions, such as the polytechnic school at Zurich, 
or of universities. Pupils who graduate from the Technikum have not 
as thorough a scientific training as those from the higher technical insti- 
tutions, but as they are enabled to begin practical work earlier they 
have the advantage of practice by the time they reach the age required 
for graduating from the higher schools. They are satisfied with lower 
positions at the beginning, but advance rai)idly. Following is a list of 
the present occupations of those concerning whom information could 
be obtained : 

OCCaPATIOiTS OF GEADUATES OF THE TECH^'IKUM. 



OccupatioB. 



Mechanical engineers, master meclianics, etc 

Builders, contractors, superintendents of construction, etc. 

Architects 

Elecitrical engineers 

Sur^-eyors - 

Directors of manufacturing establishments 

Chemists - - 

Manufacturers (proprietors) 

Merchants 

Experts (silk, paper, and cement Trorks) 

Chemical dyers 

Foresters 

Locksmith (master) 

Millwright 

Optician 

Administrator - 

Master stonecutter 

Potter 

Lithographer 

Bleacher 

Student - 

Total 



Xumher. 



132 
62 
18 
23 

10 

25 

7 

5 

G 



334 



These are not all the graduates, but a sufficient number to give a fair 
idea of the results of the instruction at the Technikum. 

The tuition is 30 francs ($5.79) per six months for regular i)upils 
and 2 francs (39 cents) loer week for transients. Pupils in the schools 
for chemists and electrical engineers and others doing laboratory work 
pay an additional fee of 20 francs ($3.86) per six months. Pupils who 
are specially deserving may obtain free scholarships, with or without 
stipends, or they may have the tuition partially remitted. This apx)lies, 
as a rule, only to citizens of canton Zurich. 

Applications for admission to the institution are made in vrriting to 
the director, stating which school the applicant desires to attend. Ap- 



584 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

plications must be accomiDanied by the certificate of birth of the appli- 
cant, the written consent of his parents or guardians (in the case of 
minors only), his certificate of education, his certificate of practical 
experience, and a certificate of moral character from the last teacher 
or from the civil authorities of his place of residence. The institu- 
tion admits regular and transient pupils. The regular pupils are 
obliged, as a rule, to attend all the classes prescribed by the pro- 
gramme of the school which they enter. The transients attend only 
certain classes. Pupils entering the lowest class must be at least 15 
years of age. Those entering higher classes must be correspondingly 
older. Examinations for admission comprise German composition, 
arithmetic, including percentage and interest, algebra, including simple 
equations with one unl^nown quantity, plane geometry, and elements of 
stereometry. For pupils entering the mercantile school a knowledge 
of French verbs and simple translation fi?om French into German is 
required in addition, and for the other schools a knowledge of elemen- 
tary free-hand and geometrical drawing is necessary. 

Applicants appear for examination at 8 a. m. on the first day of the 
opening of the school in April and October. They are. either accepted 
at once or put on three months' probation, after which they are rejected 
if found incompetent. Transient pupils must also pass examinations 
upon entering to i)rove themselves competent to follow the course of 
instruction. 

THE POLYTEOHOTO SCHOOL, ZUEIOH. 

This school was founded in 1854 as a federal institution. It aims to 
fit young men for the higher technical professions, and includes the 
following departments : A school of architecture, course, three and a 
half years j a school of civil engineering, course, three and a half years; 
a mechanical technical school, course, three and a half years j a chemi- 
cal technical school, comprising two divisions — a school for industrial 
chemists, the course comprising three years, and a school for pharma- 
cists, two years ; a school of agriculture and forestry, comprising three 
divisions — a school of forestry, course, three years, a school of agri- 
culture, two and a half years, and a school of agricultural engineering, 
three and a half years; a school for special teachers of mathematics 
and natural sciences, comprising two divisions — the division for mathe- 
matics and the division for natural sciences, the time varying accord- 
ing to the special studies of the students (the normal time for the former 
division is four years and for the latter three years) ; a division for 
general philosophical and political subjects, comprising, first — mathe- 
matical, scientific, and technical lectures, partially to suijplement the 
courses of the other schools, second — philosophical and political lec- 
tures, third — military science. 

The faculty consists of 63 professors, 36 lecturers, and 13 assistants. 



CHAP. X. — INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 585 

During the scholastic year ending March 21, 1891, the attendance 
was as follows : 



ATTENDANCE AT THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL, 1890-'91. 



Department. 


Swiss. 


Eoreigners. 


Total. 




19 
58 
77 
54 
16 
28 
2 
25 


15 

105 

103 

93 

3 

13 

2 

9 


34 


School of civil eu "inceriii "" ... .... . 


1G3 




18C 


Clioniical tccliiiicrtl scliool 


147 




19 


S'^hool of ciTicultnre 


41 


School of aTiculturcil ensrineerinsr ...... ...... ... 


4 




34 








279 


343 


622 







The number of transient students, such as attended only certain 
classes or lectures, was 339, making the grand total attendance for the 
year 961 students. 

The tuition during the year 1890-'91 was 100 francs ($19.30). In 
addition to this 5 francs (97 cents) are paid for registry, 5 francs (97 
cents) for the sick fund, and 5 francs (97 cents) for the use of the 
library and reading rooms. For attending lectures not included in the 
course of instruction a fee of 5 francs (97 cents) per six months is 
required for each series. For laboratory or workshop attendance an 
extra fee of 50 francs ($9.65) in winter and 45 francs ($8.69) in summer 
is charged every six nionths for the analytical and the chemical tech- 
nical laboratory^ a fee of 40 francs ($7.72) in winter and 35 francs 
($6.76) in summer for the agricultural chemical laboratory; 20 francs 
($3.86) for the chemical laboratory for mechauics ; 10 francs ($1.93) for 
the metal workshops; 5 francs (97 cents) for the modelling workshops; 
40 francs ($7.72) for 6 hours per week, 60 francs ($11.58) for 12 to 16 
hours per week, and 80 francs ($15.44) for daily use of the physical 
laboratory; 15 francs ($2.90) for the photographic laboratory; and 10 
to 20 francs ($1.93 to $3.88) for the zoological laboratory. For the 
daily use of the different chemical laboratories (for advanced pupils) 
the fee is 60 francs ($11.58) per six months. 

The examinations for admission to the polytechnic school take place 
annually iu October. The nature of the examination is similar to 
that required for persons entering a university. The applicant must 
present — a written application giving name and address, the occu- 
pation he desires to follow, and the particular school and class he 
wishes to enter; written permission from parents or guardian, and 
address of the same; a certificate showing the age of the appli- 
cant to be at least 18 years ; a satisfactory certiiicate of moral char- 
acter from the school or civil authorities of the place from which he 
comes; certificate showing the studies and practical work already 
performed by the applicant; a travelling pass or certificate of residence. 

The board of trustees is api)ointed by the federal governmeDt. The 



586 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

meetings arelield as a rule in Znrieli, where tlie president of tlie board 
resides. This board is appointed for five years and consists of tlie pres- 
ident and six members. The i^rincipal of the school attends the meet- 
ings and has a voice in the deliberations. The federal council has su- 
perior authority in the direction and government of the school. 

The school possesses a library and a collection of art works and casts 
of figures and architectural ornaments for the different branches of art 
study J a collection of building materials and models of constructions j 
a collection of patterns for machinery 5 a collection of instruments for 
geometrical measurement^ a collection of tools and materials for me- 
chanical technical instruction; a collection of models and materials for 
chemical, technological, and pharmaceutical instruction; a collection 
of necessary apx^aratus, models, tools, machinery, implements, and seeds 
for the instruction in forestry and agriculture; a zoological, botanical, 
mineralogical, geological, and paleontological collection ; an entomolog- 
ical collection ; an archtcological collection and a collection of antique 
vases; a collection of copper i)lates; a workshop for modelling in clay 
and gjT)Sum; a shop for wood work; a shop for metal work; a chemical 
laboratory for analytical work; a chemical laboratory for technical and 
pharmaceutical work; a chemical laboratory for agricultural and for- 
estry work; a physical laboratory for x)lant studies; a physical cabinet 
with laboratory; an astronomical observatory; a botanical garden; a 
special botanical garden for the study of agriculture and forestry; for- 
ests, fields, <iollections, and libraries belonging to the city and canton 
of Zurich and placed by contract at the disposal of the polytechnic 
school. 



CHAPTEE XI. 



THE KINDERGARTEiN IN RELATION TO MANUAL 

TRAINING. 



5S7 



CHAPTER XI. 

THE KINDERGARTEN IN RELATION TO MANUAL TRAINING. 

The clianges in tlie plans of tlie Dei)artment, as noted in tlie letter 
of transmittal, have prevented the collection of material on any very 
extended scale relative to the progressive educational work starting 
with the kindergarten and closing with the higher grades of grammar 
schools. The importance of consecutive and persistent training in any 
particular direction, especially as contemplated under any manual 
training course^ is recognized by all educators, but, unfortunately, 
theories on this subject are too often in the nature of abstractions, 
deriving but little support from practical experience ; and it is to be 
rea'retted that the results of such exi^erience could not have been 
obtained from a greater variety of sources in order that views and 
theories, now based chiefly on hypothesis and assumption, might be 
verified or corrected by a wider induction. 

Under existing circumstances, however, a few prominent illustrations 
must suffice. The first of these relates to the experiments in the pub- 
lic schools of Mont Olair, New Jersey. The following statement is from 
Dr. Eandall Si)aulding, superintendent of the public schools of Mont 
Olair: 

THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF MONT CLAIR, NEW JERSEY. 

The training furnished in these schools aims to produce an all-sided 
development; to furnish oi^port unities and stimidi suitable to all 
stages of child life from the nursery to the college. It is ou?^ aim to 
l^roduce, not the mere mechanical power that comes from physical 
exercises, not the mere automatic x^oAver of an intellect that concerns 
itself with conventional knowledge alone, but rather that living power 
that uses the body and mind as instruments in the service of morally 
elevated sentiments and ideals. To eflect this all the faculties must 
receive due attention, must be trained to act together harmoniously. 

We begin with the kindergarten. The kindergarten is the transition 
stage from the nursery to the more conventional work of the primary 
school. If now we are able to organize the work of the kindergarten 
on sound principles that recognize the peculiar nature of the child, why 
can we not successfully meet the wants of a later age? Principles that 
are applicable to one age should be applicable to all ages, only with 
changed appliances. In the schools above referred to it lias been the 
aim, however imperfectly realized, to base the work of all grades upon 
the educational principles of the earliest stage. We must, therefore, 
first briefly answer the question; What does the kindergarten do? 

589 



590 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

(1) The work is carefulfy graded to suit the growing capacity of the 
child. In the first gift the simx)lest objects are given to the child, the 
colored balls. He detects resemblances between these and other objects 
that come within the range of his experience, and so acquires clear- 
ness of ideas. The qualities that he discerns are few and simple. In 
the second gift he receives the hard polished sphere, the cube, and tlie 
intermediate form of the cylinder. Kow he observes faces, curved and 
plane; differences in form and surfaces. He is now concerned more 
than formerly Avith qualities of things, and receives ideas that are not 
only clear but distinct. Into the third gift enter the ideas of number 
and use, while into the three succeeding gifts enter xjrogressively new 
distinctions of form, color, and use. The faculties of invention and 
taste are exercised. In succeeding gifts surfaces, straight lines of 
equal and unequal length, curved and variable lines, together with a 
multitude of applications and illustrations in designing, weaving, plait- 
ing, etc., are studied. The whole is, in short, jorogressive at every stage. 

(2) The child's impulse to bodily activity is gratified. If this im- 
pulse is repressed, as is too often the case in our schools, an activity 
that is abnormal and illegitimate will be forced upon the child. More- 
over, bodily activity not only relieves nervous tension^ strengthens the 
muscles, and so conserves the physical health, but it is itself expres- 
sive of thought and feeling, and is, therefore, carefully noted by the 
skilful kindergartner. 

(3) The kindergarten develops the child on his social or moral side. 
He learns that what is customary in the mutual relations of right 
thinking i)eople is right. Through the games and through coopera- 
tive and associated work he learns that without kindness, justice, 
and truthfulness, social life is neither comfortable nor for any extended 
time even possible. This social develoi)ment is one of the highest 
functions of kindergarten work, and generally distinguishes the gen- 
uine from the sni)erficial kindergarten. 

(4) The nature lessons of the kindergarten teach rcTerence for life. 
The biologist is the most tender hearted of mem Contact and study 
breed respect for the beautiful and wonderful forms of organic life. 

(5) The kindergarten makes prominent use of that combined bodily 
and mental activity that we may call physio-psychological. Its aim is 
to coordinate the muscles with the will, expressing itself throngh the 
motor nerves. The mind habitually conceives more than its physical 
instruments can execute. The kindergarten seeks to coordinate the 
physical with the mental. To this end the hand and the eye are con- 
stantly trained together in the expression of thought. Much of the 
world's profoundest thought has been expressed through construction. 
With children construction leads most easily and naturally to expres- 
sion through language. 

In exx)laining how kindergarten principles are recognized in the 
Mont Clair schools I shall merely allude to the first four points, and 
speak more at length of the fifth,- because, first, recognition of the last 
named i)rin civile involves to a greater or less extent a recognition of the 
others J and second, the above mentioned schools, if indeed they are 
distinguished at all from the great majority of schools, are distinguished 
by the attempt to carry through all grades the element of manual 
training that is begun in the kindergarten. 

(1) In grading the schools the fact is recognized that the simplest 
principles of any subject maybe as i^rofitably taught to young children 
as advanced x)rinciples to the more mature. For instance, a child who 
has mastered a few simple numbers may well be taught the simplest 



CHAP. XI. — -THE KINDERGARTEN AND MANUAL TRAINING. 591 

facts of coini:>ound numbers and percentage. By this metliod tlie lines 
of separation between grades are less distinct and impassable. Elas- 
ticity is gained and bright children may pass on more rapidly. 

(2) The impulse to bodily activity is gratified to a certain extent by 
physical exercise. But the attemi^t is made to impress this impulse to 
other im])ortant uses besides the mere relief from nervous tension, as 
will be subsequently explained. 

(3) Moral training is effected less through precept than through 
the example and personality of the teacher. To utilize opportunities 
such as are almost daily presented requires, on the part of the teacher, 
the highest tact and the keenest moral i)ercei3tion. The selection of 
teachers is, tlierefore, regarded as the most important function of the 
trustees and superintendent. 

(4) Kespect for life is inculcated by its continual study, during the 
first year, in domestic animals and in insects; also in plants. This 
observation and study of the different classes of animal life, with con- 
stant comparison of organs and functions, is carried through six years 
of school life, and is again resumed in a more scientific form in the 
ninth and tenth yea,rs. In order to secure the end sought the curiosity 
must be aroused, and ther« must be observation and contact with a^ctual 
specimens, living or dead. 

(5) An attempt is made to extend through nine years of school life 
that, to many peoj)le, most prominent feature of kindergarten work 
by wiiich the senses of sight and touch and muscular control are 
coordinated with the mental action expressed through the will. This 
atten^pt is made in view of the fact that, without the harmonious devel- 
opment of the mental and physical powers before the age of 15 or 16, 
certain brain tracts become T)ermanently sterilized. 

In the first year, after the children have received the kindergarten 
gifts, they handle and observe the sphere, cube, cylinder, square, trian- 
gle, prism, and hemisphere; study their surfaces, faces, edges, and cor- 
ners; construct faces and form new designs wdth tablets and sticks; 
draw the faces and invent borders; and fold corners with paper. All 
these -solid forms and many objects based ui)on them are modelled in 
clay. 

In the second ye?cr the square and triangular i)rism, hemisphere, 
ellipsoid, ovoid, cone, pyramid, and vase are modelled in clay; also many 
objects based ui)on them. Leaves are modelled in the study of the 
ellipse and oval. The children learn and illustrate the terms, oblong, 
diameter, diagonal, centre, angle, triangle, circle, ellipse, oval, base, 
apex, parallel, perpendicular, bisect, etc., by drawing and by folding- 
paper. The imi)alse to invent is gratified through the mat "weaving and 
paper folding in squares, triangles, and circles. 

In the third year a considerable number of the more complicated 
geometrical plane forms are modelled in clay. Paper folding is con- 
tinued in connection with original designs in pencil shading. Designs, 
based upon simple forms, are constructed through paper cutting. The 
construction of borders by the repetition of figures is introduced. 
Drawing of objects placed on a level with the eye is begun; the apple, 
tumbler, flower iiot, etc., being used. 

In the fourth year the children learn the use of the simplest instru- 
ments of precision, the dividers and rule. By tlie use of these, together 
with scissors and paste, the children draw the patterns and cut out 
and construct hollow objects suggested by a number of forms selected 
from both art and nature. The training of this grade consists largely of 
object drawing and symmetrical arrangement in design. It is believed 



592 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

that object drawing can scarcely be begun too early, nor followed too 
persistently, botli for interest and for tbe best eye and liand train- 
ing. Every stroke of tlie pencil should add to the pupil's power of 
expressing bis mental conception. Primary colors in pale tints are 
recognized and reproduced in flat washes. 

In the fifth year the cardboard w^ork is continued. The pupils draw, 
cut out, and construct with paste or mucilage eight or nine geometric 
forms of three dimensions; also in a similar manner other objects such 
as a house, steps, cross, etc. These forms are bound and covered with 
colored paper. Knife work is also continued. Then pupils cut several 
geometric forms, and in addition such forms as the crescent, star, 
knife, and pointer 5 also a variety of leaves. About a dozen pieces of 
incipient joinery are constructed, such as the square, try-square, 
T-square, triangle, hexagon, and ladder, of which the parts are shaped 
and glued together. The drawing comj)rises object drawing from a 
variety of solid forms, and design by symmetry and repetition. Flat 
washes are laid in tones and tints of the prim.ary colors; combinations 
are also made to form secondary colors. 

In the sixth year the pupils do advanced work in clay modelling, 
using the so-called "building up" process. The clay is compacted into 
a mass the form of which approximates that of the object to be mod- 
elled 3 the parts are then cut away until the finished form remains. The 
work in modelling compiises conventional and architectural forms, 
animal forms, and studies of the human body. Eegular practice in 
drawing is continued, and comprises the drawing of both conventional 
and natural objects, projection preparatory to the making of working 
drawings, and the invention of curved and straight line designs for 
borders and surfaces. 

In the seventh year a distinction is made between the sexes. The 
boys are trained in the shop in the use of joiner's tools, passing through 
a course of some twenty carefully graded exercises in joinery. These 
exercises are planned with a view to giving the best hand training. 
The girls during this year x)ractise sewing, learning the various stitches 
and how to apply them in the making of garments. Object drawing 
is continued; working drawings are made for use in the shop; designs 
are invented with curved elements, and the backgrounds are inked in 
with the pencil brush. 

In the eighth year the boys are trained in wood carving. This course 
embraces the use of tools, plane and surface carving, diaper carving, 
horizontal and vertical lines of decoration, imjised model carving, and 
relief work. The girls during this year have a course of i)ractical les- 
sons in domestic economy, including the cooking of vegetables, soups, 
bread, meats, entrees, cake, dessert, fish, salads, cereals, eggs, etc. 
Groups of objects are drawn and shaded. Many natural objects are 
introduced, and special attention is given to leaves and flowers. 
Designs for Avood carving are made; also more elaborate designs with 
inked backgrounds. 

In the ninth year the boys are trained in the use of machine tools. 
This course includes wood turning, lathe work in metal, vise work, forg- 
ing, etc. The girls during this year receive the same training in wood 
carving that the boys received in the x)revious year. In drawing some 
eight or nine groups of solid forms are drawn and shaded with pencil. 
Drawings are also made with charcoal from casts and from natural 
objects. 

In the schools under consideration special exercises for the harmonious 
trammg of the bodily and mental powers cease with entrance into the 



CHAP. XI. THE KINDERGARTEN AND MANUAL TRAINING. 593 

liigli scliool. After the training already described special work in this 
direction, while of course desirable, would seem to be not altogether 
essential. It might, however, as an optional, be extended in more 
technical forms. 

The wotk above described is by no means set forth as an ideal course 
of studj^ It is, like all quests for improvement, an experiment; one, 
however, that has been for many years so fruitful of good results that its 
continuance is justified. The harmonious training of the bodily and men- 
tal powers develops the practical judgment, strengthens the executive 
faculties, and inculcates sympathy with that industrialism that is the 
most distinguishing characteristic of our time. 

Action ami things are both important stimuli to intelligence. The 
lack of activitj/ expended upon material objects accounts for much of 
the so-called indolence of school children. A wisely directed activity 
in the manipnlationof tools leads to increasedmental andmoral activity. 
Teachers recognize this; but the increased expense and the greater 
knowledge and enterprise that would be demanded of them stand in 
the way of the best results. 

PIJBLIO SCHOOLS OF THE DISTEIOT OF COLUJNrBIA. 

Similar in its aims and broader in its scope is the school system 
of the District of Columbia. Here manual training instruction does 
not end with the completion of the gTammar school curriculum, but 
continues as an elective study throughout the high school 'course. 

The kindergarten, however, is not yet recognized as a distinct grade 
of the Washington public schools, though its special methods and 
appliances have been api^ropriated and utilized in the lower grades of 
the primary department, so that, practically, the entire educational 
system of the city is permeated with the Froebelian idea. 

In the report to the board of trustees of public schools of the Dis- 
trict of Columbia for the year ending June 30, 1891, Superintendent 
Powell writes : 

For years many employments developed from those of the kindergar- 
ten have been a part of the school work of the primary grades. Fov 
a longer time drawing has been an important part of the work of all 
grades of school. A few years since manual training shoi)s were pro- 
vided for the training of boys of the seventh and eighth grades in the 
use of tools, and cooking schools were provided for the girls of the same 
two grades. About the same time it was decided to teach the girls 
of the lower giade schools to sew. More recently we have established 
two shops, one in the .third division and one in the fourth division, in 
which the girls of the sixth grade are taught cutting and fitting. 

Our conditions below the high schools, resulting from facts stated 
above, are presented more clearly by the following: The children of the 
first and second grades are given the employments of the kindergarten; 
the girls of the third, fourth, and fifth grades are taught sewing (one 
hour per week); some of the girls of the sixth grades are taught cut- 
ting and fitting (two hours i)er week), while the other girls of the grade 
are taught sewing (one hour per week); the girls of the seventh and 
eighth grades are taught cooking (two hours per week); the boj^s of 
the seventh and eighth grades are taught bench work (two hours per 
S. Ex. 6o 38 



594 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

week) ; tlie pupils of all grades are taught drawing (one liour and twenty- 
minutes to two and a half liours or more pev week). 

******* 

Since tlie beginning of manual training exercises in our schools, 
therefore, efforts have been made to arrange some practical lines of 
hand work that should begin in the first primary grade and lead 
sequentially to the employments of the tool laboratories of the seventh 
and eighth grades for the boys, and that it should be equally profitable 
to the girls who would be instructed in cooking when reaching the 
same grades. 

Ten teachers were employed in the cooking laboratories which were 
reported as in operation during the yearj there were 2,073 x^upils in 
attendance. Mne sewing teachers were emi)loyed to give instruction 
in the various schools ; 5,902 pupils were taught in this branch. Of the 
seventh and eighth grade pupils l,28i received instruction in the seven 
bench laboratories of the city. 

Details of the courses of study and practice in Washington schools 
(of all grades from the first to the eighth) are given in Superintendent 
Powell's report. We transcribe that portion of the report which 
describes the kindergarten occui)ations of the first and second grades 
and shows how the more advanced exercises of the manual training 
course in the upper primary schools have been evolved from kinder- 
garten principles, forming a consistent and homogeneous system of 
education, free from hiatuses and exempt from abru]3t transitions. 

Following are the details of the instruction in the first and second 
years : 

Tools and materials in the hands of the children : Clay, colored sticks, 
geometric tablets, colored i)aper, mucilage, i)encil, and blank tablets for 
drawing. 

Clay. — Children model in clay the sphere, hemisphere, cube, square, 
prism, cyliiider, right angled triangular prism, ellipsoid, ovoid, equi- 
lateral triangular prism, cone, and pyramid, studying the forms from 
wooden models through the senses of sight and touch. 

In connection with each geometric solid modelled modifications of it 
are modelled, such as are found in fruits, vegetables, bottles, and pot- 
tery forms (apples, tomatoes, lemons, pears, nuts, bowls, tear)ots, sugar 
bowls, etc.), objects that can be brought into the school room by the 
children or by the teacher. Kearly all the objects used are so easily 
procured that every child can have a model on his desk, which he 
studies and endeavors to imitate. The number of objects the pupil 
may imitate in clay is linjited only by the time that may be given to 
the work. 

Tablets. — From, these solids the child passes to the study of i:>lanes, 
using tablets which he builds around his solids, foi^ming conceptions of 
the square, oblong, triangular, and circular planes as parts or proper- 
ties of the solids. He also uses these tablets lor inventing ornamental 
arrangements, as borders and rosettes. In coimection with these 
planes he draws the forms of objects, the essentials of which can be 
given in drawings bytherei)resentationof one plane, as fans, envelopes, 
leaves, etc. 

SticJcs. — From the planes the child passes to the study of edges, using 
sticks of different lengths for construction. He first builds aroand the 



CHAP. XI. THE KINDERGARTEN AND MANUAL TRAINING. 595 

tablets, obtaining ideas of ecls^es, tlien uses tlie sticks to gain concep- 
tions of position and direction, as vertical, horizontal, and oblique, 
parallel, and at angles. He uses them also for the division of lines by- 
matching a lo5ig stick ^ith short sticks of equal lengths, and for orna- 
mental arrangements in borders and around a centre. Such construc- 
tions are drawn full size. 

Paper. — Colored paper is next given to the child with Trhich he is 
taught to fokl all the right line geometric planes and ornamental com- 
binations of them representing borders and rosettes. 

Color. — The colors of the paper used are, in the first year, two tints 
each of normal red, yellow, and blue; in the second year two tints each 
of orange, green, and violet. These colored forms and combinations 
are exiyresseii by the child in drawings. They should be rendered by 
washes of water color. This has been done in some schools. It will 
be done in all whenever practical difficulties can be surmounted. 

In tbe study of color the children study the spectrum colors, using 
colored pai)er designed for this purr)ose, twelve colors being used — 
red, red orange, orange, yellow orange, j^ellow, yellow green, green, 
blue green, blue, blue violet, violet, red violet. They are led to arrange 
these in their true relations by taking in succession the yellow, red, 
bine, orange, green, and violet, and selecting the nearest related hues 
until they are able to arrange them in true order. They also learn to 
recognize and arrange the tints of red, yellow, blue, orange, and violet. 
They are led to look for these colors in other materials ana in nature, 
especially in the flowers and leaves that are brought into the school 
room in great abundance for use in connection with other subjects, 
number, and language. The object of this work is to cultivate the 
color sense. 

Fosition and drill. — The child is ti^ained to keep the body in right 
position for healthful activity, and is di"Hled in pencil holding and j)encil 
movements. 

Language. — In all this work special attention is given to language, 
both as a means of fixing conception and for the puri)ose of exj^ress- 
ing it. 

In the lower gTades most time and effort are given to the acquisition 
of conceptions and to the development of the power of acquiring them 
through the senses of sight and touch aided by language, and to the 
handling of nmterials. * * * Power of selection is develoiDcd and 
skill in arrangement is acquired by the grouping of forms, in the 
arrangement of tablets, sticks, and folded papers, with a definite 
thought in mind, as of making a pattern for a border or a rosette. 

The child is led out from his confused and disorderly ideas of 
arrangement to see the beauty of orderly arrangement, out from his 
crude ideas of color combinations to the beauty of harmony. 

It will be observed by reference to the course that both natural forms 
and art forms are presented to the child for study, it beino- desirable 
that neither should be presented to the exclusion of the ottier. If he 
gets his conceptions of form from nature alone he will miss the benefit 
derived from the great conceptions in architecture and decoration 
given us by masters, whereas if he studies art alone he is liable to be 
a servile imitator only. 

Following are the details of the instruction in the third and fourth 
years : 

Tools and materials in the hands of the children : Clay, colored paper, 
mucilage, pencil and blank tablets for drawing, and scissors. 



596 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. 

Clay. — The same geometric models are used in the third aud fourth 
years as in the first and second years, the sphere, hemisphere, cube, 
square prism, cylinder, triangular prism in the third year; the sphere, 
ellipsoid, ovoid, equilateral triangular prism, cone, and pyramid in the 
fourth year. The forms used for models are larger than those used by 
the children of the first and second grades, thus requiring greater judg- 
ment and more skill in construction. In the study" of both the natural 
forms and the art forms more careful observation and greater skill in 
rendering is required. For example, while in the first year the clay 
form of the apple might represent merely an apple as distinguished 
from an orange, in the fourth year it should represent the individual 
apple on the desk of the child. 

In the third year more fruit and vegetables are modelled than art 
forms; in the fourth year more art forms are made the objects imitated, 
being principally vases, pitchers, and other pottery forms. In the fourth 
year one or more objects are modelled of definite sizes, the specifications 
being given by the teacher. Heretofore the pupil has been expected to 
imitate only in size as well as in shape. JSTow more exact results are 
asked. 

Object draivinf/.— The forms after being made in clay are represented 
by outline drawings. Fruits and vegetables are represented singly in 
the third grade, whereas in the fourth they are represented in gioups. 

The geometric solids are rejpresented only by geometric drawings, 
giving top, end, and side views. 

Paper folding and cutting. — (1) Scissors are now used for cutting 
forms. An especial study of units is made to discover possible modi- 
fications of them by a change of lines, change of proportions, or by the 
adoption of a motive from nature, as a leaf or the petal of a flower, 
each of which is cut. (2) A study is made of the geometric forms, the 
square, right angled oblong, rhomb, and triangle, in the third year; 
whereas in the fourth year are studied the circle, pentagon, hexagon, 
and octagon. Each construction is cut. (3) A study of the division 
of geometric forms is made by use of diameters and diagonals. (4) A 
study of spaces or fields thus obtained is made, after which the selec- 
tion and adaptation of a unit to fill each field is made, each of which 
is cut. (5) Borders are invented and cut. The variety of these is 
almost without limit. All arrangements are cut and pasted, after which 
the combinations are represented by drawings, as in the first and sec- 
ond years. 

A complete development of the subject leads to representation by 
washes of water color. This has been done in many of the schools with 
exi client results. As difficulties of procuring and caring for materials 
are eliminated the work will be done in all the schools. 

Color. — As this is the first year we have been able to procure the 
spectrum colors in suitable materials, the first and second year course 
will be given in these grades. 

Color lessons have been given for two years in the first four grades in 
the recognition of red, yellow, blue, and their tints, illustrating by the 
use of pigmeiits the results obtained by combining these. 

An optional course in water color has also been in use for two years, 
in the third and fourth grades, which has been very successful when 
the materials could be procured to carry it out. 

The course is, in the third grade, washing tints of primaries in oblongs 
3 by 5; coloring of decorative arrangements around a centre and of 
borders. 

Fourth grade: Mixing secondary colors from primaries; washing in 



CHAP. XI. THE KINDERGARTEN AND MANUAL TRAINING. 597 

tints of secoDclaTiesj coloring of decorative arrangements in tints of 
secondaries; mixing other hues of the spectrum, as red orange, yellow 
orange. 

Brill. — Drills in the use of the pencil are continued throughout these 
years. The making of the circle, ellipse, and ovoid, with curves derived 
from them, gradually take the i)lace of making straight lines in tliese 
drill exercises. 

Language work continues, the vocabulary being constantly enlarged 
as new conceptions of form, position, and color are obtained by the 
child. It will be observed that as conceptions of form are increased 
more attention is given to the developmentof the power of selection and 
arrangement. This is seen in the grouping of fruits and vegetables for 
object drawing, in the adaptation of units to space in the selection of 
suitable curves to modify such units, and, lastly, in the use of natural 
forms by seeking for the type form, deciding which tyj)e form is best 
adapted to the space and rejecting details that interfere with the con- 
ception of this form as adapted. 

The child should be early led to apply the law of selection to what 
he does, which is discrimination betv^^een the principal or the essential 
and the subordinate or the non essential. The artisan, the artist, and 
the author alike must, to succeed, skilfully apply the law of selection. 
It distinguishes between the necessary and the accidental, between the 
basal elements and those that are ornamental, auxiliary, or comple- 
mentary. The beginning of power to select appropriately marks the 
birth of the artistic sense. Its correlated applications are the begin- 
nings of judgment in other affairs. 

In the four remaining years of the grades below the high school this 
work is continued without interruption, thus securing, in the words of 
Superintendent Powell, "the unity of our manual training from the 
first primary grade through and including the tool laboratories." 

Principal F. E. Lane, of the Washington central high school, writes 
as follows concerning the status of manual training in his department 
for the year ending June 30, 1891: 

dumber of pupils — first year, 108; second year, 44; third year, 30; 
time, two hours a week. The plan followed in the high school manual 
training work is to sui)plement the course of joint making, carpentry, 
and cabinetmakiug of the seventh and eighth grades of the grammar 
schools by a course of draughting and wood turning in the first year; 
iron and steel turning, forging, and draughting in the second year; chip- 
ping and filing, machine construction, and draughting in the third year. 

Manual training has been instituted, with signal success, also in the 
colored schools of the district. Mr. J. H. Hill, director of manual 
training, reports that during the year ending June 30, 1891, the number 
of pupils in the colored manual training school was 006 — SS in the metal 
shop and 518 in the three carpenter shops. He says: 

The course of instruction in this work has been followed as hereto- 
fore, beginning by squaring and trimming a piece of lumber 3 inches 
wide, 5 of an inch thick, and 8 inches long, mortising and tenoning, 
dovetailing and inlaying, moulding by hand O. G. cj own, O. G. and fillet, 
cove and round, cove and half-round, and nosing. The lessons included 
instructions on the nature and use of tools; instruction and practice 
in shop drawing; elementary work with plane, chisel, and saw; different 



598 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

kinds of joiuts, timber, splices, cross-joints, mortise and tenon, mitre 
and frame work; diiferent kinds of joints used in cabinetmaking, liglit 
cabinet work; examples in building franiing, roof trusses, and making 
small articles of furniture. 

A course in wood turning extended tlirougli a part of the second and 
third year's work. The lessons comprised — first, nature and use of 
lathe and tools, plain and straight turning, caliper Avork to difierent 
diameters and lengths, simple and comi)ound curves, screw x^lates and 
chuck work, hollow and spherical turning,- second, a variety of ex- 
amples of whole and split patent core work, giving the pupils practice 
in forming irregular shapes in wood with lathe and carving tools, as 
well as familiarity with the nature and use of patterns for moulding. 

The metal shop contains six forges and five lathes. The first lessons 

are given in forge work, welding, and the making of iron hooks, hasps, 

and staples; liardening and tempering of steel, vise Work, chipping 

and filing in vise benches, instruction on lathe and drill chucks, drill 

reamers, taps and dies, gauges, files, cutting tools, and special ax)i)li- 

ances for machinery, moulding and casting in soft metal. 

# *"*,# *- # # 

Lectures were also given during the year on various subjects con- 
nected with machine work in metal, such as forms, constructions, use 
of machines and cutting tools, gearing, gauge, screw threads. Some 
pieces of construction work were given to the classes. All drawings, 
with dimensions required, were ijut on the blackboard and then copied 
on paper by the xiupils; thus each one works from his own drawing. 
This was supplemented wherever necessary by the actual construction 
of the lesson by the teacher before the class and by inspection and 
direction at the bench. 

During the same year 567 pupils were enrolled in the cooking classes 
of the colored schools. Of this number 265 were from the seventh 
grade, 194 from the eighth grade, and 108 Irom the high school. Girls 
in the grades from the third to the sixth, inclusive, are thoroughly taught 
in the art of needlcAvork, as in the same grades of the white schools. 

Summing up the advantages of manual instruction Superintendent 
Powell says the course " complements or supplements other studies of 
the school course in such ways as to be most valuable as auxiliary to 
them." 



CHAPTER XII. 



MANUAL TRAINING IN CONJUNCTION WITH 
BOOK WORK. 



599 



CHAPTER XII. 

MANUAL TRAINING IN CONJUNCTION WITH BOOK WORK. 

Mucli lias been said by the friends of manual and trade training rel- 
ative to the proportionate time wliicli can be advantageously expended 
in such training in conjunction with academic work. The ardent friends 
of industrial education, using the term broadly, insist upon it that, with 
a reasonable time devoted to manual training or trade instruction, there 
is not only no loss in book work, bnt a positive gain, both in amount 
and in comprehension of what is studied; that a student workman has 
his mental faculties sharpened by his hand work, and that he compre- 
hends all the more quickly the principles of mathematics, for instance, 
through his training in physical and mechanical directions. Largely 
these views are matters of opinion; so in this investigation relating to 
industrial education an effort was made to secure some positive infor- 
mation upon so interesting a feature of the question. Little was accom- 
plished, of course, but yet enough to indicate most conclusively the real 
facts or tlie real conclusions which may be arrived at by those studying 
the subject. To secure this information Dr. Henry H. Belfiekl, director 
of the Chicago Manual Training School, who was about visiting Europe 
in the interest of his school, was invited to study the subject of tliis 
chapter. His instructions, contained in a letter of ISTovember 9, 1891, 
were to secure facts which would ^'show whether joint training, mental 
and manual, enables the student to become as proficient as others, or 
more proficient, as the case may be, in the ordinary academic studies 
of a school equal to the grade of our American high school." He was 
urged to make diligent inquiry whether evidence on this point existed, 
and if so, to secure it. On Lis return from Eurox^e Dr. Belfleld, under 
date of May 7, 1892, submitted the following report : 

Without attempting a description of the educational systems of 
Europe, or even of the European technical schools, either of which 
would throw considerable light on the difficulties attending such an 
investigation, I may say, briefly, that I was met at the outset with 
such facts as these : 

The English board schools, which are closely analogous to our public 
schools, include no such schools as our American high schools, since 
they provide instruction for boys and girls through what are called the 
" seven standards,'' Avhich cnrresx)ond in general with the eight grades 
of our primary and gTammar schools, and nothing beyond of any con- 
sequence; that is, the instruction stops where our high schools begin. 
The seventh standard, the highest grade, is comi)leted by the ])ui)ils at 
an age too immature for secondary, or high school, instruction. To 

601 



602 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

quote tlie words of Mr. H. J. Gibbs, an official of the edncational depart- 
ment of tlie English government, ''At 12 years of age the school 
life of most of the children is over.'^ I was therefore obliged to look 
for pni)ils corresponding in grade to the American high school pupil 
in such schools as the merchant tailors', Saint Paul's, and Christ's Hos- 
pital, in which there is no mauual training or shop work of auy kind, 
and in the Polytechnic, the People's Palace, and the goldsmiths' scliool 
of London, the Liverpool School of Science and Technology, and the 
technical institute of Manchester. The live schools last named and a 
few others like them possess well ec]uip])ed shops for impils' use; but 
the conditions are generally very different from those existing in the 
American manual training schools. In the latter the tool instruction is 
given for the pur^jose of general culture, and the teaching of any par- 
ticular trade or trades carefully avoided. In the English schools, on 
the contrary, the shop instruction is avowedly trade teaching, the 
pupils generally being youths who are serving apprenticeships and 
young men already working at their trades and who attend the schools 
in order to obtain greater technical skill in their chosen trades. This 
statement is especially true of the evening classes which constitute 
the large majority of the pupils attending these schools. However, 
manual training has been introduced into some of the seven standards, 
and I am able to present you some very striking testimony from these 
grades of pupils in the general line of your instructions. 

On the continent I found conditions resembling those in England 
more than the conditions in our own country, yet difieient from botli. 
While the greater part of tool instruction is in the direct line of trade 
teaching, I foiind some shoi:> work with an educational motive. For 
instance, in the communal school in the rue Tournefort, Paris, the man- 
ual training is of this character; but the boys are less than 13 years 
of age, and the studies are what we would call primary and grammar 
school studies. 

Asa typical French trade school I would mention the ^cole Munici- 
pale Diderot, in which the pupils are about the age of American ]iigh 
school pui)ils. Here the boys work four and a half hours daily in the 
shops for the first two years, and devote four hours daily to acad*^mic 
work. I could not obtain any evidence of the character desired by 
you concerning this school, but I have abundant reason for believing 
that the amount of academic work done by the pupils of this school, 
vv^hosetime is so largely occupied by shop work, can not possibly equal 
that done by boys oi the same age who can devote all their time to study. 
Another typical school is the ^cole Gentrale for civil and mechani- 
cal engineering and elementary architecture. The students are from 
18 to 21 years of age. . The school is provided with excellent chemical 
and physical laboratories, but no shops. 

The school for mechanical engineers in the Technikum at Winter- 
thur, near Zurich, is designed for the education of foremen and super- 
intendents of machine shops. It demands a three years' apprenticeship 
in a machine shop, or its equivalent, before entrance. This has ren- 
dered its entering classes 18 or 19 years of age. To provide an oppor- 
tunity for this preliminary apprenticeship, and at the same time to 
enable the boys to continue their studies, and thus reduce the age of 
entering, a school corresponding very closel}^ to the American manual 
training school was established four years ago in Winterthur. To this 
school boys are admitted at 14 years of age, and work five hours daily 
in the shop and one hour daily in the drawing room. Here, again, the 
time devoted to shop work is more than double that given to shop work 
in the American manual training school. Another important feature 



CHAP. XII. MANUAL TRAINING AND BOOK WORK. 603 

in Tvliicli it diifers from the American scliool is tliis, that the shop is a 
manufacturing estabhshment, its output being articles designed for 
sale. This is diametrically opposed to the American idea which seeks 
mental development by a series of carefully graded exercises, and 
scrupulously avoids the manufacture of salable articles, as calculated 
to secure technical skill merely. 

The magnificent technical high school of Berlin also demands a pre- 
liminary apprenticeship. As a result its students are older than those 
in similar American schools. A graduate of an American manual train- 
ing school, whom I met in Berlin, was admitted to the second semester 
of the first year of the Berlin technical school on the basis of the work 
done in the American school. He was several years younger than the 
youngest of his German classmates, since he had combined his shop 
instruction with his academic preparation. That this young man eould 
enter the Berlin technical high school several years younger than his 
classmates and half a year in advance, and maintain a good standing, 
seems to indicate that he had done essentially the same work as that 
done by his mates in two or three years less time. 

The conclusion which I have drawn from all the facts that I was able 
to collect is this: That the combiuation of mental and manual work 
does not diminish the amount of purely academic work done, provided 
the manual work is held properly in abeyance. What the proper 
amount of manual work may be will depend on several circumstances, 
and may, perhaps, be inferred from the facts given below. These facts 
will certainly justify one or two hours per day, according to the age of 
the pupils and the character of the work. The statement just made is 
based i)riucipally on the exi)erience of schools lower in grade than the 
American high school, for the reasons already given. The following 
are some of the typical facts which have led me to this conclusion: 

Liverpool. — My authority for the following statements in regard 
to the Liverpool schools is Mr. 0. Foster, a government insioector of 
schools, who kindly submitted to be interviewed. 

Two years ago the school board introduced hand tool work in wood 
into several schools as an experiment. The experiment succeeded so 
well that this work is now compulsory in all Liverpool schools for boys 
under the control of the school board. The instruction is wholly peda- 
gogic, the pupil making simple exercises to his own drawings. JSTo 
trade is taught. The amount of academic work done has not been 
decreased by the introduction of drawing and tool work. There is an 
evident develo])ment of meiital strength, traceable directly to the 
manual work; discipline is easier, and the boys are more interested in 
their school work. The insi)ector appointed by the imperial govern- 
ment examines the drawings and wood work as well as the academic 
work. (This is true of Liverpool and. Manchester schools, and perliaps 
a few others, but is not general throughout the United Kingdom. 'I 
was informed by several of the government officials in London that 
the northern cities were in advance of others in this style of school 
work.) During the time in which this wood work was practised in 
some of the Liveri^ool schools and not in others the schools having the 
tool work passed " at least as good examinations" as those which did 
not have it. I regret that I can not state positively the number oi 
hours per week given to shop work in these boys' schools. 

For many years sewing has been taught in the girls' schools in Liver- 
pool; a few years ago cooking was added, and now four and one-half 
hours per week are given to these two subjects, viz., sewing (including 



604 REPORT OF THE COMMIfSSIONER OF LABOR. 

dressmaking in the higlier grades) and cooking. The academic work 
lias lately been increased and a higher standard of scholarship secured. 

Manchester. — The secretary of the Manchester technical institute, Mr. 
J. H. Eeynolds, is my authority for statements concerning the institute 
which is equii)i)ed with carpenter shop, forge room, foundery (for lead 
castings), machine shop, plumbing shop, drawing and clay modelling 
rooms, and a very fine and complete weaving outfit. Most of the 
students are young men who woik during the day and attend the 
institute in the evening only. There is, however, a class of about forty 
boys, from 14 to 15 years of age, who are day pux)ils, and who take 
wood work and drawing in addition to the regular academic work. Mr. 
Eeynolds is positive, not only that the shop work has a pedagogic value, 
but tbat it stimulates to more and better academic work. 

I visited the Cheatham Hospital and Library, a ^' blue coat" school, 
limited to 100 boys from 8 to 14 years of age, who are instructed in the 
usual studies, with drawing and wood work added. The head master, 
Mr. Brown, informed me that before the introduction of manual train- 
ing 93 percent, of his candidates passed the government examination, 
but that since the introduction of manual training not a candidate had 
failed. He is enthusiastically in favor of manual training as a help to 
mental discipline. 

London. — STo report, however brief, on education in London would be 
complete without at least a reference to the Polytechnic, the People's 
Palace, and their young rival, the goldsmiths' school, at Kew Gross. 
These three schools are equipi)ed with shops. The majority of the stu- 
dents are in tLe evening classes, but the work is of such a character 
that it does not throw any light on the question under consideration. 

Board schools. — In the year 1886 the experiment of teaching wood 
work was made in six rooms in the board schools of London. This 
cxperim.ent was so successful that instruction in wood work is now 
given, or soon will be, in all the 420 schools in London. Boys who 
have had instruction in carpentry have passed equally well in their 
other studies with those who have confined their attention to the usual 
branches. My authority here is Sir Philip Magnus, from whom, as well 
as from Sir Philip Cundliffe Owen, Mr. Gilbert Eedgrave, and Mr. 
Henry J. Gibbs, I received the most courteous treatment. 

Mr. Baxter, in charge of wood work in the London board schools, 
informed me that 1,000 teachers are now receiving instruction in wood 
work and 3,000 in cardboard, clay modelling, etc., in London, prepara- 
tory to teaching those subjects, and that a similar condition exists 
throughout England. Mr. Baxter and Mr. Gharles Woods, his assist- 
ant, were both emphatic in stating as a result of the experiment in 
London that the wood work does not diminish the amount of academic 
work, and that it has an educational value of its own. They gave sev- 
eral instances of head masters of London schools who had at first 
violently opposed the introduction of wood work into their respective 
schools, but who became its firm friends on witnessing its beneficial 
effects. 

The jealous care with which an English head master guards the cur- 
riculum of his school and the energy with which he instinctively resists 
the introduction of any subject having a tendency to reduce the exam- 
ination averages of his pupils are apparent when it is remembered that 
the amount of government money — the "grant" as it is called — 
depends ui)on his pupils' "marks " in the government examinations. It 
is a common occurrence to hear English teachers boast of the "earn- 
ing" capacity of particular pupils or classes. The People's Palace 



CHAP. XII. MANUAL TRAINING AND BOOK WORK. 605 

charges double fees to pupils who do not earn government grants. 
That the English schoolmaster, therefore, should consider the time 
taken from arithmetic and grammar, which are money earning studies, 
to be given to tool work, which is not yet a money earning subject, as 
so much time wasted was most natural; that after a fair trial he should 
welcome the tool work as beneficial is positive proof that, in his opin- 
ion, the tool work has not lowered his pupils' examination averages — 
in other words, that the pupils accomplish as much academic work, at 
least, with the tool work as without it. 

One of the most interesting schools visited was a trade school in 
Vienna, of which Herr Exner is the director. This school is i)eculiar in 
having larger day than night classes. It is doing much admirable work, 
and its graduates find ready employment at good wages. Of their eight 
hours its students spend four in the shop. Dr. Exner, who is also a 
member of the Austrian parliament, and a man of eminent ability and 
great influence, maintains that four hours of shop work and four hours 
of study make a stronger man than eight hours of study, but that the 
time thus taken from study necessarily reduces the amount of academic 
work done by his students. And this is, I think, in accord with the 
experience of all who have had to do with schools in which the manual 
work occui)ies so large a part of the student's time. But it is also the 
opinion of those with whom I have come in contact, who have been 
connected with schools in Avhich the time given to tool work is consid- 
erably less, that a moderate amount of manual training not only does 
not reduce the academic work done, but that it stimulates the student 
to greater eiibrt and more successful study. This statement is true in 
regard to every city in which I found the conditions permittiug a com- 
parison to be mr?de. In most of the cities visited, however, the absence 
of manual training, or the great attention devoted to it, rendered it im- 
possible for me to draw any conclusions on the subject in hand. 

On receiving the foregoing statement from Dr. Belfield it was deemed 
best to pui'sue the same line of inquiry, but on a more clearly defined 
basis, in this country, and after a conference with him by the Commis- 
sioner of Labor he was urged to undertake the inquiry through corre- 
spondence. Dr. Belfield was so well known to all the principals of man- 
ual training schools and the presidents of technological institutions in 
this country that he seemed, with his recent experieucs in Europe, to 
be well equipped for the study. In order to carry this inquiry on sys- 
tem.atically Dr. Belfield issued a circular, of which the following is a 
copy: 

Chicago, May 30, 1892. 



Dear Sir: At the request of the Hon. Carroll D. Wright, United 
States Commissioner of Labor, I am endeavoring to collect some data 
from the manual training schools of this country, on the relation of 
manual to academic work. You will greatly oblige by mailing me 
answers to the following queries concerning your institution. 
Very respectfully, 



Director of the Chicago Manual Training School. 



1. How many hours per day, or per week, are given by each i)upil to 
shop work (excluding drawing)? 



606 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

2. How many hours to drawing? 

3. What is the character of the shop work for boys? For girls? 

4. Is shop work coinpiilsory on all pupils? 

5. What is the effect of shop work on the amount and character of 
the puj)iFs academic work: 1. In mathematics? 2. In sciejQce? 3. 
In literature? 4. In general? 

I wisli to know wlietlier tlie pupil wlio ta.kes manual training, in addition to the 
regular academic Avork, does as mucli acadeiuic "work^ and does it as well, as the 
pupil who lias tlie academic work only. 

6. Do you perceive any effect of shop work on the mind or character 
of the pupil different from the effect of the academic work ? If so, what ? 
and how much? 

7. What is the maximum time which, in your judgment, can be 
devoted to shop work without injury to academic work? 

8. To what grade of pupils (primary, grammar, or high school) do 
the answers to the foregoing questions refer? 

9. Ej.ndly add whatever remarks you may think pertinent. 

The results of Dr. Belfield's inquiry are best stated by himself in a 
report made to the Department under date of October 13, 1892, as 
follows : 

I have the honor to submit the following report in accordance with 
your instructions given in May last. It was your wish that I should 
ascertain the effect on academic studies of the manual work of the 
character usually prescribed in schools known as manual training 
schools, particularly whether the addition of such hand work to the 
usual curriculum interferes with the progress of the j)upil in his ordinary 
studies. In furtherance of this object I prepared a circular (copy of 
which is enclosed) and sent it to the presidents of technological schools, 
universities having engineering departments, to city superintendents 
of public schools in which manual training exists, and to princi- 
pals and directors of manual training schools and of high schools 
including manual training in their work. In order to secure unbiased 
reports I addressed the circular, whenever possible, not to the person 
immediately in charge of the manual training, but to some official of 
suj^erior rank, whose position enabled him to perceive more clearlj^ and 
to judge more dispassionately the effect of manual training on the 
other studies. For instance, I addressed a circular, not to the princi- 
pal of the Philadelphia Manual Training School, but to the superintend- 
ent of the Philadelphia public schools; and this expedient will explain 
the absence from this reportof communications from several men engaged 
in this department of education. In some cases, however, my circular 
was referred to, and answered by, the teacher directly in charge of the 
manual training department. 

The circular was prepared specially for schools of grammar and high 
school grade, in which manual training is usually added to the regular 
academic curriculum. It was, however, as has been stated, sent to 
technological schools, also, although it was well understood by the 
writer that some of the inquiries were not pertinent to the work done 
in such institutions, in order to make the results of my investigations 
as broad as possible. 

To the circulars sent forty-two replies were received, the tabulated 
results of which are given on separate sheets which accompany this 
letter. Your attencion is invited especially to the replies to questions 
numbered 5 and 6, as embodying the information particularly desired 
by you. 



CHAP. XII.— MANUAL TRAINING AND BOOK WORK. 607 

Tlie general testimony of tlie replies is that pupils taking manual 
training as a part of tlieir school work, in tlie regular school hours, 
accomplish as much academic work as, or more than, those i)upils who 
devote, the same number of hours to school work without the manual 
training. While a few of the officials reporting are unable to say 
more than that they perceive no reduction in the quantity or quality of 
academic Avork done, the large majority report more and betteracademic 
work when the hand work is added. It is noticeable that as a general 
rule the larger the amount of time given to manual training the more 
marked are the beneficial results. 

The testimony in regard to the comparative quantity and quality of 
academic work done by those who do, and those who do not, take the 
hand work is, I think, most valuable when given by those reporting 
from schools in which the hand work is optional. In such schools, 
where each class is composed of loupils, some of whom take the manual 
training and some not, but to all of whom the same lessons in academic 
work are assigned, the opportunity for comparison is remarkably good. 
Such a school as the Toledo high school aifords the opportunity, and 
the present sui)erintendent of the Toledo schools, who makes the report, 
has had unusual facilities for studying this matter, since he was the 
X)rincipal of the Toledo high school when manual training was added 
to its course. His remarks, as well as those of Dr. Woodward of 
Saint Louis, Mr. Eichards of the Pratt Institute, Mr. Stanwood of Cin- 
cinnati, and President Fetterolf of Girard College, and others, are 
worthy of attention, coming from careful observers who have given 
years to the study of the subject. 

The reports from the schools are arranged in the alphabetical order 
of states, the grammar and high schools in one class, the universities 
and technological schools in another. 

The results of Dr. Bel field's inquiries, presented in tabular form, as 
indicated in the report just given, are of great value. The testimony 
is universal from the leading training schools in this country as to the 
time which can be devoted to shop work without injury to academic 
work, and upon the effect of manual training on the amount and char- 
acter of the i)upil's academic work in various directions. These results 
are shown in the following tabulated statement: 



608 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

MAifUAL TRArtrns^G ZN" GRAMMAR AlS^D HIGH SCHOOLS. 



Mar- 

num- 
ber. 



Name of institution. 



K'ame and official title 
of person reporting. 



Hours per week 
in— 


Shop 
work. 


Draw- 
ing. 


n 


3| 


2 


2 


^ 


H 


10 


5 


2 


I5 


10 


5 


3 


2 


2h 


21 


10 


5 


clO 


5 


8 to 9 


3 


n 


3| 


i 


2 


2 


1 


ej 


3i 


5 


2-^ 



Character of shop 
work for — 



Boys. 



10 



11 



12 



Cogswell Polyteclmic Col- 
lege, San Francisco, Cali- 
fornia. 



rublic schools, Washing- 
ton, District of Columbia. 

Atlanta University, Atlan- 
ta, Georgia. 



English high and manna] 
training school, Chicago, 
- Illinois. 



Grammar schools, Chicago, 
Illinois. 



Chicago Manual Training 
School, Chicaso, Illinois^ 



Hi^h school, 
Illinois. 



La Grange, 



Manual training school, 
Moline, Illinois. 

Manualtraininghjgh school. 
LouisA'ille, Kentucky. 



Baltimore Manual Training 
School, Baltimore, Mary- 
land. 



McDonogh School, McDon- 
ogh, Maryland. 



High school, Springfield, 
Massachusetts. 



Public schools, "Walthara, 
Massachusetts. 



Public schools, "Winchester, 
Massachusetts. 



High school, Minneapolis, 
Minnesota. 

High school, Saint Paul, 
Minnesota. 



Elisha Brooks, pi 
pal. 



super- 



W. B. Powell, 

intendent. 
Horace Biuustead, 

president. 



Albert G. Lnne, su- 
perintendent. 



Albert G. Lane, su- 
perintendent. 

Henry H. Belfield, di- 
rector. 



Henry W. Thurston, 
principal. 



O. Curtis Wicks, in- 
structor in manual 
work . 

H.P.A. Kleinschmidt, 
principal. 



A. JiTewton Ebaugh, 
professor of higher 
mathematics. 



Duncan C.Lj'le, prin- 
cipal. 



Cliarles Jacobus, su- 
pervisor of manual 
training. 



tendcnt. 



superin- 



E.Hunt, superintend- 
ent. 



John Morris, super- 
visor. 

Albert A. Gordon, jr., 
supervisor. 



Carpentry, 
turning, 
forging. 



Wood, met- 
al. 

Bench, 
lathe, 
Jorge, me- 
chanical 
drawing. 

Wood, 

forge. 

foun fiery, 

machine 

shop. 
Wood 



Wood, 

foundery 

forge, 

machine 

shop. 
Wood.... 



Wood. 



Wood, 

fouiid'ory 

forge, 

machine 

.shop, 

sheet 

metal. 
Wood, 

forge, 

machine 

shop, 

sheet 

n;etal. 
Wood, 

moulding 

printing. 



Wood, 

forge, 

foundery, 

machine 

shop. 
Wood, 

forge. 



Wood. 



Wood, 
metal. 

Wood, 
forge, 
nutcliine 
shop. 



a Below high school. 

6 In a regular manual training school. 



CHAP. XII. MANUAL TRAINING AND BOOK WORK. 609 

MA^'UAL TKAINIXG IN GEAMMAK AND HIGH SCHOOLS. 



Shop 
work 
com- 
pul- 
sory 
to all. 



Effect of shop work on the- 



Araoiint and character of aca- 
demic work in mathematics, 
science, literature, and in gen- 
eral. 



Mind and charac- 
ter different from 
the effect of aca- 
demic AYork. 



Maximum hours 
which can he de- 
voted to shop 
work without in- 
jury to academic 
work. 



Grade 

of pupils 

referred to. 



Mar- 
gin- 
al 
mm- 
her. 



Yes. 



(a) 
Tea. 



Yes. 



No. 



Yes.. 



No.. 



No. 



Yes. 



Yes. 



No. 



No. 



No. 



No. 



No. 



No. 



Makes the mind hrighter and 
keener in mathematics and sci- 
ence. Thestudentismoreinter- 
ested in the general work of the 
school. 

Just the same and just as good . . . 



"We see no loss accruing to the ac- 
ademic work either in quantity 



or quality. I douhtif shop Avork 
had Letter he prolonged far into 
the higher courses where time is 
a more important element. 
All heing required to take the 
full course we can not compare. 



Intensifies interest in all work, 
and does academic work as well. 

In mathematics and science more 
and better Avork ; in literature 
less . The general aA'erage more 
and better. 

No effect. No academic Avork is 
omitted for sake of manual 
training. 



School open too short a time to 
notice effect. 

The school is new. As much ac- 
ademic AYork, and as well done, 
as in other high schools. 



More analytic power. Cultivates 
powers of obserA-ation. Opens 
field for expression. 



The pupil who takes manual train- 
ing in addition to the regular ac- 
ademic work does more academ- 
ic work and does it better than 
the pupil who has the academic 
work only. 

No difference perceptible; fully 
equal and possibly more 
earnestly done. 



School in operation one year only. 
Can not determine. 



Good in all. 



A help rather than a Mndcrance 



In mathematics and science, in- 
creased amount and higher 
character. 



More self-reliant. 
No suspicion that 
work is degrad- 
ing. 



2 per day. 



I can not honestly 
say that I see it ; 
yet I believe it 
exists and is a 
beneficial effect. 

Not ascertained. . 



Develops closer ap- 
plication. 

Develops the will 
power and the 
judgment with 
much earnestness 
and readiness. 
Helps self-con- 
trol and adds to 
interest in all 
work ; increases 
enthusiasm. 
A decided effect in 
dignity and in- 
dependence. 
Makes them more 
self-reliant. 



Cultivates inde- 
pendent in vesti- 
gati(m. 



I am convinced the 
effect is good. 



A little more man- 
liness, good judg- 
ment, and a bet- 
ter eye for busi- 
ness. 



2 to 4 per week 
1^ per day 



10 per week. 



2 per week 



More thoughtful. 



Yes. Eefers to 
article publish- 
ed. 

Yes. The mind 
is broadened and 
made more ca- 
pable of under- 
standing a logi- 
cal course of 
reasoning. 
c rive in loAver classes. 



10 per week. 



10 per week . 



7^ per week . 



4 per week . 



2 to 3 per week . . 



10 per week. 



7 J per week. 



High school 



7i to 10 per week 

2 per day 

1 J per day 

b 2 per day 



Three upper 
grades of 
grammar; 3 
classes col- 
lege pre- 
paratory. 

High school. 



Seventh and 
eighth 
grammar. 

Highschool. 



High school. 

Highschool. 
Highschool. 



Upper gram- 
mar and 
highschool. 



Grammar 
and high 
school. 



Highschool 



Eighth and 
ninth gram- 
mar. 

Eighth and 
ninth gram- 
mar, and 
highschool. 

Highschool. 



Highschool- 



10 



S. Ex. 65- 



-30 



610 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

MANUAL TRAININQ IN GRAMMAR AND HIGH SCHOOLS— CoDtinued. 



Mar- 
gin- 
al 

num- 
ber. 



Name of institution. 



Saint Louis Manual Train- 
ing School, Saint Louis, 
Missouri. 



2 Pul)lic scliools, Concord, 
New Harapsliire. 



Public schools, Mont Clair, 
New Jersey. 



Public schools, Orange, New 
Jersey. 



Public schools, Yineland, 
Now Jersey. 



G Hi'ji:h School, Albany, New 
York. 



Public schools, -Limestown, 
New York. 



Name and official title 
of person reporting. 



C. M. Woodward, di- 
rector. 



L. J. Rundlett, super- 
intendent. 



J.H.Love, clerkboard 
of education. 



Usher W. Cutts, su- 
perintendent. 



J. P. Bennett, superin- 
tendent. 



Oscar D. Robinson, 
principal. 



RoTillus R. Rogers, 
superintendent. 



Hours per week 
in — 



Shop 
work. 



lto3 



Ih 



Draw- 
ing. 



Characi er of shop 
work for — 



Boyi 



Itoli 



YTpod, 
fournlery, 
for,ue, 
machine 
shop. 



Wood. 



Wood, 
metal. 



Wood. 



Wood. 



Wood. 



Wood. 



Girls. 



Cooking 
sewing 
model- 
ling, wood 
carvini 



Sewin< 



Bloid 



bewmj 
etc. 



CHAP. XII. MANUAL TRAINING AND BOOK WORK. 611 

MANUAL TEAINZN-G IN GEAMMAH AND HIGH SCHOOLS- Continued. 



Shop 
work 
com- 
pul- 
sory 
to all. 



Yes.. 



Xo. 



Yes. 



Yes. 



No. 



Yes. 



No. 



Effect of sliop work on the — 



Amount and character of aca- 
demic woik in mathematics, 
science, literature, and in gen- 
eral. 



. The introduction does not les- 
sen the amount of mathematics; 
it greatly improves the quality. 
2. The same is true of the work 
in science. The knowledge of 
tools and principles of construc- 
tion is invaluable in laboratory 
work. 3. The amount of lan- 
guage and literature is less 
than in most schools, but the 
quality is high. 4. Shop work 
helps in a high degree to give 
general intelligence and inde- 
pendent thought and action. 
In a word, as an education 
which develops faculty and 
gives power and a taste for 
more education, shop work as 
an element in a curriculum has 
I)Ositive value. 



I have observed no appreciable 
difference. I think all work 
that tends to develop the man- 
ual part of a child's organiza- 
tion should be made compul- 
sory, but should not be so ar- 
ranged as to break the conti- 
nuity of regular school work. 

Good 



Better work done in mathematics 
and science; no special differ- 
ence in literature; an excellent 
effect in general. 



1. Not marked. 2. Helpful. 3. 
Not noted. 4. It has drawn at- 
tention from this work hereto- 
fore, but not much now. 

The manual training pupil does 
as much work (academic) and 
does it as well as the one who 
has academic work only. We 
are agreed that the influence of 
maniial training in our school 
is good in every respect, men- 
tally, morally, and physically; 
and we know that in many in- 
stances it has great influence 
in giving direction to the fu- 
ture life of the pupil. 

G enerally favorable 



Mind iind charac- 
ter different from 
the effect of aca- 
demic work. 



The effect appears 
to be an unu- 
sual clearness 
in concepts in 
which definite 
relations and ex- 
act limits arenec- 
essary. Sound- 
ing phrases are 
less satisfactory, 
and the student 
is not content to 
stop short of a 
sound and clear 
conclusion. In 
our higher poly- 
technic work (en- 
gineering) the 
graduates of the 
manual training 
school have a 
high reputation 
for ability to at- 
tack new prob- 
lems and do inde- 
pendent work. 
In practical af- 
fairs the.y seem 
to bo able to 
bear an unusual 
amount of re- 
sponsibility in 
directing work. 
Pupils are gener- 
ally more accu- 
rate in their 
school work. 



Yes. See superin- 
tendent's report. 



Pupils observe 
moreclosely and 
reason from 
cause to effect. 
I think the boys 
are mo re manly 
and self-respect- 
ing in conse- 
quence. 

It. cultivates the 
habit of atten- 
tion and in- 
creases careful- 
ness. 

Our experience is 
too Limited for 
answer. 



In some cases the 
work begets 
an interest in 
school which 
nothing else has 
secured. 



Maximum hours 
which can be de- 
voted to shop 
work without in- 
jury to academic 
work. 



10 per week. 



2 per week. 



2 per week. 



2 per week. 



1 to 3 per week . 



Depends on aca- 
demic course, 
and many other 
things. 



Grade 

of pupils 

referred to. 



High school. 



Primary, 
grammar, 
high 
school. 



Highest 
grammar 
gTad.es 
and high 
school. 



Grammar 
and high 
school. 



High school . 



Grammar 
grades. 



Mar- 
gin- 
al 
num- 
ber. 



612 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

MANUAL TEAINING IN GRAMMAS AND HIGH SCHOOLS— Continued, 



Mar- 
gin- 
al 
num- 
ber. 



Name of institution. 



Name and official title 
of person reporting. 



Hours pftr -week 
in — 



Shop 
work. 



Draw- 
ing. 



Character of shop 
work for — 



Boys. 



Girls. 



Public schools, Newburgh, 
New xork. 



Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, 
New York. 



tendent. 



-, superin- 



C.E- Pichards, direc- 
tor department of 
science and tech- 
nology. 



2 to 21 



8i 



Wood. 



3ito4| 



Wood, 


Sewing, 


foundery. 


dress- 


forge, 


making 


machine 


milli- 


shop,tin- 


nery, 


smith- 


wood 


ing. 


carving 




cook- 



lug- 



Technical School, Cincin- 
nati, Ohio. 



J. B. Stanwood, direc- 
tor. 



10 



CHAP. XII. MANUAL TRAINING AND BOOK WORK. 613 

MANUAL TEAINIK"G IN GEAMMAH AND HIGH SCHOOLS— Continued. 



Shop 
■work 
com- 
pul- 
sory 
to all. 



No. 



Yes, 

in 

high 

school. 



Effect of shop work on the- 



Tes. 



Amount and character of aca- 
demic -work in mathematics, 
science, literature, and in gen- 
eral. 



Good. They do as much and as 
well; from increased interest 
believe they do better. 



"We believe that the discipline of 
concentrated effort obtained 
through the shop work 
strengthens the power of appli- 
cation in the academic studies; 
aud that the care and accuracy 
demanded in the.se operations 
reacts most helpfully upon all 
other school work. We cer- 
tainly find that the interest of 
the pupil in his school work, 
as a whole, is decidedly stimu- 
lated by his shop work expe- 
rience, and that he approaches 
his other studies with greater 
zeal than would otherwise be 
the case. Although we have 
no means of making a direct 
comparison between our pupils 
and those takin;^: academic 
studies onlj', we believe emphat- 
ically that our pupils would 
compare favorably with these 
in intellectual development. 



As our school is operated upon 
the plan that shop work is a 
benefit to academic work, our 
existence is an answer in the 
affirmative. The exceptional 
cases (in which pupils do not 
take shop work) all indicate 
that the pupils taking shop 
and academic work accomplish 
the most. The field of observa- 
tion, however, is rather small, 
too small, in fact, to base a posi- 
tive statement upon. 



Mind and charac- 
ter diftercnt from 
the eti'ect of aca- 
demic work. 



Effect is, to a 
great extent, in- 
direct. We be- 
lieve it decided- 
ly beneficial. 

We, however, do 
not feel that 
the influence of 
manual train- 
ing should be 
^iOught in its 
eftect upon the 
other studies of 
the school, but 
rather in the 
better develop- 
ment of an in- 
dependent side 
of the pupil's 
charactei', and 
in the training 
and disciplin e of 
the will. The 
regular academ- 
ic studies deal 
mainly with the 
processes of the 
intellect and 
with the emo- 
tions, but the 
strengthening 
and develop- 
ment of the ex- 
ecutive facul- 
ties are pecul- 
iarly the prov- 
ince of manual 
training. In 
this direction 
the results are 
strongly obvi- 
ous, and the 
growth of the 
power of care- 
ful, painstaking 
effort, of per- 
sistence, and 
again, of decis- 
ion, is most 
marked. This 
result of this 
development 
means inevita- 
bly greater self- 
reliance, and in- 
dependence of 
thought and 
character. 

Our shop work 
appears to give 
greater self-re- 
liance and stead- 
iness to pupil's 
character. Per- 
haps steadiness 
represents the 
trait that seems 
to be most dom- 
inant. This 
steadiness rep- 
resents, to our 
minds, the form- 
ation of the hab- 
it of industry; 
this industry, 
too, is apparent 
in the academic 
as in the shop 
work. 



Maximum hours 
which can be de- 
voted to shop 
work without in- 
jury to academic 
work. 



2 to 2i per week. 



§ of school day. 



3 per day. 



Grade 

of pupils 

referred to. 



Mni- 
gin- 
al 
r.uaG- 
ber. 



One year 

grammar, 

three 

years high 

"school. 
High school 



High school. 



614 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

MAIsrUAL TRAINIlsTG IN GRAMMAR AlfD HIGH SCHOOLS— Continued. 



Mar- 
gin- 
al 

num- 
ber. 



!N"ame of institution. 



High Scliool, Toledo, OMo.. 



Girard College, Pliiladsl- 
p Ilia, Pennsylvania . 



Manual Training School, 
Philadelphia, Pennsylva- 



Public schools, Tidioute, 
Pennsylvania. 



Public schools, "West Ches- 
ter, Pennsylvania. 



IKame and official title 
of person reporting. 



H. W. ComptoD, 
perintendent. 



A. H. Fetterolf, presi- 
dent. 



Edward Eroolrs, su- 
perintendent. 



R.D. Crawford, super- 
intendent. 



Addison Jones, super- 
intendent. 



fioursperweek Character of shop 
in — work for— 



Shop 
work. 



3 to 7^ 



a5 



10 



Draw- 
ing. 



3 to 3| 



61 to 5 



n 



Boys. 



"Wood, 
fouudery, 
forge, 
machine 
shop. 



AYood, 
metal, 
foundery 
electri- 
cal me- 
chanics. 



Wood, 
foundery, 
forge, 
machine 
shop, tin. 



Wood. 



Wood. 



Girls. 



Wood 
caivirg, 

sewing, 
cooking, 
dress- 
making. 



Wt^.-.l. 



a Including mechanical drawing. 



CHAP. XII. ^IHANUAL TRAINING AND BOOK WORK. 



615 



MA]!?-UAL TKAIls^ING rS" GRAMMAR AND HIGH SCHOOLS— Contiuued. 



Shop 
work 
coiu- 
piil- 
sory 
to all. 



Effect of sliop "svork on tlie — 



Ainonnt and character of aca- 
demic work in mathematics, 
science, literature, and in gen- 
eral. 



Mind and charac- 
ter di rt'erent from 
the effect of aca- 
demic work. 



Maximum hours 
which can be de- 
voted to shop 
work without in- 
jury to academic 
work. 



Grade 

of 1)11 pils 

referred to. 



Mar- 
gin- 
al 
'-•"Ti- 
ber. 



No. 



Yes. 



Tes. 



No. 



No. 



Onr pupils go right along- with 
the manual training work and 
the text book work ; those in 
manual doing just the same 
amo'.int of work in text books 
as those who take no maniial 
work. So far as I can judge 
from general observation of the 
characters and the mental work 
of the pupils, 1 see but little 
difference in the two classes of 
pupils. Some pupils do both 
kinds of work easily; some, 
less fortunate in mental organi- 
zation, will fail to do either line 
well. 



Our experience is. that boys do 
better in academic work with 
practice in manual training. 
In mathematics they have bet- 
ter ideas of the form', size, and 
dimensions of objects. In nat- 
ural science they are benefited 
by the knowledge they acquire 
of the facts and forces of mat- 
ter. Our school week consists 
of thirty-two hours, and we are 
convinced that we aceomiDlish 
more in twenty-seven hours 
with manual training than we 
would in thirty-two hours with- 
out manual training. 

"We believe that the pupils in our 
manual training school do quite 
as much work in a given time 
as those in any city high school, 
and that the character of the 
work they do is quite as good 
as the work in the average high 
school. 



They do as much work and fully 
as well. I think the proper 
place for manual training is in 
the grammar schools. Have 
tried it in both grammar and 
high school for six years. 

The boys do as much "work, and, I 
believe, do it better than the 
girls who do not go to the shop. 



I think the effect 
of manual train- 
ing on the 
minds and char- 
acters of pupils 
is healthful and 
wholesome. So 
much depends 
on the mental 
constitution of 
individual pu- 
pils that it 
seems to me it 
will .always be a 
dilficult matter 
to answer satis- 
factorily such 
questions as the 
above. 

We hndthat since 
the introduc- 
tion of manual 
training our 
disciijliue is 
made easier, 
and that boys 
show more in- 
telligence in 
comprehending 
whatever is 
brought to their 
notice, while, in 
general, they 
have a wider 
range of thought. 

Manual training 
strengthens the 
power of the 
will, develops 
the faculties of 
observation and 
judgment, and 
gives a keen in- 
tellectual grasp 
generally of the 
principles of 
mathematics 
and science, and 
as a conse- 
quence it has a 
beneficial influ- 
ence morally. 

More practical 



The work in the 
shop inculcates 
the habit of 
seeing things 
when they are 
looked at by the 
pupils . The 
shop makes the 
boys more ac- 
curate in their 
thinking. More 
boys desire to 
learn trades, 
and, especially, 
more of them 
go to the engi- 
neering courses 
at college, 
fei'ree-hand. 



Highest 
grammar 
grade and 

hifth school. 



2 per day. 



Grammar 
and high 
school. 



The same time as 
is given to aca- 
demic work. 



High school. 



1 per day 



2 per week. 



Grammar . . 



High school. 



616 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

m:a:NUAL IRAINIXG I:N" GEAMMAR and high SCHOOLS-Concluded. 



Mar- 


Nanae of institution. 


Name and official title 
of person reporting. 


Hours per week 
in — 


Character of shop 
work for — 


gin- 
al 
nnm- 
ber. 


Shop 
work. 


Draw- 
ing. 


Boys. 


Girls. 


1 
2 


Le Moyne Normal Insti- 
tute, Memphis, Tennes- 
see. 

Public schools, Appleton, 
"Wisconsin. 

Public schools, Menomonie, 
Wisconsin. 

i 


A.J. Steele, principal. 

0. H. Ecke, principal 
Kyan high school. 

E. B. Dudgeon, super- 
intendent. 


5 

5 
5 


5 

3i 


Wood, 
printing. 


Sewing, 
cooking, 
printing. 


8 


Wood 


Cooking, 
sewing. 



CHAP. XII. MANUAL TRAINING AND BOOK WORK. 617 

MANUAL TEAINING IN GRAMMAE AND HIGH SCHOOLS— Concluded. 



Shop 
work 
C(un- 
pul- 
sory 
to all. 


Effect of shop work on the— 


Maximum hours 
which can be de- 
voted to shop 
work without in- 
jury to academic 
work. 


Grade 

of pupils 

refeiredto. 


Mar- 


Amount and character of aca- 
demic work in mathematics, 
science, literature, and in gen- 
eral. 


Mind and charac- 
ter different from 
the effect of aca- 
demic work. 


gin- 
al 
num- 
ber. 


Yes.. 

No... 
No... 


In raatliematics and science, di- 
rect and undoubted help. In 
literature and generally, can 
see no injury. We prize most 
highly the educational side or 
value of manual training. 

It does not interfere with aca- 
demic work in any of these sub- 
jects, and rather helps out 
observation in science. 

After the novelty of the work 
wore off the academic work did 
not suffer in the' least. In 
many cases, especially among 
the slower pupils, the academic 
work seemed to improve. 


The tendency is 
to train or lead 
tonatnralmeth- 
ods of study; 
cramming or 
mere memoriz- 
ing is dropped 
for real study. 

It makes them 
more practical 
in their thought, 
and produces 
better and more 
interested work- 
ers. 

I did notice that 
the pupils who 
were, noticeably 
careless and un- 
tidy in their 
work in aca- 
demic lines be- 
came ambitious 
to do work 
which compar- 
ed favorably 
with that of 
other pupils, 
and it seemed 
to me that these 
pupils were 
somewhat in- 
spired by a self- 
respect and 
pride which 
reached beyond 
the school work. 


I of school time . . 
5 per week 


Grammar 
and high 
school. 

Upper gram- 
mar and 
high school. 

High school. 


1 

2 
3 







618 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

MANUAL TRArNING IN" XmiVEESITIES AND TECHNOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 



Mar- 


Name of institution. 


Name and official title 
of person reporting. 


Hours per week 
in— 


Character of shop 
work for— 


al 
num- 
her. 


Shop 
work. 


Draw- 
ing. 


Boys. 


Girls. 


1 


University of Illinois, 
Champaign, Illinois. 

Eose Polytechnic Institute, 
Torre Haute, Indiana. 

loTva Agriciiltural College, 
Ames, Iowa. 

Massachusetts Institute of 
Terhnology, Boston, Mas- 
" sachusetts. 

Polytechnic Institute, Wor- 
cester, Massachusetts. 

University of Michigan, 
Ann Arbor, Michigan. 

Cornell University (Sihley 
College), Ithaca, New- 
York. 

Texas Agricultural and 
Mechanical College, Col- 
lege Station, Texas. 


Thomas J. BurriU, 
acting regent. 

H. T. Eddy, presi- 
dent. 

G. W. Bissell, profes- 
sor of mechanical 
engineering. 

H. W. Tyler, secre- 
tary. 

H. T. Puller, presi- 
dent. 

C. G. Taylor, super- 
intendent of shops. 

E. H. TTiurston, di- 
rector Sihlej- College. 

— , president 


10 
10 to 15 

8 


6 
6 


Wood, iron 

Wood, met- 
al. 




?. 




3 




4 


Wood.met- 
al. 

Pattern- 
making. 

Machine- 
sbop, pat- 
terniuak- 
ing. Ibun- 

dery, forge. 

The four 
principal 
shops. 
Wood, 
forge, ma- 
chine 
shop. 




5 
6 


15 
9 

9 

4 


6 

4 

9 

2 to 5 





7 




g 









a In English courses. 



CHAP. XII. — MANUAL TRAINING AND BOOK WORK. 619 

MAXUAL TRAINING IN TJNIVEKSITIES AND TECHS-QLOGICAL SCHOOLS. 



Shop 
Avork 
com- 
pul- 

uTSl. 


Effect of shop Tvork on the— 


Maximum hours 
which can be de- 
voted to shop 
work without in- 
jurj'to academic 
work. 


Grade 

of pupils 

referred to. 


Mar- 


Amonnt and character of aca- 
demic work in mathematics, 
science, literature, and in gen- 
eral. 


Mind and charac- 
ter different from 
the effect of aca- 
demic Avork. 


"aT- 
num- 
ber. 


Ybs(a) 
Yes.. 

No .. 

Yes(6) 
Yes(a) 

Yes.. 

Yes(6) 


The men do same class work as 
others not taking shop work, 
and are certainly not behind. 

We have no academic pupils 

The above can hardly be filled out 
as you desire, because the de- 
partment of mechanical engi- 
neering offers a special course 
of study calculated to develop 
the student into a mechanical 
.engineerand does not give much 
general training, the supposi- 
tion being that he has had it or 
wiil obtain it later. 

No effect noticed. Shopworkand 
drawing plaj^ so secondary a role 
that not much can be added to 
what I bave said. 


Nothing definite 
noticed. 

It increases alert- 
ne.<»s and powers 
of observation, 
besides the train- 
ing it gives in 
practical profes- 
sional affairs. 


2 per day 


Freshman 
class, col- 
lege. 

College 
grade. 

College 
grade. 

College 

CoUege 
grade. 

College 

College 

College 


1 


Varies according to 
circumstances. 


2 
B 


No effect noticed. . 




A- 


Precision and 
thoughtfulness 
increased. 

The mind andbody 
are stronger. 

Keeps them alert, 
ready, and eifi- 
cient. 


15 per week 

2 to 2^ per day 


^ 


1. Good; 2. good; 3. medium; 4. 
good. 

Good in all respects. I think bet- 
ter. 


6 

7 




• 8 




- 







6 In mechanical department. 



620 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Independent inquiries which have been made all seem to indicate the 
truthfulness of the conclusion reached by Dr. Belfield, as stated in his 
report of May 1892, given above, relative to his study of the question 
in Europe, that the combination of mental and manual work does not 
diminish the amount of purely academic work done, provided the man- 
ual work is held properly in abeyance; and as to sx)ecific time, the facts 
justified him in stating that from one to two hours per day, according 
to the age of the pupils and the character of the work, can be profita- 
bly applied to the manual side of education. The evidence brought 
out in the foregoing tabulated statement relative to American institu- 
tions clearly justifies this conclusion, and, as stated, independent 
inquiries by officers of the Department of men who have had long 
experience, both in carrying on the work of manual training schools 
and in manual training as applied in reformatories, result in the posi- 
tive corroboration of such conclusion. 



OHAPTBE XIII. 



MANUAL TRAINING AND TRADE INSTRUCTION IN 
REFORMATORIES. 



621 



CHAPTER XIIL 

MANUAL TRAINING AND TRADE INSTRUCTION IN REFORMATO- 
RIES. 

As progress is made in tlie study of criminology tlie causes of crim- 
inal action become more clearly understood and the criminal appears 
more and more in the light of an undeveloped being; and he is undevel- 
oped in all his faculties, whether he is considered as a worker or as a 
m 3ral and intellectual being. l!^ot only are those faculties which enable 
a man to labor honestly and faithfully for the care and support of him- 
self and family undeveloped, but all the others. If this position be the 
correct one i)enology should find waj-s and means of developing the 
criminal in all his faculties. The corrigible criminals, or those amen- 
able to reformatory efforts, represent probably from one-eighth to one- 
sixth of all long term convicts. Under modern penological views there 
is a revolt from the old, cruel, and barbarous system of setting prisoners 
at work at what is known as purely penal labor, that is, running a 
tread-mill or turning a crank j and the assumiotion now is that men in 
prison should be set at work in the same industries and in the same 
way and under the same methods which exist outside of prisons. This 
plausible position is taken by most ijenologists; but when the matter 
of reformation is considered, then the question of development along 
those lines on which a boy can best be developed becomes important. 
The criminal must be kept in honorable and skilful employment; his 
intellectual and moral powers, if susceptible of development, must be 
trained in various directions. The treatment of this subject, appealing 
broadly to philanthropic interests, as well as to all who desire to secure 
the safety of society, must be illustrated by one grand example only, 
that drawn from the experience of the IS"ew York State Reformatory 
at Elmira; for the experience of this institution can be the experience 
of all institutions wherever conditions are similar. The information re- 
lating to this celebrated reformatory is taken from the writings of the 
editor of The Summary, a periodical published at the Elmira reform- 
atory, the editor always being an inmate of the institution, and the 
Sixteenth Year Book of the institution ; and many of the statements 
herein made are in the actual language taken from these works and 
adapted to the methods of an official report. 

The Elmira reformatory of today is to the reformatory of 1876, to 
put the proposition mathematically, as sixteen is to one. From a mere 
modernized penitentiary, as it was essential it should be in the first 

623 



624 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

fe\Y montlis of its existence, when its population was recruited witli 
more or less discrimination from the state prisons at Auburn and Sing- 
Sing, and with accommodations for less than 500, the institution has been 
developed into a great compulsory educational establishment for improv- 
able felons and corrigibles; and there were, at the close of 1891, about 
1,300 men undergoing a systematic process of reintegration and prepara- 
tion for again commingling with society. Moral, mental, and mannal 
training have been systematically coordinated, with the end in view of 
turning out practical, self-helping, self- controlling citizens. As is well 
known the system in practice at Elmira is that of indeterminate sentence, 
the reformable convict being sent there by the courts under a sentence to 
last until the proper authorities consider the inmate competent to mingle 
again with his fellows outside the institution, and even then the institu- 
tion has its hold upon the discharged or partially discharged convict. 
In the treatment of the inmates convalescence was construed to be 
moral, intellectual, and physical capability to earn a livelihood, and a 
disposition to live in consonance with the self-protective requirements 
of society. Under this consideration of Avhat criminal convalescence is 
it is obvious that the course of treatment essential to secure it would 
be cultivation of mind and body to a point that Avould render the 
subject fit to take an honorable stand in the honest vocation which 
seemed best adapted to his conditions. The reformatory prescription, 
then, as stated by the editor referred to, consists of a trinity of m's — 
mental, moral, and manual training — and these ingredients have been 
used in varying proportions during the past sixteen or seventeen 
years, their relations in the remedy being invariably controlled by the 
needs of the patient as developed in diagnosis, and oftentimes by the 
invention of better methods and the intervention of new laws. The 
success of the application of this prescription has been snch that at 
tlie end of a decade the reformatory had firmly established itself 
as something more than an experiment, although it has continued to 
rank as an experimental station, inasmuch as opportunity is con- 
stantly afforded for the test of plans that offer promise of aid in 
accomplishing the ends aimed at. While the cardinal features of the 
reformatory plan have remained unaltered, from the first there have 
been numerous changes in the details of the curriculum^ and during 
the past few years there have been many innovations resulting from 
the variable statutes, the immense increase in intermural population, 
and a more widespread understanding of the reformatory's system 
and its object by the general public. Both design and chance have 
conspired to give prominence to the educational factor, until now the 
term ^'technological university '^ is often applied to the institution; 
and the term can hardly be regarded as a misnomer. The apparent 
chief pursuit at present of a large majority of the inmates is educa- 
tion, and from sunrise until considerably after sunset their minds, 
their wills, and their muscles are exercised, now in acquiring a service- 



CHAP. XIII. — MANUAL TRAINING IN REFORMATORIES. 625 

able trade and learning to apply it, now in bridging the chasm betAveen 
illiteracy and a comprehension of language, mathematics, and the sci- 
ences,, and again in debating and deciding theoretical and practical 
moral points which had been entirely unconsidered by the inmates, 
and always in practising self-control and subordination to constituted 
authority, which is the concomitant of a strict disciplinary regime. 

Systematic trades instruction was first undertaken in 1886, and then 
only in a small way, owing to lack of space and absence of suitable 
appliances. In that year three connected one story pavilions, Greek 
cross shaped and affording 27,000 Sv^uare feet floor room, were con. 
structed and fitted with paraphernalia for teaching the rudiments of 
half a dozen trades, including plastering, bricklaying, stone cutting, 
blacksmithing, carpentry, and frescoing, to about 150 men. Only an 
hour and a half of two evenings each week were set apart for instruc- 
tion and practice, and jet most gratifying results were noted. It was 
just about this time that the labor system was being changed from the 
contract to the state account, in conformity with the will of the p80X)le 
expressed by their ballots, and it was planned to take advantage of 
the opportunity thus provided to reinforce the trades instruction by 
the establishment of diversified industries in which a fair amount of 
skill would be required, whereby inmates could in their daily labor 
prepare themselves to earn sufSciently when relieved of restraint. 
Much progress had been made in this direction, and the scope of the 
evening trades school had been greatly widened when the legislature, 
in the summer of 1888, passed a bill which substantially prohibited all 
convict labor, except for the making of articles to be used by the state 
in its various institutions. This measure, in its application to the 
reformatory, seemed to demand the substitution of the trades school 
for productive labor, and it was not many weeks before all the inmates 
of the institution, excepting those required for the conduct of its cleri- 
cal and domestic affairs, had been organized in trades classes and were 
devoting half of every day in fitting themselves for engaging as jour- 
neymen or advanced apprentices in some one of twenty- five trades 
taught. Disciplinary officers were engaged with special reference to 
their competence to impart technological instruction, and courses were 
prepared with the utmost care. For those whom it Avould benefit 
classes in mechanical drawing were formed under expert draughtsmen. 
Capacity to earn a living at some recognized trade became, under the 
rules, indispensable to conditional release. 

The effects upon the men were most salutary. In. this method of 
reformation, at least, there was nothing too occult for them to under- 
stand. Many of them who had hitherto had very meagre concei)tions 
of the value of industry v\^ere promptly brought to a realization of the 
fact that their criminality and its consequences were largely due to 
S. Ex. 65 40 



626 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR, 

lack of ability^ and sometimes, evea, of tlie disposition to maintain 
themselves, as did their honest and x>lodding fellow beings. Hands, 
as well as minds, were without culture. 

" If I had been taught a trade at either my first or my second 
imprisonment I should never have known a third conviction for crime,'^ 
earnestly declared one youth of 19 years upon tearfully confessing to 
the superintendent that he had already been a prisoner in a reform 
school and a state prison. Upon appearing before the parole court 
the almost invariable answer of the applicants for a term of '^ enlarged 
liberty without the inclosure" to the query, "What will you do for a 
living when released?" has been, "Why, work at my trade — the trade 
I have learned here." 

The prison law of 1889 was so thoroughly in harmony with the arrange- 
ments in vogue at the reformatory at the time of its passage that its 
only immediate effect was to encourage an extension of the trades 
school system and to warrant projects for its permanency. At that 
period the inmates of the reformatory were, as, indeed, they are now, 
divided into three grades, described as the first, second, and third. 
The intermediate (second) was that into which all prisoners were initi- 
ated upon their arrival. From it, by six months of perfect record in 
the schools of trades and of letters and in general conduct, they could 
be advanced to the first grade, from which in another six months their 
conditional liberation might be authorized, or, through a serious infrac- 
tion of the rules or a sequence of imperfect monthly records, they could 
be reduced to the third, or convict grade, out of which they could only 
extricate themselves and begin to make headway toward release after 
from three to twelve months, according to the frequency with which 
they had displayed tendencies to rank with the incorrigibles. The new 
law adopted the same nomenclature in designating the three classes of 
l^risoners in the state penitentiaries. In the third gTade it r)laced aU 
those convicts regarded as wholly incorrigible and whose labor was to 
be neither instructive nor productive. Of this class there were scarcely 
any in the reformatory, and to avoid confusion, since the section of the 
statute was adjudged to a]3p]y to this institution, there was a rechris- 
tening of the grades without alterations of the regulations applying to 
them. The first grade became known as the upper first, the second 
as the lower first, and the third as the second. 

With this understanding of the classification it will be readily appre- 
ciated how favorable was the new law to the furtherance of the trades 
school scheme when it is remembered that the legislative act com- 
manded that all prisoners of the first and second grades shall be 
employed "with reference to fitting the lorisoner to maintain himself 
bj^ honest industry after his discharge from imprisonment, and it is tl\Q 
primary or sole object of such labor." It was furthermore decreed in 
the law that " such i^risoners of the first grade may be so employed at 



CHAP. XIII. MANUAL TRAINING IN REFOEMATORIES. 627 

hard labor for industrial training and instruction solely, even tliougli 
no useful and salable products result from their labor," and that ^'the 
labor of the second grade shall be directed primarily to the production 
of useful and salable products, but secondarily to fitting such prison- 
ers to maintain themselves by honest industry after their discharge 
from prison, even though their labor be rendered thereby less produc- 
tive." 

Under these circumstances there has been no haste in resurrecting 
the strictly industrial feature of the reformatory, since it was apparent 
that the main object could be more surely brought about through the 
building up of the technological department until it had attained its 
hi^'hcst plane of usefulness. It is now furnishing instruction to men 
in no less than 32 distinct trades^ for i>eriods of from two to eight 
hours a day, and some of the classes are so organized and equipped as 
to be able to manufacture for revenue. Th^ trades taught and the 
distribution of the pupils among the various classes on October 1, 1891, 
were as follows : 

Irou moulding 88 i TTood working (machinery) 4 

Iron forging 16 ! Cabinetmaking (bench, -work) 25 

Machinists 56 \ Hard ^ood finishing 



oo 



Horseshoeriig 16 

Patternmaking 7 

Brass moulding 5 

Brass finishing 28 



Wood turning _ 14 

Upholstery 32 

Wood carving 26 

Bookbinding 27 



Plumbing 30 i Cooking 16 



iSteam fitting 4 

Tinsmi thing 20 

Stone cutting 41 

Bricklaying 131 

Plastering 23 

Frescoing 32 

Carpentry ..-^ 12 

Boat building 43 



Baking 5 

Shoemaking 24 

Stenography 19 

Music (band) 32 

Barbering 21 

Electricians 3 

Printing 27 

Tailorin g 42 



Of inmates not receiving trades instruction on that date 87 had 
graduated from the technological department, 58 were equii)ped with 
a trade on admission and required no instruction, 120 were in the 
second grade and had been transferred on that account to a produc- 
tive industry, and the remainder of the population included those 
physically incapacitated, awaiting parole, or awaitiug assigninent. 

In imparting trades instruction the efibrts of the tutors is not bent, 
merely, toward giving a theoretical knowledge, but they endeavor to 
graduate practised, practical workmen. Abundance of opportunity for 
putting to a test the eihciency of the pupils is found in the requirements 
of the establishment. A new guard wall, 850 feet long and 21 feet high, 
and an additional building, 450 feet long, containing 504 cells, class 
rooms, and officers' quarters, with all ai)purtenanf;es, are, with the ex- 
ception of the masonry of the walls and a portion of the stone fonnda- 
tions of the extension, the work of trades school classmen. The 



628 REPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF I.ABOR. 

enlargement, refurnisliing, and redecorating of an assembly hall, to seat 
1,500, are likewise chiefly the work of pupils of the trades school 
divisions, and all the wearing apparel of the inmates is made in the 
tailoring and shoemaking classes. 

In so far, at least, does the reformatory reform that none of its 
charges is permitted to pass to liberty until he can read and write 
with facility, and has mastered the four rudimentary principles of arith- 
metic. This is the minimum requirement. A majority of those who are 
deemed suitable subjects for the parole privilege have reached an 
educational standard on a par with that of graduating classes in pub- 
lic grammar schools, and many finish a course similar to that pre- 
scribed for high schools. 

The school system had its inception in the second year of the ins*ti- 
tution's active existence — 1877. The attendance then, as ever, was 
comx^ulsory. One hundred and seventy men, most of whom were trans- 
ferred from state prisons, and two-thirds of whom had no knowledge 
of simple arithmetic, were divided among twenty small classes and in- 
structed in the elementary principles of language and mathematics by 
inmate teachers. In 1879 a systematic and more advanced school course 
was devised and inaugurated by an Elmira college professor, to whose 
aid were summoned several experienced pedagogues. This course has 
increased yearly in efficiency and grown wider in range until now it is 
bounded by a kindergarten on the one hand and a geometry class on 
the other, and embraces, besides its eight language and nine arithme- 
tic classes, divisions studying English literature, American and ancient 
history, political economy, civil government, physical geography, alge- 
bra, electricity, ethics, and moral philosophy. 

The school is divided into three major divisions — the primary, the 
intermediate, and the academic. These are again divided into classes, 
the primary department having six subdivisions and the intermediate 
and academic two each. There are, in addition, special classes for the 
teaching of English to German, French, and Italian speaking inmates. 
The classes assemble on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, 
Friday, and Saturday evenings at 6.30 o'clock, and continue in ses- 
sion until 8. There *are also Sunday sessions for instruction in practical 
ethics and moral philosophy. The school exercises continue from one 
year's end to the other, with only sufficient intermission between the 
terms to give time to reorganize the classes. 

It will be seen that the design is that every corrigible prisoner shall^ 
prior to his release, take a course of instruction in the trade which 
seems to the management best adai)ted to the requirements of bis 
future life; for to make and hold a place as a respected, law abiding 
citizen it is of paramount importance that he be equipped with a prac- 
tical knowledge of some handicraft through which he may earn suffi- 
cient to satisfy his reasonable wants. The assignment to a mechanic 
arts class is made by the general superintend^t immediately on the 



CHAP. XIII. — MANUAL TRAINING IN REFORMATORIES. 629 

inmate's arrival. The organization of all training, botli manual and 
trade, is quite complete, so much so that during a greater portion of 
the working time of the week the institution is, as has been intimated, 
a vast technological training school, in which upward of thirty recog- 
nized trades are being taught to over a thousand youths and men. 

In its general organization the trades school has two divisions. 
In one of these are included all classes in which the end is exclusively 
instruction and in the other are the classes in which production is an 
object, though secondary to instruction. In both divisions the pupils 
are given amijle opportunity for practical work, and to test tlieir 
earning capacity. The least amount of benefit is derived by those who 
are engaged in the productive branches, in finishing hardware, mak- 
ing umbrellas, x)ipes, and j)acking boxes, and to these occupations are 
chiefly assigned second grade men, who by their loss of standing have 
forfeited for the time the i)rivilege of learning a more useful trade. 

In many of the classes the instruction afforded is sufficient to prepare 
a pupil of average ability to take and hold a place as a journeyman, 
while in others the time allotted is so brief and the opportunities for 
practice are so limited that a certificate of graduation simply predicates 
that the holder is fitted to rank as an advanced apprentice. He has, 
however, m a few months acquired a technical and scientific knowledge 
of his work that Avould have taken him as many years to pick up in a 
shop, and has reached a stage at which he may quickly attain a value 
as a mechanic. The courses for the various classes are carefully planned, 
and each instructor, who is an expert in his line, is provided with a 
printed outline describing in detail the order in which lessons are to be 
imparted and the number of hours' exercise for each i)art. When a 
pupil has spent a specified time on any one j)art of an outline he is 
examined, and, if proficient, takes up the next succeeding part. Fail- 
ing to come up to the standard he is marked accordingly and continues 
practice on the same i)art. The basis of marking is similar to that in 
the school of letters, the inmate losing from one to three labor credits 
accordiugto the judgment of his relative efficiency as represented in 
the percentage credit allowed to him between zero and seventy-five. 

Brlcldaylng. — Members of this class have- been particularly fortu- 
nate during the past year in having an unlimited amount of practicpJ 
work upon which to test their capabilities and gain the experience which 
gives them confidence. Under the direction of citizen foremen the 
class and its graduates have raised the walls of the new north wing 
extension, 450 feet long, with the massive cell-house blocks within; 
built the greater part of the new north guard wall, 850 feet long and 21 
feet high ; reared a chimney for the main steam making plant, 140 feet 
high; and are at this writing putting up the walls of the new tliree 
story industrial building adjoining the new extension. The course of 
instruction and practice for the bricklaying class is as follows: 



630 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIO^NER OF LABOR, 



COURSE IK BRICKLAYING. 

Hours. 

Spreading morfcar on "board and on wall 30 

Laying out wall ; first dry, then with mortar 30 

Eight-inch, wall without plumb or line; spread mortar for three bricks^ striking 

joints ; 30 

Twelve-inch sq^nare piers, and chimneys, striking joints 30 

Eight-inch wall with plumb and line, with chimney, fire-place; turn corners, 

build pilasters 60 

Twelve-inch wall with pluoib and line, with fire-place, flues; turn corners, 

build pilasters 60 

Eight-inch plain wall ; turn corners, spread mortar for three bricks, build pilas- 
ters, run projections between j^ilastors to face of same 60 

Ditto for twelve-inch wall 60 

Sixteen-inch wall; turn corners, attend to headers outside and inside, run wall 

high without scaffold 30 

Sixteen-inch wail; bats for backing and filling, putting flues in wall without 

projecting : — 30 

Semicircular arches, 4 inches by 8 inches and 12 inches by 16 inches 60 

Segmental arches, 4 inches by 8 inches and 12 inches by 16 inches 60 

Gothic arches, 4 inches by 8 inches and 12 inches by 16 inches 60 

Dovetail arches, 8 inches by 12 inches 30 

Eight-inch wall; turn corners, set door, window sills, and frames; semicircu- 
lar arch over all 30 

Twelve-inch wall; corners, pilasters, windows, doors, semicircular arches; 

bracket cornice between; pilasters connected by semicircular arch 30 

Sixteen-inch wall; corners, windows, doors, semicircular arch outside, seg- 
mental arch inside over windows, dovetail over doors 30 

Gables, plain and with windows 30 

Arches, gables, octagons, and half octagons 30 

Change square to octagon 30 

Battering brick work plumb 30 

Long i)lain twelve-inch wall ; pilasters, windows, doors ; work fast 60 

Mixing mortar; two lessons a month for 1 year. 

Before graduation each man must be able to lay bricks plumb, neatly, 
and at the rate of 600 bricks in eight hours. There are no limitations 
upon the size of this class during the building season, and as many as 
150 i)upils have been carried on its roll. 

Plastering. — As this trade is so closely allied to that of bricklaying 
it is taught chiefly to the same men, sometimes before and sometimes 
after they have completed their course with the x)lumb and trowel. The 
instruction is given in booths formed of stud partitions, lathed in the 
usual manner, and arrauged to present the conditions ordinarily to be 
found in rooms of various shapes. These furnish accommodations for 
18 men at a time. Advanced members of the class have found prac- 
tice duriug the year in plastering the walls of the new auditorium 
and of the 504 cells in the new extension, and they are called upon 
frequently to re-plaster rooms in many parts of the institution. The 
course of instruction and practice is as follows: 



CHAP. XIII. — ^MANUAL TRAINING IN REF0EMATGRIES. 631 

COURSE IN PLASTERING. 

Ilours. 

Latliing 40 

Making mortar, "wlieii and how to begin plastering, thickness of coat 40 

Names of tools, scratch coat, 'how put on, and what for 72 

Brown coat, how put on, when and what for; screeds and spots and their object. 72 

Putting brown coat on lath 40 

Putting brown coat on brick or stone work 40 

Finishing brown coat for paint or fresco 40 

White coat, clear lime skin, lime and sand skin 40 

White coat, sand finish, trowel work 40 

White coat, sand finish, float work .... 40 

White coat, hard finish, preparing, applying to wall, using trowel and brush, 

finishing angles and corners 144 

Applying scratch coat to arches and difi;erent angles 40 

Applying brown coat to arches and different angles 40 

Cornice, centre pieces and circles, preparing material, etc 72 

Making centre pieces and putting on wall.. 40 

Turning circles on wall and white coat around them 40 

Preparing mortar for different kinds of work; preparing lime for white coat.. . 40 

Fresco j^ainting, — The equipments of tlie class room in which this 
trade is taught are sufficient to accommodate 30 persons. There are 
wooden screens for beginners, supplemented by hanging ceilings. 
When tlie pupil has developed sufficient facility he is given Avork on 
walls and ceilings wherever decoration is required. During the past 
summer the plaster of the new auditorium has been very artisticailj^ 
treated by members of this class, many of whom exhibit exceptional 
merit. The course of instruction and practice is as follows : 

COURSE IN FRESCO PAINTING. 

Hours. 

Preparation of walls .^ 24 

Drawing one-inch lines 24 

Drawing fine lines 24 

Drawing lines to represent woven work 24 

Drawing beveled squares, quadrilaterals, and hexagons with fine lines 72 

Stencilling, joining where ties occur, edging with fine lines 72 

Making appropriate toj) and bottom borders for stencil 60 

Free-hand practice on simple geometric designs, laying out and edging with 

fine lines, high light, and shade 120 

Laying out and finishing ceilings, including free-hand work 120 

Imitation of moulding, light and shade 60 

Free-hand borders and scroll work 100 

Finishing ceilings overhead, all free-hand work 120 

Final examination, test piece 120 

Stone cutting. — The contributions of the advanced pupils of this class 
to the building erected during the past year are scarcely less note- 
worthy than those of the bricklayers. They have furnished all the 
cut stone for the foundations, copings, and general trimmings of the 
north wing extension. This has given them sufficient practice to qual- 
ify them to hold places with journeymen of considerable experience. 



632 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR, 

Tlie planned course covers all kinds of work in common use. The class 
room lias a floor space of over 10,000 square feet and no limit is placed 
on the size of tlie class. The course of instruction and practice is as 
follows: 

COURSE IN STONE CUTTING. 

Hoars. 

RoiigMng out stone 60 

Making smooth surface on stone 60 

Droving and smoothing stone 75 

Tooling 60 

Square jointing 40 

Chamfering and droving water table, and jointing same 50 

Cutting windovr sills with bevels 20 

Cutting round arches 20 

Cutting Gothic arches 20 

Straight mouldings 60 

Mouldings with returns 60 

Gothic and round arches, combined with mouldings , 80 

Round arches and mouldings for belting course 60 

Spnr stone for gable roof 100 

Making a complete window '. 100 

Ma,king jambs for mantel 30 

Making shelves for mantel 30 

Making lintel for mantel 30 

Carpentry. — With men who have a choice of trades this class appears 
to be the most ijopular. The number of requests to join it are always 
considerably in excess of the accommodations, although plenty of room 
is found for those whose predilection is natural, or is based on some- 
thing more substantial than mere fancy. The course comprehends a 
wide range, and it is expected of graduates that they shall be capable of 
erecting a wooden tenement from cellar to ridge pole. In fact, one of 
the tests of efficiency has been the building of miniature frame houses. 
First the sills are laid and the studding begun, then the ribbons are 
Ijlaced in position and the joists are laid across. Each joint is made 
with due attention to the advantageous cutting of the lumber. After 
the rafters are in place the plancher and frieze are put on, the roof 
boards are fastened, and the eaves finished off. The outside doorways 
and all the Aviudows are also inserted, each form being complete in 
every particular. In the building operations of the institution no class 
has been more useful j abundant meritorious evidences of the thorough- 
ness of its instruction being found in the structures put uj) duiing the 
year. The course of instruction and practice is as follows : 

COURSE IN CAEPENTPvY. 

Hours. 

Use of rip-saw, coarse and fine cross-cut saws 25 

Planing a 2 by 4, out of wind, to gauge and square 50 

The carpenter's square 8 

Chamfering, using chisel 38 

Mortises ' 38 



CHAP. XIII. MANUAL TRAINING IN REFORMATORIES. 633 

Hours. 

Tenons 38 

Making a frame of a given size, with mortises and tenon joints 50 

Halving together 25 

Making a frame of a given size, halving together the joints 38 

Mitre joints 25 

Making a hox or frame of a given size, nsing mitre joints 38 

Making timber splices, draw bore and pin together 63 

Dovetail 38 

Making a box of a given size, dovetailing it together 50 

Blind dovetail 38 

Making a box of a' given size, blind dovetailing it together 50 

Lock and key 25 

Hinges - 38 

Window-frames 50 

Door-frames 38 

Skirting 25 

Stud partition and bridging 38 

Coping, round casing, and moulding 38 

Filing both rip and cross-cut saws 75 

Final examinations 125 

Connected with tlie carpentry class is a small group of men engaged 
in making packing cases. This ranks as a productive, as well as 
instructive, industry, tlie products being taken up by the hardware 
and cabinet departments for shipping stock. 

Wood turning. — This course is brief, requiring only from three to 
four months to complete for those who are assigned to the class half 
of each working day, and it usually follows or precedes a training in 
some other wood working branch. It is as follows: 

COURSE IN WOOD TURNING. 

Hours. 

Using of gouge in turning parallel rods 7 

Using of flat chisel in turning parallel rods , 7 

Using of flat chisel in cutting beads 15 

Using of small gouge in cutting grooves 15 

Turning spindles 60 

Turning chair and table legs, etc., from patterns 60 

Turning rosettes, plinth blocks, core pulleys, etc 60 

Turning hollow work 30 

Turning spheres and ovoids 15 

Wood carmng. — This is one of the five trades taught in the two 
story shop building known as the cabinet works at the west end of 
the enclosure. The advanced pupils and graduates of this and the 
four classes mentioned in the next paragraphs contribute toward the 
manufacture of sideboards, lounges, piano stools, etc., of cheap and 
fine grade, which are put upon the market. The men detailed to the 
wood carving class are selected from among those who evince artistic 
tastes and exceptional ax)preciation of form. The class room is designed 
to accommodate 18 men at the benches at one time. The course of in- 
struction and practice is as follows: 



634 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

COURSE IN WOOD CARVING. 

Hours. 

Incised or intaglio work, involving straight and curved lines 25 

Simple cliecked panels, using not more than three tools 40 

Intaglio designs in lines of varied widths and depths, combined with incised 

leaves IGO 

Conventional leaf carving with broad bold sweeps and plowing, curves 50 

Conventional designs of greater freedom from the Gothic 100 

Panels of cabinets ... 60 

Carving of a leaf in the solid.. „ .. €0 

Carving of an animal's head 100 

Carving of an ivy vine in the solid. 60 

Different kinds of fruit 100 

Different kinds offish 100 

A vase and flowers 100 

Final examination, test piece 100 

Wood finisMng. — The staining, finishing, shellacking, varnisliing, and 
rubbing of the surface wood work of all fiirnitnre made in the cabinet 
works devolves upon members of this division as rapidly as they become 
proficient. In each part of the course there is much practical work, 
and it is done with great care, since it is subject to the most searching 
and critical scrutiny before it is permitted to pass to the upholstery or 
cabinet classes, as the case may be. The course of instrnction and 
practice is as follows : 

COURSE IN WOOD FINISHIKG. 

Hours. 

SandpapeTing soft wood, waluut, and ash , 60 

Sandpapering oak and cherry 40 

Staining cherry and walnut ., 40 

Staining ebony and mahogany 40 

Filling ash, oak, and walnut 60 

Puttying 20 

Shellacking soft wood 60 

Shellacking walnut GO 

Shellacking ash .- 60 

Shellacking oak 60 

Sandpapering the shellac, soft and hard wood 4t) 

Varnishing soft wood ." 60 

Varnishing hard wood 60 

Rubbing .•...' 120 

Polish ing 80 

Reiinishing furniture 150 

CahmetmaJcing. — Preliminary to engaging upon the active work set 
apart for this class, the members receive lessons in the care and use of 
the great variety of tools required by cabinetmakers. They are then 
given considerable practice on '^ dummy'' work, and finally are engaged 
upon sideboards, joiniug the parts as they come from the machine room 
and fitting the locks, trimmings, plate glass, etc. The sideboards are 
of various shapes and in many designs, and are finished in the natural 
woods, or in antique, sixteenth century, and old English styles. 

TJ])liolstering. — Practice in upholstering all grades of sofas, lounges, 
ottomans, chairs, and piano stools is obtained by this class without 



CHAP. XIII. MANUAL TRAINING IN REFORMATOEIES. 635 

stint, the labor of tlie members, after tliey have advanced sufficiently 
in their outlined course, being directed toward preparing goods for 
sale. The cushioned furniture is made in a great variety of sliapes and 
is covered with all materials ordinarily used, from Brussels carpet to 
Turkish rugs and the finest silk plush. The course of instruction and 
practice is as follows : 

COUESE IN UPHOLSTERING. 

Hours. 

Springing up lounges 24 

Upliolsteriug base and arm 48 

UpholsteriDg back 12 

Finishing complete lounge 84 

Forming rolls 8 

Stitching rolls 8 

Putting on covers 32 

Constructing upholstery for whole sofa 8-4 

Spring edges 18 

Double stuffing > 18 

Covering 36 

Putting on fringe 1 

Upholstering complete sofa 84 

Small chairs 15-20 

Arm chairs 10 

Eockers 16 

Sofas 20 

Student chairs 30 

Wood tcorking maclimery. — Under this class head come a considera- 
ble number of men who are taught how to care for and manipulate the 
great variety of wood work machines used in turning out the j)roduct 
of the cabinet works. It is sought to make them thoroughly familiar 
with a full line of power machinery, and they have opportunities for 
treathig elm, walnut, cherry, oak, chestnut, basswood, whitewood, 
cucumber, beech, maple, hickory, and ash, learning the peculiarities of 
the grain, and the effect of the various woods on knives and saws. 
Among the machines used are band-saws, buzz-saws, surface planers, 
shapers, turning lathes, tenon-saws, dovetailers, horizontal and verti- 
cal borers, swing-saws, buzz planers, sanders, and carvers. 

Boat 'building, — A year's conscientious labor at the various tasks in 
this department is generally sufficient to qualify men to select lumber 
for and to build small boats. The production of the shop includes Saint 
Lawrence river skiffs and Adirondack boats from 10 to 24 feet long, 
smooth seam and canvas canoes, open and decked sail boats, sailing 
canoes, steam launches, spoon oars, paddles, and sails, all of which are 
made for the trade. The boats are chiefly of the better grades, smooth 
and lapstreaked, and most frequently finished in the natural wood colors, 
highly polished, with x)lain and inlaid decks, and brass and silver 
plated trimmings. The pujiils are taught, in this order, ijlaning and 
sawing stock, keel laying, planking, ribbing, decking and seating, 
sandpaperiiig, oiling, shellacking, varnishing, trimming, and crating, 
and tiiQj are also instructed in the methods of fashioning oars and pad- 
dles and of cutting and stitching sails. 



636 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Ty]^e setting and printing. — Those assigned to tliis class are first given 
a full course in composition, and are not considered fully competent 
for graduation until tliey can set fair copy, correct proofs, and dis- 
tribute at the rate of 1,000 ems per liour. Thereafter, if they display 
an aptitude for the printing business, they are advanced to stone work 
and to the press and job rooms. Then they receive instruction in mak- 
ing up forms, methods of measuring margin, arranging the furniture, 
and locking up forms; arrangement of title pages and other displayed 
matter; sizes, quality of paper and cardboard; in the handling of hand 
presses and power platen and single cylinder presses; regulation of 
impression, making register; rollers, their composition and mode of 
manufacture; making wood and metal cuts ready; use of i)aper cutters, 
etc. Below is the course i)ursued in the composing room and showing 
the rate at which the type setter is expected to develo]> speed : 

COURSE IN TYPE SETTING AND PRINTING. 

Hours. 

Names and uses of articles in printing office plant 24 

Learning case and distributing. 32 

Use of composing stick and rule 32 

Sizes and designation of type 24 

Copy marks .1 8 

Straiglit composition, reprint and manuscri]3t copy ; nonpareil, brevier, and 

long primer. Task 250 ems per hour 60 

Task 280 ems per hour 60 

Task 310 ems per liour 00 

Task 350 ems per hour 60 

Task 380 ems per hour 60 

Task 410 ems per hour 60 

Task 450 ems per hour 60 

Task 480 ems jyer hour 60 

Task 510 cms per hour 60 

Task 550 ems per hour 60 

Task 580 ems per hour , 60 

Task 610 ems per hour 60 

Task 650 ems per hour ., 60 

Task 680 ems per hour 60 

Task 710 ems per hour 60 

Task 750 ems per hour 60 

Task 760 ems per hour 60 

Task 780 ems per hour 60 

Task 800 ems per hour 60 

Task 810 ems per hour 60 

Task 830 ems per hour • 60 

Task 850 ems per hour 60 

Task 860 ems per hour , 1 60 

Task 880 ems per hour 60 

Task 900 ems per hour 60 

Task 910 ems per hour 60 

Task 930 ems per hour , 60 

Task 950 ems per hour 60 

Task 975 ems per hour 60 

Task 1,000 cms per hour 60 



CHAP. XIII. MANUAL TRAINING IN REFORMATORIES. 637 

In tlie plant of tlie printing office is included a Columbian hand press, 
a universal jobber, and a single cylinder newspaper press, all of which 
are in constant use every secular day in turning out the thousands of 
lesson leaflets for the schools, the great mass of printed stationery and 
books required by a busy, compact community of nearly 1,500 persons, 
and in taking impressions of The Summary, the periodical published 
in the institution. The stock of display type contains over a hundred 
fonts of modern casting. 

BooliMnding. — The bookbindery, as is fitting, is a close neighbor of 
the printing office, occupying adjoining apartments in the same build- 
ing. Besides the opportunity for instruction it furnishes it is service- 
able as an adjunct of the institution, in that its workers rule and bind 
all the ledgers and blank books required in the various counting rooms, 
X)ad the memorandum blanks, bind and rebind library books, and accom- 
plish much more of value in their line. The course of instruction and 
practice is as follows : 

COURSE IN BOOKBINDING. 

Hours. 

Folding stationery and printed slieets 12 

Gatliering 12 

Sewing in for the bands 25 

*Sewing of books, all along and two sheets out 50 

Putting on fly-leaves on print work 12 

Putting on fly-leaves on blank work 37 

Gluing the back 12 

Cutting front fore edge 25 

Rounding and backing 125 

Cutting boards for covers 25 

Head banding 50 

Lining of the back 25 

Paring of leather 25 

Putting on of boards 25 

Leathering of back and corners 65 

Case making 25 

Sliding up (paper and cloth) 25 

Pasting up 25 

Pressing 25 

Marbling 65 

Gilding 65 

Red edging 65 

Final examination by instructor, binding whole book 50 

Under tlie same iurisdiction as the bindery, and in an adjoining 
room, is the paper box shop which ranks as a i)roductive, as well as an 
instructive, industry. Here are made the boxes in which are packed 
the shelf goods manufactured in the hardware department and in the 
pipe shop. After a limited time for practice in putting together the 
various styles of boxes the workers are given a i^rescribed task, grad- 
ually increased as they become efficient. In the bookbindery, also, is 
taught the care and use of ruling machines. 

Moulding {iron). — The foundery is a i)ortion of the hardware manu- 
facturing plant, and the trades class pupils in it begin to shape 



688 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

articles for the market wlien tliey have been taught the first principles 
of moulding. Besides the fomidery and its cupola there belong to the 
hardware plant a two story finishing shop and packing room, mill room, 
large storehouse, x^attern safe, fan room, match room, and all the neces- 
sary machinery, tools, and appliances for transforming a piece of pig 
iron into a finely finished merchantable piece of shelf hardware. The 
13roduct consists chiefly of shelf brackets, sad-irons, frame, side, and 
screw i^ulleys, grindstone fixtures, well wheels, casters, barrel bolts, 
registers, and kindred goods, the annual output being about 1,200 
tons. There are 120 inmates employed in the department — 50 in the 
foundery and 70 in the finishing shop and packing room. The mould- 
ing class has two divisions. In one the rudiments of the trade are 
taught. When the pupil becomes sufficiently advanced he is trans- 
ferred into the foundery proper, and there receives gradually more dif- 
ficult work to do, until, finally, he becomes master of the trade. 
Some idea of the range of practice that is gained may be formed from 
the statement that over 1,000 brass patterns and 500 wooden patterns 
are in use. The tyro in bench moulding is taught first how to keep 
his pattern clean, and then follow lessons in the tempering of sand, 
ramming the mould, x)lacing of bottom board, drawing pattern, and 
pouring. This is all bench work. The same course applies to floor 
moulding which is taken up by the most advanced pupils before grad- 
uation. All work is subjected to the most critical examination, and 
when faults ar<3 discovered the pupil who is responsible for them is 
cautioned and instructed how to avoid them. 

Kardivare fimsliing. — In this class, in which the minimum of benefit 
is derived by the jjupils, since the work is of a kind that requires 
dexterity rather than special skill, are engaged second grade men 
whose standing has effected their titles to more i)rofitable instruction 
for the time being, and members of other grades who require absorb- 
ing employment to accustom them to persistent and quick muscular 
effort, and who Sjoend a portion of their working hours acquiring an 
insight into some more useful vocation. There are handled in this 
shop as many as 50,000 small pieces of hardware a day. In the sort- 
ing, grinding, polishing, drilling, tapping, and riveting of the articles, 
after they have passed the mill room, the men gain familiarity with a 
variety of drilling machines, x)arallel lathes, pulley frame riveters, wire 
cutters and straighteners, emery wheels, sad-iron turners, chamfering 
hammers, bolt cutters, sad-iron handle formers and iDolishers, and have 
much x>ractice in japanning, coppering, and bronzing. 

PaUernmaJcing. — Beginners are instructed as to the specific i^roper- 
ties and applications of wood, and have explained to them the 
operations of moulding so that they may appreciate the uses of draught, 
halving, cores, etc. Following lessons in the care of tools and in the 
cutting out and turning of wood they prepare simple patterns and 
then engage in the more difficult exercises in which cores are used. 



CHAP. XIII. MANUAL TRAINING IN REFORMATORIES. 639 

A frequeiit test in a final examination is the making of patterns in 
detail for turning latlies. It is by this class that the wooden patterns 
for the brass and iron moulders are made. The course of instruction 
and practice is as follows ; 

COURSE IN PATTERNMAKING. 

Hours. 

To plane a 2 by 4 out of wind, to gauge^ and square tlirougliout 50 

Practice in use of rip and cut-off saws 25 

Filing saws 25 

Mortising, do retailing, and mitreing with chisel 75 

Turning stick to size 12 

Turning beads and gouge work 25 

Turning vases and general lathe work 38 

Making round core boxes 8 

Bracket pattern 38 

Crank pattern — combining turning and bench work 25 

Small hand wheel - 25 

Small gear blank, curved arms 20 

Small pulley 25 

Spider, kettle, gem iron, etc 75 

Draw handle, door latch, etc 50 

Tool chest for hand lathe 25 

Vise pattern 63 

Engine cylinder, core boxes, valve, etc 75 

Hanger pattern for line shaft 38 

Detail of a speed lathe assigned by instructor 50 

Globe valv« pattern, T-joints aud elbows 50 

Final examination, general work assigned by instructor 100 

MacMuists. — In the machine shop, which is stocked ^dfch an assort- 
ment of engine lathes^ speed lathes, planers, drills, and other metal 
working machinery, there are accommodations for 50 men in the two 
sections of the class. Preliminary to the course an explanation is given 
of the construction of the machines to be used and the theory of cutting 
tools is analyzed. The earliest work is at benches, which are supplied 
with vises, chisels, files, and other necessary tools. The course of 
instruction and practice is as follows: 

COURSE FOE MACHINISTS. 

Hours. 

Chipping small block* 60 

Filing and finishing small blocks 38 

Filing and fitting a sliding pair 50 

Scraping small surface plate 60 

Scraping small valve :. 50 

Drilling and rose-biting holes in flat iron ^ 20 

Drilling and rose-biting holes in round iron , 25 

Drilling and rose-biting boxes 25 

Planing small surface plate 12 

Planing small block 38 

Planing key- ways, dovetails, slots, etc 60 

Gt'nei'al work on planer 60 

Turning a- cylindrical block to gauge 12 

Turning a series of different sized steps on cylinder 25 

Hand tooling 12 



640 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Hours. 
Finishing and polisMng 12 

TriTuing V and square thread cap screw 50 

Chucking, boring; etc., of gear wheels, pulleys, etc 60 

Chucking, horing, and cutting square and V threads on nuts 60 

Centreing and turning an eccentric 38 

Turning taper, centres, mandrels, and reamers 50 

Planing small valve on shaper 25 

Cutting gear wheel teeth to templet on shaper 25 

Fiual examination, consisting of general repair work 125 

All reiDairs to inacliinery about the establishment are made by the 
machinist class, and during the past year considerable new work has 
been turned out for the building constructors, a notable piece being 
four winding stairways leading to the new aiiditorium. 

Iron forging. — The equii)meut of each learner includes a power forge, 
anvils, tongs, hammer, sledge, and kindred tools. The care and man- 
agement of the fire is first given attention and then drawing, upsetting, 
forming, and welding are practised j bars of lead being used until the 
pupil has gained an exact idea of the proper treatment of the piece 
before dealing with hot iron. The intermediate exercises include such 
constructions as hooks, bolts, shackle, chain, swivel, hinge, tongs, etc. 
The course of instruction and practice is as follows : 

COUllSE IX IRON FORGING. 

Hours. 

Drawing lead into square, octagonal, and round bars 25 

Drawing lead into different forms, with sledge practice 15 

Drawing iron into square, octagonal, and round Lars 3o 

Drawing iron into different forms, with sledge practice 20 

Light welding, scarf, right angle, T and butt 30 

Making heavy welds, scarf, right angle, T and butt 30 

Making chain, hooks, swivel, blacksmiths' tongs, etc 40 

General forgings from pattern or drawing. 40 

Working and tempering steel 60 

Making and tempering stonecutters' tools 60 

Making blacksmiths' tools 90 

Making machinists' tools 90 

General work in forging or repair from pattern or drawing. 90 

Final examination : 

Blacksmiths' tools 12 

Machinists' tools 12 

Forging from a pattern or drawing 12 

Horscslioeing . — This is an outgrowth of the forging class, and is 
especially designed to furnish a certain means of livelihood to a class 
of men who would be likely to find congenial employment in the black- 
smith shops ol rural districts. The first few exercises of the course are 
the same as those in the forging curriculum. It is when the treatment 
of a horse's hoof is brought under consideration that the outlines begin 
to vary materially. Jointed strips of wood, made to counterfeit in shape 
and action horses' legs, are used in teaching the methods of fitting and 
calking shoes until the i)upils are accustomed to the operation. There- 



CHAP. XIII. — MANUAL TRAINING IN KEFORMATOKIES. 641 

after they are permitted to test tLeir skill iipou the draught stock of 
the reformatory. The course of instruction and practice is as follows: 

COURSE IX IIORSESIIOEIXG. 

Hours. 

Use of hammer in draAving and shaping lead bars 25 

Drawing and shaping iron "25 

Welding iron 38 

Working steel 50 

Making blacksmiths' tools 38 

Practical work in preparing hoof for shoe 60 

Calking and fitting shoes 125 

Making horseshoes 150 

Final examination, consisting of shoeing and repair work 125 

Brass finishing. — Repairs to electrical apiDaratus, the manufacture 
of oar locks and brass trimmings for the skiffs, canoes, sailiog boats, 
and steam launches turned out of the boat shop, and the making of all. 
brass articles required in any of the departments of the institution, give 
the advanced pupils of this class an all-round experience in their 
trade that is of inestimable value. The equipment of the class room, 
in addition to the requisite hand and machine lathes, drill press, 
furnace, forge, milling machine, etc., includes a plating apparatus with 
small dynamo, and pupils are taiight the methods of depositing nickel, 
silver, and gold plates on metals. The contribution of the class to the 
new auditorium is a mammoth corona supporting nearly a hundred 
16-candle electric lamj^s, and a number of artistic electroliers. The 
course of instruction and practice is as follows: 

COURSE IN BRASS FINISHING. 

Hours. 

Oral instruction on the draught of patterns, names of files, etc 13 

Filing parallel and right angle surfaces 50 

Filing and fitting dovetail plugs to gauge 50 

Filing and fitting small gear 25 

Making, grinding, and using scrapers 25 

Filing, setting, and using back-saw 25 

To keep in order and use soldering-irons for soft solder 38 

Gating patterns 25 

Soft soldering on soft metal with blow pipe and alcohol lami) 50 

Soft soldering on hard metal with blow pipe 50 

Hard soldering with blow pipe 50 

Hard soldering with forge 50 

Annealing brass 25 

Hardening brass 25 

Bending brass tubing and rods 25 

Hardening and tempering tools, case hardening of iron, bluing screws 63 

Care, grinding, use of twist drills 25 

Drilling and tapping 25 

Use of hand tools on speed lathe 50 

Use o.f wood tools on speed lathe 25 

Turning to standard and hardening speed lathe centres 

Use of grinding, polishing, and buffing wheel 25 

Building of a small model complete from drawing 125 

S. Ex. 65 41 



642 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Connected with tlie class room is a small foimdery in wMch brass 
moulding is taught and where the permanent patterns for the iron 
founder}^ are made. The pupils learn the parts of the flask, the use^ of 
the cope and drag, placing and lifting of i:>atterns, gating of patterns, 
how to temi)er the sand, pouring, calculation of shrinkage, mixing 
metals, care of fire, etc. The course covers a period of six months for 
men who spend all their working hours in the foundery, anci thereafter 
they have practice in making x)atterhs in almost endless variety. 

Umbrella maMng, — This is another of the industries which has as 
an object profitable production as well as instruction, and which is 
largely carried on by second grade men. The major portion of the 
umbrellas turned out are of common cambric, though some of the more 
experienced hands are engaged upon a finer quality of goods and have 
made high grades of sun umbrellas and parasols from sateens and other 
covering materials. The extent of the instruction afforded will be 
best understood by following an umbrella through its various pro- 
cesses. The cloth is passed in rolls to operators who single-turn hem 
it on each side. It is then refolded into bundles and given to the 
cutters, who are guided in their work by wooden patterns for each size. 
The gores thus formed are run up into covers by sewing machine 
operators. Meanwhile in another part of the shoi^ the frames are being 
constructed. The ribs are first hung around by one worker, another 
adjusts the runner, and another the notches. The skeleton is now 
ready for the sticks, to which have already been affixed the cups and 
springs. The cover is secured to the frame, stretched, and ironed, the 
fiuisLers put on the ferrules, the packers inclose the completed 
umbrella in paper slips and bands, and it is ready for the market. As 
the men engaged in these oi3erations become proficient a stated amount 
of i)roduct per day is required of them, the limit being placed at such 
a point as shall enforce close and steady application. 

Pi])e maMng. — A number of the graduates and advanced pupils 
of the wood turning class find a i)lace to put their knowledge to a fair 
test in the shop known as the novelty works. Wood smoking pipes 
of many shapes are the chief product, but there are also made umbrella 
sticks, with olive root, birch, and apple wood handles, for tbe umbrella 
department, and hatchet handles, lignum- vit?e and maple caster wheels, 
and grindstone handles for the hardware dei)artment. The workers 
gain experience in handling automatic tnrniug lathes, drill presses, 
band and rixi-saws, dowelling and sandpapering machines, and polish- 
iug wheels. 

Flumding. — When the members of this division have become 
pretty thoroughly ])osted as to the use of plumbers' tools and furnaces, 
the preparing of wiping cloths, making solder, soldering seams, mak- 
ing cui), over-cast, flange, and branch joints, etc.. they are instructed as 
to the i)roper arrangement of drain, soil, and waste pipes, supply 
X)il)es, boilers, tanks, and pumps, and as to the disposal of traps and 
ventilators. In the class room are accommodations for i)ractical illus- 



CHAP. XIII. MANUAL TRAINING IN REFORMATORIP^S. 643 

trations of tlie treatment of tlie plumbing work used in modern tene- 
ments and factories. The course of instruction and practice is as fol- 
lows: 

COURSE IN PLUMBING. 

Hours. 

Caulking and cutting cast iron i^ipe fittings 40 

Making seams of slicet lead 40 

Over-cast joints 40 

Cuj) joints 40 

Making S-traps 48 

Wiping liorizontal round joints 48 

Wiping horizontal branch joints 60 

Willing upright round joints 60 

Wiping upright branch joints 60 

Wiping on stopcocks 40 

Wii)ing flange joints on floor on safes 40 

Wiping waste in copper lined batii tubs 40 

Wii)ing flange on 2-inch pipe 40 

Wiping on ferrule from -} inch to 2 inches 48 

Willing joints in corners, under floors, or bet\yeeu joists at different angles ... 40 

Making bends with and without sand 24 

Making bottle traps 60 

Wiping tanks or cisterns 40 

Making safes for fixtures 40 

Putting over floor in safe waste 40 

Setting water-closet, wash-basin, sink, urinals, and connecting pipes uecessarj^ 

for same 120 

/Steam fitting. — The miles of pipe in the steam heating and x)ower 
plant of the reformatory, with the constant demand for repairs and 
the connecting of new radiators, give practical employment to mem- 
bers of this division as rapidly as they can be advanced to a point 
of usefulness. In order, the instruction furnished is as follows: Out- 
ting pipe, plain and lock-nut threads, and right and left nipples j tap- 
ping out iittings; cutting gaskets and washers for flanges, unions, etc. ; 
packing valves with common screw stuffing box, also water glasses; 
packing valves with follower used in stuffing box; taking out j)iece of 
pipe and*, connecting with right and left coupling; taking out pipe and 
connecting with water union; taking out pipe and connecting with 
flange union; taking out pipe and connecting with lock-nut; making 
and placing square or right angle wall coil or pipe heater; making 
box coil of return bends, connecting with lock-nut to header. In learn- 
ing these details the av^erage pupil requires about 250 hours. There- 
after he fits himself for his trade by the experience afforded through 
general jobbing work. 

Tinsmithing. — -The actual i)ractice received, after the novitiates have 
been taught the use of furnaces, anvils, shears, and soldering-irons, an.d 
have learned how to prepare different metals for hard and soffc solder- 
ing, extends from making simple forms of pans, bowls, cups, pipe- 
joints, etc., to the joining of stove-pipe elbows, the making of intricate 
ornamental pieces, and roofing. The course of instruction and practice 
is as follows : 



644 KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

COURSE IN TIXSMITIIING. 

Ilours. 

Cutting on liiie Avitli bench and hand shears 25 

Marking out from pattern and cutting out work 50 

Turning edge for grooving 20 

Tlie use of the grooving niacliine 30 

Pounding down scams 10 

Turning edge for wiring Avith turning maeliine 50 

Use of liand wiring maeliine 50 

Use of burring maeliine for turning edge for bottoms 50 

Soldering seams 50 

Measuring for bottoms and cutting out same 50 

Turning edge for bottoms and putting on same 50 

Setting down bottoms ready to double seam 50 

Double seaming by band 30 

Double seaming with hand machine 40 

Soldering bottoms \ 50 

Putting on ears and bails and making the bails 40 

Making rims for covers and x)utting on the same 30 

Making dipper handles and soldering the same 40 

Drawing out soldering-irons and filing and tinning same 20 

Making stove-pipe 30 

Making tea-kettles 50 

Making boilers 75 

Final examination, general jobbing 75 

Bartering. — The facilities for learning how to treat crown and face 
hairs from the standpoint of a barber are exceptionally good, as there 
is constantly at hand an inexhaustible supi^ly of subjects for experi- 
ment. The men in this class, averaging about twenty in number, shave 
and cut the liair of all the men in the institution as often as is needed. 
The barber sliop is in the ^o. 1 trades school building, convenient to 
the centre of population during the working hours, and to it are 
marched those who need the services of the barbers. The shop is 
equipped with tilting barber chairs, looking glasses, and the necessary 
accoutrements of such an establishment. The beginners are not 
entrusted with razors until they have learned the principles of shaving 
thoroughly and have acquired the knack of a light touch through 
watching the movements of the instructor and the more advanced 
pux)ils. After completing the assigned course the pupil is required to 
shave men well at the rate of five per hour and to cut hair in any style 
at the rate of one head every twenty-five minutes. The course is as 
follows : 

COURSE IN BARBERING. 

Hours. 

Honing razors 36 

Lathering and combing 30 

Stropping 12 

Shaving light beards 40 

General shaving 40 

Hair cutting (lay down) - - - . 40 

Hair cutting (pompadour) - - 40 

Shampooing 15 

Dyeing and coloring 30 

General review, consisting of any work which may come into shop 40 



CHAP. XIII. MANUAL TRAINING IN REFORMATORIES. 645 

Tailoring. — By tlie members of tliis class, which usually numbers 
about half a hundred, are manufactured all the uniforms worn by 
inmates of all grades. The course is not intended to develop merchant 
tailors, but rather to give a good general idea of the trade to those 
who live in a locality where it is likely to be helpful. All cutting is at 
l)resent done by the instructor, the pupils learning basting, hand and 
machine sewing, pressing and finishing of trousers, coats, waistcoats, 
and overcoats. In the tailor shop, too, is done the required repairing 
to garments of all kinds. 

ShoemaMng. — The manufacture and repair of all the shoes and slip- 
pers for the members of the community give to the embryo shoe- 
makers enough i)ractice so that no stock is wasted in experiments. 
For the lower first and second grade men they put together a heavj^, 
low-cut shoe of common grade, and for members of the upper first 
grade and paroled men there is manufactured a lace shoe made from a 
good quality of stock and well finished. The course is as follows : 

COURSE IN SHOEMAKING. 

Hours. 

Making Avaxed-euds and bristling tliem, stitcliiug and blindstitcliiug 60 

Square awl stitcliing 120 

Lasting and stocking 120 

Pegging and nailing 100 

Heeling 75 

Trimming shoes 150 

Burnishing 75 

Bottom finishing 100 

Treeing 60 

General instruction in the different kinds of leather, cutting out work, etc 60 

Final examination, making shoes alone from beginning of outline to end 60 

Coohhig. — In an apartment adjoining the main kitchen of the estab- 
lishment, and near that in which the meals of the guards and emi)loyes 
are prepared, are half a dozen stoves, with a profusion of pots, pans, 
kettles, broiling irons, etc. Here there is assembled nearly every day 
a class learning the science of cookery under the tutelage of the 
steward. In addition to acquiring a useful knowledge of plain cook- 
ing, and of the adventitious methods of making food xDalatable, the 
members are instructed in the effects of heat in different degrees upon 
the nutritious qualities of meats and vegetables. Many of the dishes 
prepared by them find places on the tables in the officers' dining room. 
The curriculum adhered to is as follows : 

COURSE I. — BREAKFASTS. 

Hom'9. 

Care of fires, cleaning utensils, and care of kitchen 25 

Cutting meat 63 

Grilling 25 

Frying 38 

Baking muffins and breakfast cakes 38 

Preparing breakfast 13 



646 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



C0LT:SE II. — LUXCIIKS. 

Hours. 

WLat niid liow to cook _ 75 

Meat extracts and broth 38 

Grinds and l)ever;iges 38 

Princiides of serving 25 



counsE III. — inxxEHs. 



Soups and bisques 
Roasts 



Hoiu-.s. 
.. 50 
.. 50 



Fisli 38 

Vegetables 75 

Pastry and cakes 100 

Entrees 50 

Arranging dinner 13 

The bakiDg class may properly be called a subdivision of the cooking 
class. Its quarters are in the basement of what is known as the domes- 
tic building, and its experience is derived chiellj^ through i)rei)aring the 
dough and baking the bread for the use of both the inmates and the 
officers. 

Ste}iogr(ipliy. — For those men whose antecedents, expressed ambitions, 
education, and prosi)eets indicate that they are adapted for a commer- 
cial career or to act as amanuenses, a well planned course in i^honog- 
raphy is provided. The system taught is Graham's. The curriculum 
as arranged anticipates the graduation of shorthand writers, capable 
of taking dictation of ordinary business matter at the rate of at least 
120 words a minute, within a year. In addition to the practice allowed 
in the class room, those who are capable of writing rapidly enough are 
furnished facilities for taking full notes of the lectures to the various 
school classes. !N"ot a few of the graduates have sliown their ability to 
maintain a speed of 150 words a minute. The order and division of the 
lessons is as follows : 

COURSE IN STEXOGRAPIIY. 



Consonant signs. 

Joining of consonants. 

Iss circle. 

Word-signs. 

Vocalization. 

Position of words. 

Vocalization of circles, etc. 

Vowel word-signs. 

Dipbtbougs. 

Metbod of placing vowels between 

strokes. 
Prenxes and affixes. 
Brief K"«7/s and yays. 
Word-signs. 
Aspi^-ates. 
X, r, and isli, 
L and r books. 



L and r books with circles, etc. 

Hook for in, ler, and rel. 

Word-signs and contractions. 

Ijf, vee, and en books. 

Shon and Uv books. 

Eslion book. 

Word-signs. 

Widening and donbling. 

Halving principle. 

Word-signs. 

Omission of consonants and vowels, and 

joining i^arts of words. 
Pbrase Avriting. 
Omission of words. 
Enlarged ii-cuj and yay. 
Word-sisrns and dictation. 



CHAP. XIII. — MANUAL TRAINING IN REFORMATORIES. 647 

As soon as the elementary principles liave been mastered tlie pupils 
are required to write from dictation at a speed commensurate with their 
knowledge of the code, and this is kex)t up until withdrawal from the 
class. 

Typeivritlng, — Tyx)ewriting is so closely allied to stenograiihy in prac- 
tice that a course in the latter would scarcely he complete without abil- 
ity to handle the writing machine with facility. It is but natural, there- 
fore, that training in typewriting should be an accomi^animent of a por- 
tion of the phonographic course. The pupils begin to practise on the. 
machines when they first take up word-signs and continue until they 
can manipulate the keyboard at the rate of forty words or more per min- 
ute for ten minutes. The course is as follows : 

COUESE IN TYPEWRITING. 



Location of letters. 

Fiugering and evenness of toucli. 

Exercises in selected words. 

Forms of business correspondence, liead- 

ings, titles, addresses, etc. 
Spelling, punctuation, capitalization.etc. 



Miscellaneous exercises in writing from 
dictation. 

Teclinical expressions and abbreviations. 

Speed exercises. 

Mechanism, adjustment, and care of ma- 
chine. 



Electric lif/hting. — The artificial illumination of the reformatory and 
its surroundings is by means of about 2,300 incandescent lamps of 10 
and 16-candle power, and 30 arc lamps. In each cell there is a 
10-candle light, in the corridors and class rooms are many 16- 
candle lamps, and about the grounds and in some of the shops are 
2,000-candle x)Ower arc lamj^s. The dynamos furnishing the powerful 
currents are located in a bow-roofed building constructed especially 
for holding them. In the plant is included a Brush arc dynamo, four 
incandescent dynamos, and one 90 and two 120-horse power engines. 
There is besides in the domestic building an emergency dynamo capa- 
ble of lighting 1201G-candle lamps. The care and operation of these 
machines furnishes occupation and instruction usually to half a dozen 
men at a time. The practical experience includes stringing wires, 
trimming lamps, laying out and verifying wire plans, calculation of 
spread of light, adjustment of electric call bells, etc. Theoretical 
knowledge is gathered at the meetings of the class in electricity, which 
is a feature of the school of letters. 

Mechanical draiving. — All pupils learning trades in which a knowl- 
edge of draughting is necessary or heli)ful have a x)lace in the mechanical 
drawing class, which has on its rolls from three to four hundred names 
at a time. The class is divided into three sections, and each of these 
sections is again divided into eleven graded subdivisions containing 
from six to twenty learners. The work of the whole class is under the 
direction of a mechanical engineer, and he is assisted by a corps of in- 
mate instructors who have comi^leted the prescribed course and are 
capable of guiding others over the paths they have trodden. One sec- 



648 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

tiou spends every Tuesday and Friday afternoon in the drawing class 
room, anotlier is there every Monday and Thursday afternoon, and the 
third is under instruction each week-day morning from 11 to 12 o'clock. 
The drawing room, which is about 125 feet long and 50 feet wide, is 
fitted with tilting tables at which the men stand while working on 
their drawing boards. The equipment includes a plentiful supply of 
drawing instruments, models, etc. 

The outlined course provides for teaching to all members of the class 
the principles of working drawings, i)rojections of planes, lines and 
points, geometric ijroblems, and the use of instruments. From that 
point the course is specialized, and there are subdivisions for the car- 
penters and wood turners, for the bricklayers and x)]asterers, for the 
fresco painters and wood carvers, for the machinists, patternmakers, 
and blacksmiths, and for the stonecutters. The cari)euters, for in- 
stance, are made familiar with the draughting of framework and joints, 
sections through partitions, doors and windows, framing plans of ten- 
ements, scale drawings of buildings from measurement, etc.; the iron 
workers learn to prepare machine details from models and sketches, to 
make free-hand working drawings, and to solve problems in construc- 
tion j and the wood carvers and frescoers take up the elements of orna- 
ment, lines, geometric forms, leaves, and flowers, and their use in dec- 
oration. 

It is well to inquire concerning the effects of manual training upon 
criminal dullards, as shown by the exi)erience at the Elmira institution. 

Hamilton D. Wey, M. D., physician to the Elmira reformatory, 
says that the criminal's wrongdoing has its origin in blunted or non- 
developed nervous areas [in the brain] and is indicative of wrong- 
headedness. Wliatever may be said of the motives or incentives that 
led to crime, the fact remains that the head of the criminal is Avrong. 

To correct this abnormal mental condition should be the aim of the 
state in dealing with its convicted felons, and no scheme or plan has 
accomplished such results as those wrought by education, as comprised 
in letters and physical and manual training, tempered by the whole- 
some discipline indispensable in successful i^rison management. 

His efforts are directed toward the awakening of dormant mental 
activity by stimulating x)cripheral nerves. These nerves, roused to 
action, excite corresponding areas or motor tracts in the brain to put 
forth their energies; and, by frequent repetition of this stimulation, 
the growth and development of certain cerebral centres is promoted. 

Dr. Wey relates with some particularity the results of the system- 
atic course of training to which he subjected 43 dullards at the re- 
formatory. He had baths administered to them at frequent intervals 
and with regularity in conjunction with passive exercise, as kneading 
the muscles, working the joints, and friction applied to the entire 
body through rubbing by a professional trainer, as employed in the 



CHAP. XIII. MAKUAL TRAINING IN REFORMATORIES. 649 

Turkish bath; and, later iu the day, a manual drill and calisthenics to 
furnish exercise and supplement the routine task hitherto daily per- 
formed in the shop. 

To train these dullards' arms and legs to motions- of precision and to 
act in unison, remarks Dr. Wey, was something more than muscular 
development and exercise in the common acceptation of the term 5 it 
was mental training as well as physical. 

To the justness of this conclusion any man will subscribe who has 
seen a dull, shuffling lout transformed into a prompt, alert soldier 
through the agency of military drill. 

The exi)eriment of Dr. Wey was conducted with great care. The 
weight and physical measurements of each prisoner were recorded both 
before and after the regimen to which he was subjected. For sixteen 
months this line of treatment, as outlined above, was followed. At 
the end of that i)eriod the doctor records his conviction as follows ; 

Having in the line of my duties within the past year witnessed the 
results obtained in educational work through bodily training, I am an 
advocate of the employment of an instructor in physical culture, and 
the treatment in accordance with this plan, as a part of the educational 
system, in a course of not less than six months' duration, of the over- 
grown dunce and physically defective through malnutrition and past 
excesses. 

Such a course might at first result in a monetary deficiency, but the 
improved condition of the men, and their increased capabilities for 
production, would in the end offset the initiatory loss. 

Dr. Wey's experiment throws a powerful side light on the general 
question of manual training. For, if such training avails with mature 
and vicious men, with minds made gross and obtuse by crime, how 
much more effectual must the same kind of discipline x)rove, under 
happier conditions, ui)on the unperverted mind of youth ? 

The physiological argument for manual training at an early j)eriod 
of life is well and succinctly stated by Dr. Wey, as follows : 

A large district within the brain is comx)osed of motor centres pre- 
siding over motor ideas, and according as certain muscles are exercised 
and cultivated at the proper time, the growth period, the cells of gray 
matter comprising these motor areas are developed and multiiDlied. 
Each centre i)resides over its own group of muscles, and the neglect 
of these muscles through defective exercise and other causes will result 
in a weakening of that centre and a defect of the motor system. As 
a muscle is exercised it is made to grow, and, as it grows, it develops 
and strengthens the nerve centre that controls it. 

The muscles of an infant, giving expression to aimless and inco- 
ordinated motion, and those of the artisan, trained to delicate manipu- 
lation, are composed of similar anatomical elements; but the difference 
which characterizes them resides in the nervous mechanism represent- 
ing the movements of which they are capable, and not in the muscles 
themselves. 

The nioti-T centres of the artisan are the largest, and the cells in his 



650 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

motor areas are more numerous, larger, more branched, and more 
widely connected with other cells. 

He might have added that the unexercised brain centres remain 
undeveloped and in an infantile condition through life, since this is a 
necessary corollary. Hence, the necessity of early hand training. 



CHAPTER XIV; 



THE EFFECT OF MANUAL TRAINING AND TRADE 
liNSTRUCTION UPON THE INDIVIDUAL 



651 



CHAPTER XIV. 



THE EFFECT OF MANUAL TRAINING AND TRADE INSTRUCTION 
UPON THE INDIVIDUAL. 

As stated in the letter of transmittal the original intention of the 
Department, in carrying out the instructions of Congress, was to 
secure, on the widest possible basis, the actual results of experience in 
manual and trade instruction, as evidenced in the after lives of stu- 
dent VA'orkmen in the positions now occui)ied by them. This intention, 
for the reasons stated, has been only i)artially carried out. Even with 
much larger means at the disposal of the Department the difficulties 
of carrying it to any great extent were great. Manual training and 
trade schools in this and other countries are not in all cases in j)osses- 
sion of information as to the location and employment of their gradu- 
ates or those who have gone from their institutions to practical work; 
yet many such were found, and from their employers the information 
was sought and, in a large proportion of instances, gained. To secure 
the results in a uniform manner a schedule of inquiries was prepared 
and submitted to many experts, heads of manual training and trade 
schools, and, after their suggestions, adopted. 

This schedule was modified for the purpose of securing the results 
of trade schools, and of the teaching of sewing and cooking in public 
schools; but the principle of the schedule remained the same through- 
out, the inquiries being shaped to the desired end in each class. 

KESULTS OF MANUAL TEAINII^G SCHOOLS. 

The use of the schedule relating to manual training schools resulted 
in securing information for 808 student workmen from the countries 
and the number of schools in each country shown in the following 
statement : 

STUDENTS EEPRESEXTED IX THE TABULATION OF MANUAL TEAINING SCHOOLS. 



Country. 


Schools. 


Students. 




4 

17 

2 

6 

15 


'iO 


G6rniany .................... .. . .. ... 


oyo 






Russia -- - - - - - - -- - - 


65 


Sweden 


^. 


202 








Total 


44 
15 


646 


United States 


162 








Gvaud total 


59 


80S 







653 



654 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



The tabulation ot these results, exhibited in summaries, discloses, in 
three short tables following, the age, length of employment, the class 
of occuiiations covered, and the condition, when beginning work, of the 
students of manual training schools : 

SUMMAET OF JSTTJMBEE, AGE, AND LENGTH OE EMPLOYMENT OE STUDENTS OF 
MANUAL TEAINING SCHOOLS, BY COUNTRIES. 





Num- 
ber 
report- 
ed. 








Years of 


Under present employer. 


Count rv. 


school. ! school of 

1 non-graduates. 


Age at begin- 
ning work. 


Months 
employed. 




Not 
Yes. 1 No. report- 

i 1 ed. 


Num- 
ber 

report- 
ing. 


Aver- 
age. 


Niim- 
ber 
report- 
ing. 


Aver- 
ago 
(years). 


Num- 
ber 

report- 
ing. 


Aver- 
age. 




30 i 16 


14 

270 

3 

34 




13 

270 

3 

31 
21 


L8 
L8 
LO 
1.4 
^.1 


30 1 16. 3 

269 1 14.3 

19 j 16.7 

61 i 1G.8 

.262 17.7 


30 

133 

19 

65 

262 


63 6 


Germany 


270 
19 




13 4 


Norway 


ifi 


12 5 


Kussia" 


65 1 31 
262 219 


47 1 




43 


18.7 






1 




Total 


646 282 1 364 
162 107 44 


1 338 

11 34 


L8 
5.1 


641 1 16.1 


fiOQ ! OQ A 


United States 


149 j 17.7 j 162 1 2^.6 






Grand total 


808 , 389 i 408 i 11 1 372 j 2.1 

ill 1 i 


790 ! 16.4 


671 j 24. 1 

i 



SUMMARY OF OCCUPATIONS OF STUDENTS OF MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS, 

BY COUNTRIES. 



Country. 


Metal 

Avork- 

ing. 


•\rood 
work- 
ing. 


Plumb- 
ing. 


Paint- ' 
ing and 
decora- 
ting. 


Elec- 
trical 
work. 


Stone 

and 

marble 

work. 


Watcli- 
mak- 
ing. 


Mis- 
cella- 
neous. 


Total. 




27 

115 

15 

50 

161 


3 
84 

4 
12 
86 




1 




! 


30 






13 ! 





11 


4 


43 


270 




19 










t 


3 
11 

57 
33 


65 


Sweden 




. _ J 


4 


i 


262 








Total 


368 
70 


189 
26 


6 


13 ; 
9 i 


4 
17 


11 4 


646 


United States 


1 




102 


Grand total 


438 


215 


6 22 i 


21 


12 


4 


90 


80S 











SUMMARY OF CONDITION, WHEN BEGINNING WORK, OF STUDENTS OF MANUAL 
TRAINING SCHOOLS, BY COUNTRIES. 



Country, 


Num- 
ber 

report- 
ed. 


Beginning work 
as apprentices. 


Years of 
apprentice- 
ship of those 
beginning as 
apprentices. 


Paid more than 
other beginners. 


Employers 
prefer manual 
training school 

graduates. 




Yes. 


No. 


Not 

report- 

ed. 


Num- 
ber 
report- 
ing. 


Aver- 
age. 


Yes. 


No. 


Not 
report- Yes. 
ed. 1 

1 


No. 


Not 
report- 
ed. 


France 


30 ! 13 
270 i '-*«o 


17 

1 

19 

55 

241 




13 
72 


3.3 
3.1 


14 
1 

18 

23 

212 


14 

263 

1 

32 

20 


I 

""io" 

30 


29 

254 

5 

56 
261 


1 

14 

'"'h' 


2 




19 

05 

262 


6 


14 


Russia 


""is* 


8 1 2.8 
6 2.0 


4 




1 






Tola] 

United States 


646 

162 


298 
70 


333 1 15 1 99 j 3. 1 268 ! 330 i 48 
92 1 ' 63 1 3.9 48 110 4 


605 
96 


20 

57 


21 
9 


Grand total.. 


808 i 368 


425 i 15 i 162 3.4 1 316 

i ' 1 ■ 


440 1 52 1 701 

1 i 


77 


30 



CHAP. XIV. THE EFFECT OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 655 

Digesting all the details drawn from the manual training schedule, 
which details it is not deemed important to print here, the economic 
results of manual training schools have been secured for a large num- 
ber of student Tvorkmen. These results are shown in the following 
summarized table: 

SUMMARY OF THE ECOXOMIC RESULTS OF MAX'UAL TEAINIXG SCHOOLS, BY 

COUNTRIES. 









Student workman superior 


to ordinarj- worliman in- 


- 




Country. 


Use of tools at be- 
ginning of his 
emi)loyment. 


Increasing his 

skill in use of 

tools. 


Economy in use of 
materials. 


Planning and 
arranging work. 




1 
Yes. K'o. 


report- 
ed. 


Yes. 


No. 


Is-Ot 
report- 
ed. 


Yes. 


No. 


Not 
report- 
ed. 


Yes. 


No. 


Not 
report- 
ed. 


France ..... .. . 


24 

249 
19 
30 

249 


6 

20 


i' 


24 

231 

19 

21 

223 


6 

37 


2 


21 

217 
10 
25 

114 


9 

46 

4 

36 

96 


7' 

5 

4 

52 


26 

239 

16 

33 

234 


4 
31 

1 
29 
25 








Norway 


2 




35 
13 





39 
20 


5 
19 


3 


Sweden 


3 






Total 


571 
100 


74 


1 
1 


518 1 102 1 26 387 
102 1 57 ! 3 73 


191 
70 


68 


?;j8 


90 
52 


8 


United States 


19 1 104 











Grand total 


673 1 135 


' 


620 J 159 1 29 

I 1 


460 


261 


87 


652 


142 34 

1 









Student workman superior to ordinary workman in— 






Country. 


Promise of more 
intelligent work. 


Moral 
qualities. 


Management of men. 


Interest in em- 
plover's welfare. 




i 1 Not 
Yes. j No. report- 

. 1 ed. 


Yes. 


Not 
No. ireport- 
1 ed. 


1 -p-_ 1 Not 


Yes. 


! Not 
No. jreport- 
1 ed. 




! 1 1 
25 ! 5 i 25 

256 1 13 11 54 

19 1 ] 7 

54 7 1 4 60 

235 1 27 \r. 1 118 


i 
5 


! 1 

7 j 7 16 ■ 

15 1 3 i«-l i fi8 


9 


7 


14 




..... 

3 

103 


216 

6 

2 

41 


244 

8 

12 

176 


26 

7 

45 

77 






3 


16 : 

34 4 
207 6 


4 




12 
49 


15 


8 




9 








35 

10 


Total 

United States 


589 
114 


52 
45 


5 264 j 117 
3 98 1 57 


265 

7 


86 
30 


25 1 457 ; 78 
3 ! 128 ; 1 


449 


162 
03 


Grand total . . . 


703 1 97 

1 


8 362 


174 


272 


116 


28 


585 79 


538 


225 


45 



This table is easily understood, and the results shown by it must be 
exceedingly gratifying to those who favor manual training, either in 
schools established especially for it or as features of the public schools. 
It must be recognized that in the foregoing table the facts are as to 
whether the student workman is superior in the various lines indicated 
to the ordinary workman j that is to say, looking at the first three 
columns of the table, it is learned that in 671 cases the student work- 
man is superior to the ordinary workman in the use of tools at the begiii- 
ing of his employment, while 135 have not shown themselves to pos- 
sess such superiority; or, to take the section of the table relating to 
economy in use of materials, out of 808 student workmen 460 x)roved 
to be superior in economj- in use of materials to the ordinary workman, 
while 261 had not shown any such superiority, and no reports were 



656 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



given for 87. Tims the table can be used tlirongliont, and needs no 
furtlier analysis. 

It will be observed that there are no reports in this table for man- 
ual training schools for Great Britain. The trade school is more fre- 
quent in Great Britain than the manual training school, while the diffi- 
culty of securing the names and locations of the graduates of manual 
training schools or those who had gone out from them into practical 
work rendered it impossible for the Department to secure the desired 
information. 

Some interesting and valuable information was obtained, through 
original inquiry, concerning the graduates of manual training schools 
for girls in France. The whole number of individual student working- 
women for which the facts were obtained was 50, from three schools in 
France; the schools, the number reported, length of employment, and 
condition when beginning work being shown in the two succeeding 
statements : 

SUMMARY or NUMBEE, AGE, AND LENGTH OF EMPLOYMENT OF STUDENTS OF 
MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS, IN FRANCE. 





Num- 
ber 
report- 
ed. 








Years of 
attendance at 

school of 
non-graduates. 


Under present employer. 


School. 


school. 


Age at begin- 
ning Avork. 


Months 
employed. 


Yes. 


1 Not 
No. report- 


Num- 
ber 
report- 


Aver- 
age. 


Num- 
ber 

report- 
ing. 


Aver- 
age 
(years) . 


Num- 
ber 
report- 
ing. 


Aver- 
age. 


ficole professionnelle, rue 

de Poitou. 
Eoole professionnelle, rue 

Bossuet. 
:ficole professionnelle et 

menagere, rue Fondary. 


2 

20 


28 

2 

14 










28 
2 
20 


16.5 

.17.5 

17.2 


28 

2 

20 


16.3 










10 5 


6 




6 


2 


29.7 


Total 


50 j U 

! 


6 


i "i ' 


50 


16.8 


50 


2L4 



SUMMARY OF CONDITION, WHEN BEGINNING WORK, OF STUDENTS OF MANUAL 
TRAINING SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS, IN FRANCE. 



School. 


Num- 
ber 

report- 
ed. 


Beginning -work 
as^apprentices. 


Years of 
apprentice- 
ship of those 
beginning as 
apprentices. 


Paid more than 
other beginners. 


Employers 
prefer nianual 
training school 

graduates. 




Yes. 


No. 


report- 
ed. 


Num- 
ber 
report- 
ing. 


Aver- 
age. 


Ye*. 


No. 


Not 
report- 
ed. 


Yes. 


No. 


Not 
report- 
ed. 


:ficole professionnelle, rue 

de Poitou. 
:ficole professionnelle, rue 

Bossuet. 
Ecolo professionnelle et 

m^nag^re, rue Fondary. 


28 
2 

20 





26 

2 

2© 








5 


23 
2 
15 









2 

2 

8 


26 


















5 


12 














Total 


50 1 1 -^0 




1 


10 


iO ! 


12 


38 














i 









From the detail schedules relating to these 50 graduates of three 
leading schools in France a summary of economic results has been 
drawn, which is as folloAvs: 



CHAP. XIV. THE EFFECT OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 657 

SUMMAFvY OF THE ECONOMIC RESULTS OF MANUAL TEAMING SCHOOLS FOR 

GIELS, IN FEANCE. 





Student workwoman superior to ordinary workwoman in— 


School. 


Use of 
tools at 
begin- 
ning of 
her em- 
ploy- 
ment. 


In- 
creas- 
ing her 
skill in 
use of 
tools. 


Econ- 
omy 
in use 
of ma- 
terials. 


Plan- 
ning 
and ar- 
rang- 
ing 
work. 


Prom- 
ise 
of more 

intelli- 
gent 

work. 


Moral 
qualities. 


Man- 
age- 
ment 

of 
others. 


Inter- 
est in 

employ- 
er's 

welfare- 




Yes. 


Yes. 


Yes. 


Yes. 


Yes. 


Yes. 


Not re- 
ported. 


Un- 
tried. 


Yes. 


£cole professionnelle, rue 

dePoitou. 
Ecole professionnelle, rue 

Eossuet. 
Ecole professionnelle et 

menagere, rue Fondary. 


28 
2 
20 


28 

2 

20 


28 
2 
20 


28 

2 

20 


28 

2 

20 


27 

2 

20 


1 


28 

2 

20 


28 
20 


Total 


50 


50 


50 1 50 


50 


49 


1 


50 


50 











From this summarized statement it will be seen tliat with but one 
exception the stadent workwoman was found superior to the ordinary 
workwoman, whether the use of tools at the beginning of work, 
increased skill in the use of tools, economy in the use of materials, 
planning and arranging work, moral qualities, interest in the employer's 
welfare, or the x)romise of more intelligent work are considered. In 
the management of others the whole number had been untried. The 
showing, while for but a few, is of great value and thoroughly grati- 
fying. 

KESULTS OF TEADE SCHOOLS. 

The i)rosecution of the inquiries by the Department, on the schedule 
indicated, for trade schools resulted in securing reports concerning 
3,030 young men who had secured their equipment in trade schools. 
The distribution of these by countries, with the number of schools 
represented in each, and the number of students from each are shown 
in the following tabular statement; 

STUDE^'TS EEPEESEXTED IX THE TABULATIOX OF TEADE SCHOOLS. 



Country. 



Austria 

Eelgivum 

Denmark 

France 

Germany 

Great Britain 

X"orway , 

Eussia 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Total 

United States 

Grand total 

S. Ex. 65—^ 



206 



Schools. 


Students. 


73 


320 


41 


812 


3 


121 


18 


332 


4 


642 


15 


126 


6 


103 


24 


216 


7 


185 


12 


57 


203 


2,914 


3 


116 



3,030 



658 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIOKER OF LABOR. 



The results relative to age, leiigtli of employineut, occupations pur- 
sued, and condition when beginning work of the students leaving trade 
schools, and by countries, as shown by the tabulation of the trade 
school schedules, are all brought out in the three succeeding tables: 

SUMMAPiY or DUMBER, AGE, AND LEis'GTH OF EMPLOYMEXT. OP STUDEXTS OF 
TRADE SCHOOLS. BY COUK TRIES. 





ber 
report- 
ed. 


Graduated from 
school. 


Years ol 


Under iiresent employer. 




scliool of 
non-graduates. 


Age at begin- 
ning work. 


]^tontli.s 
employed. 




Yes. 


Xo. 


K'ot 
report- 
ed. 


]S'um- 
ber 

report- 
ing. 


Aver- 
age. 


K'um- 
ber 

report- 
ing. 


Aver- 
age 
(years). 


jSTum- 
ber 

report- 
ing. 


Aver- 
age. 


Austria .. .. .. 


320 
812 
121 
332 
G42 
126 
103 
216 
185 
57 


294 

401 

98 

301 

"""42' 

54 

97 

125 

44 


25 

411 

23 

31 

642 

67 

49 

119 

GO 

13 


^. 

ii' 


25 

410 

23 

31 

642 

43 

48 

117 

37 

13 


2.5 
2.3 
1.4 
2.5 
2.0 
1.8 
1.9 
2.1 
1.6 
1.9 


320 
811 
121 
332 
638 
106 

95 
216 
184 

55 


23.9 
19.7 
19.1 
16.4 
17.1 
18.6 
20.4 
20.3 
20.2 
2-2.4 


320 

808 

121 

329 

635 

87 

68 

210 

184 

57 


20.8 
70 5 






'^2 3 


France .... ... 


35 1 




"3 1 


Great Britain 

Korway 


38.2 

91 8 




38 9 


Sweden 


20 8 




74.3 




1 




Total 


2, 914 1. 456 
116 102 


1, 440 1 18 


3,389 
14 


2.1 

1 


2,878 

119 


19 3 9 ftiQ ! An -A 


United States 


19.0 


115 14 1 


Grand total 






3,030 


],558 


L451 i 18 1 1,403 2.1 i 2,990 


19.3 


2, 934 1 39. 2 

1 



SUMMAEY OF OCCUPATIONS OF STUDENTS OF TRADE SCHOOLS, DY COUNTRIES. 



'^ht^mBrnw 



Conntrv. 



Metal 
Avork- 
incr. 



Mis- 

cella- j- Total, 
neous. 



Austria 

Belgium 

Denmark 

France 

Germany 

Great Britain 

Norway 

Russia 

Sweden 

Switzerland . . 



Total 

United States . 



Grand total. 



135 
341 

19 
198 
239 

26 

53 
181 

32 
3 



59 
130 



13 



5- i 


18 


4 


^1 


92 !.. 


li 


1 !.- 




3 


1 


63 ! 


3 


^°.i.. 


2 1 


20 


1 1 1 -.- 


! 


19 L. 





32 



1.227 



1,227 



369 
5 

374 



41 



2-i2 
45 



32 



194 



202 



81 



320 
812 
121 
332 
642 
126 
103 
216 
185 
57 



^736 I 2,914 
1 I 116 



3,030 



rt Including 46 not reported. 



CHAP, XIV. THE EFFECT OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 659 



SUMMARY OF CONDITION, WHEN BEGINNING WOEK, OF STUDENTS OF TRADE 

SCHOOLS, BY COUNTRIES. 



Country. 


Num- 
ber 

report- 
ed. 


Beginning work 
as apprentices. 


Years of 
apprentice- 
ship of those 
beginning as 
apprentices. 


Paid more than 
other beginners. 


Employers prefer 
trade school 
graduates. 




Yes. 


No. 


Not 
report- 
ed. 


Num- 
ber 
report- 
ing. 


Aver- 
age. 


Yea. 


No. 


Not 
report- 
ed. 


.e3. 


No. 


Not 
report- 
ed. 




320 

812 
121 
332 
642 
126 
103 
216 
185 
57 


28 
28 
28 
90 

444 
84 
36 

104 

12 

9 


292 
784 

93 
242 
174 

41 

65 
112 
160 

45 


24" 

1 
2 

is' 

3 


28 
14 
28 
89 
109 
78 
36 
94 
10 
8 


2.4 
2.9 
4.6, 
2.3 
2.9 
5.4 
4.2 
3.3 
4.0 


36 

108 
81 

120 
8 
39 
59 

105 
83 


284 

694 

38 

204 

627 

74 

44 

110 

93 

37 


io' 

2 
8 
7 
13 

i' 

9 

2 


119 
294 
614 
110 
49 


96 
86 
2 
37 
28 
12 


17 




1 


DeDiuark. 






1 


Gerraaiiy 

Great Britain 


■4 

54 


Russia 


184 1 29 


3 




174 


10 
6 


1 


S^y.itzerlantl 


1.4 i 18 


1 


Total 

United States 


2,914 
IIG 


863 
45 


2,008 
71 


43 


494 

41 


3.4 
3.7 


657 
81 


2,205 
33 


52 
2 


2,526 
102 


306 
13 


82 

1 


Grand total... 


3,030 


908 


2, 079 


43 


535 


3.4 


738 j2,238 


54 


2,628 


319 


83 



Tliese tables are so brief and analytical in their construction tliat 
little text statement is needed. Tliey are to be used in the same man- 
ner as like tables given under manual training'. One or two features, 
however, may be given special attention. Out of the whole number 
only 908 began their special work as apprentices, 2,079 being ready to 
begin work at once, without serving any time as api^rentices. In the 
large number of 2,628 cases out of 3,030, the employers prefer trade 
school graduates to those who have not had trade school trainiag. 
These are very significant facts. The tables bring out other points, 
however, that will be found exceedingly useful in any study of the 
theory of trade schools. 

The economic results of trade school training are easily shown in 
tabular torm, as drawn from the details of the trade school schedule. 
The following table is to be used in the same way as a similar one given 
under manual training; that is to say, taking the first three columns, 
the table shows that out of the 3,030 student workmen leaving trade 
schools, 2,701 were found to be superior to the ordinary workman in 
the use of tools at the beginning of their emiDloyment, while only 324 
did not have such superiority. In economy in use of materials 2,138 
were superior to the ordinary workman, and 636 did not have that su- 
periority. In planning and arranging work 2,681 out of the 3,030 
exhibited superiority to the ordinary workman, and only 307 were lack- 
ing in such superiority. The other features of the table can be used 
in the same way. 



660 



REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 



SUMMARY OF THE ECOXOMIC EESULTS OF TEADE SCHOOLS, BY COUXTEIES. 







Student -worliman superior 


to ordinary Tvorkman in — 






Country. 


Use of tools at be- 
ginning of his 
employment. 


Increasing his 

skin in use of 

tools. 


Economy in use of 
materi^as. 


Planning and 
arranging work. 




Yes. 


No. 


Xot 
report- 
ed. 


Yes. 


Xo. 


Xot 
report- 
ed. 


Yes. 


Xo. 


Xot 
report- 
ed. 


Yes. 


Xo. 


X^ot 
report- 
ed. 




237 
798 
119 
282 
623 
112 

96 
120 
164 

54 


2 
50 
19 
14 

6 
96 
21 

3 


1 
3 

i" 


238 
792 
115 
285 
520 
113 
100 
117 
158 
48 


77 
15 
6 
40 
28 

'I 

89 

18 

9 


5 
5 

7* 

94 

1 

2 

10 

9 


208 

757 

87 

196 

464 

71 

43 

99 

97 

34 


110 
52 
18 
45 

132 
15 
50 

114 
63 
13 


2 

3 

16 
91 
46 
40 
10 

3 
25 
10 


234 

746 
117 
295 
618 
115 
101 
142 
168 
51 


86 
55 

3 

31 
16 
10 

2 
69 
15 

5 




Bel"ium 


11 


Denmarli 


1 


Fraiic6 . ........... 


6 




8 


Gr6tit Britain - . - - 


1 






Eussia 


5 


S^veden ... .... 


2 


Su'itzerlaDd ....... 


1 










Total 

United States 


2,605 
96 


304 
20 


5 


2, 486 
102 


295 
13 


133 2,056 
1 82 


612 i 246 
24 1 10 


2,587 
97 


292 
15 


35 
4 










Grand total 


2, 701 


324 


5 


2,588 


308 


134 


2, 138 636 256 


2,684 


307 


39 





Student workman superior to ordinary workman in— 


Country. 


Promise of more 
intelligent work. 


Moral 
ciualities. 


Management of men. 


Interest in em- 
ployer's welfare. 




Yes. 


X'o. 


X'ot 
report- 
ed. 


Yes. 


Xo. 


Xot 
report- 
ed. 


Yes. 


Xo. 


Un- 
tried. 


X^ot 
report- 
ed. 


Yes. 


Xo. 


Xot 
report- 
ed. 


Austria ... . . 


241 

771 
116 
302 
636 
117 

95 
184 
161 

48 


78 

34 

5 

25 

4 

7 

2 

29 

24 

3 


1 
7 

5' 

2 
2 
6 
3 

e" 


94 

726 
63 

260 
19 
94 
46 

181 
83 
43 


15 
80 
41 
63 

"i3" 
37 
33 
69 
9 


211 

6 
17 

9 

623 

19 

20 

2 
33 

5 


26 
257 
21 
42 
58 
26 
10 
28 
25 
18 


'si' 

7 

10 

21 

3 

2 

30 

3 

3 


294 

474 

93 

278 

561 

37 

73 

96 

145 

26 


2 

2 
60 
18 
62 
12 
10 


242 

749 
95 

222 

578 
75 
62 
69 

130 
39 


78 
60 
23 
92 
55 
16 
38 
128 
45 
9 






3 


T)PTiinark 


3 


France . . . . . 


18 




9 


Great Britain 

Xor wa V ..... 


35 
3 




19 




10 


Switzerland .... 


9 






Total 


2,671 
102 


211 
12 


32 

2 


1,609 
84 


360 
26 


945 
6 


511 
38 


160 
2 


2,077 
75 


166 
1 


2,261 
96 


544 
18 


109 


United States 


2 


Grand total . . . 


2,773 j 223 


34 


1,693 386 


951 


549 


162 


2, 152 


167 


2,357 


562 


111 



TEAIXING IN SEWIjS'G AND COOKING IN THE PUBLIC 
SCHOOLS OF PHILADELPHIA. 

The plan of the Department, under tliis branch of the present inves- 
tigation, was to secure information fi-om three or four of the cities in 
this country where training in sewing and cooking had been intro- 
duced in the public schools. The decision of the treasury depart- 
ment, referred to in the letter of transmittal, compelled the Department 
to close this branch of its inquiry when it had secured only partial infor- 
mation from the city of Philadelphia. It may be as well, however, for 
the experience of that city, one of the first to adopt the training of sew- 
ing and cooking in its public schools, is fairly typical of all other 
experience. In securing the information three schedules, adapted 
to the special needs of the case, were prepared. One comprehended 



CHAP. XIV. THE EFFECT OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 661 

reports of teachers as to the character, accuracy of thouglit, plauning 
and arrangiug, promise of future usefulness, etc., of the students under 
their charge j another embraced rex)orts of parents along similar lines; 
and a third, reports of employers who had had experience with young 
persons Avho had been taught sewing in the public schools. The num- 
ber of schools from which reports of teachers were obtained was 78, the 
whole number of students for which parents gave reports was 95, while 
the number of students concerning whom employers made statements 
was 14. These results are indeed meagre, but they are all that could 
be obtained at the time. The summarized statements, drawn from the 
three schedules described, are shown in the table which follows : 

SUMMARY OF TRAIXIXG IX SEWIXG AXD COOKIXG IX THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 

OE PHILADELPHIA. 

REPORTS OF TEACHERS. 

Number of scliools reporting 78 

Number wliose students are tauglit sewing 78 

Average age at beginning the study 8. 6 

Number wbose students are tauglit cooking 29 

Average age at beginning tlie study 11. 6 

Sucb training develops — 

Respect for manual labor yes 66 

no 4 

not reported.. 8 

Independence of character yes 64 

no . . : 8 

not reported . . 6 

Accuracy of thought yes 61 

no.. 9 

not reported.. 8 
Such training develops superiority in — 

Use of materials yes 70 

no 5 

not reported.. 3 

Planning and arranging^ yes 62 

no 8 

not reported . . 8 

Promise of future usefulness yes 73 

no 3 

not reported . . -2 

Ability to earn a livelihood yes 72 

no 1 

not reported . . 5 

Efficient work . --........ yes 76 

no 1 

not reported.. 1 



662 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

REPORTS OF PARENTS. 

Numljcr of students reported 95 

Number who have studied sewing 95 

Average age at beginning the study 10. 5 

Number who have studied cooking 28 

Average age at beginning the study : 13. 7 

Such training develops — 

Respect for manual labor yes „ 87 

no 3 

not reported.. 5 

Independence of character yes 70 

no 10 

notreiiorted.- 15 

Accuracy of thought yes 68 

no 9 

not reported- . 18 
Such training develox)S superiority in — 

Use of materials yes 79 

no. 8 

not reported. . 8 

Planning and arranging yes 75 

no 9 

not reported. - 11 

Promise of future usefulness yes 88 

no 4 

not reported. . 3 

Ability to earn a livelihood yes 45 

no 7 

untried 38 

not reported. . 5 

Efficient work yes 93 

no 1 

not reported.. 1 

REPORTS OF EMPLOYEES. 

Nuuiber of students reported 14 

Average age at beginning work 16. 4 

Average number of months employed 9. 7 

Student workwoman superior to ordinary vrorlcAvoman in — 

Attaining an average skill and efficiency yes 14 

Economy in use of materials yes 10 

not reported.. 4 

Planning and arranging work yes 10 

not reported.. 4 

Promise of future usefulness yes 14 

Interest in employer's welfare yes 10 

not reported.. 4 

Paid more than other beginners yes : . 2 

* no 11 

not reported.. 1 

Employer i^refers school trained workwomen yes 8 

no 5 

not reported.. 1 



CHAPTBE XV. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



6Qi 



CHAPTER XV. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Tlie appended bibliography includes tlie titles of tlie more important 
works, American and foreign, relating to tlie subject of tecimical 
education. 

The list is published in the hope that it may be of service to such as 
desire to sui)plement the study of this report by researches of their 
own. 

UmTED STATES. 

AamcuLTUEAL Colleges and Experiment Stations, Proceed- 
ings OF THE FlETH ANNUAL CONVENTION OF TIIE ASSOCIATION OF. 
Held at Washington, D. C, August 12-18, 1891. Department of 
agriculture, 1892. 

Agricultural Experi^ient Stations and Agricultural 
Schools and Colleges in the United States, Organization 
Lists of. Department of agriculture, 1890. 

Art and Industry. Edl^cation in the Industrial and Fine 
Arts in the United States. Part I. Drawing in Public Schools. 
By Isaac Edwards Clarke, A. M. United States bureau of educa- 
tion, 1885. 

Art and Industry. Education in the Industrial and Fine 
Arts in the United States. Part II. Industrial and Manual 
Training in Public Schools. By Isaac jEdAvards Clarke, A. ]M. 
United States bureau of education, 1892. 

Tlie titles of tlie cliapters of tliis voluminous comx)ilation best indicate tlie 
scope of the \vork : 

Chapter 1. Industrial art drawing the basis of artistic and industrial educa- 
tion. 

Chapter 2. The demand for industrial education in public schools begins. 

Chapter 3. The educators themselves the leaders in educational reforms, and 
always the severest critics of the schools. 

Chapter 4. The new departure in education in public schools. 

Chapter 5. Characteristics of the new departure. 

Chapter 6. Educational problems. 

Chapter 7. Industrial education. 

Chapter 8. An attempt to analyze and define the term, 'industrial education.'' 

Chapter 9. The direction and amount of industrial education in public schools 
largely dependent on local environment. 

Chapter 10. Industrial education an impending necessity. 

665 



6G6 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Cliapter 11. Industrial cdncation iii puWic sclioolS; tlie beginning of the 
movement. 

Cliapter 12. The experiment in ^Yashington, District of Columbia. 

Chapter 13. Exj)eriments in some New England states. 

Chapter 14. Experiments in some of the Middle states. 

Chapter 15. Exx)eriments in some of the Western states. . 

Chapter 16. School exhibitions. 

Chai)ter 17. The new industrial education associations and their relations to 
public schools. 

Chapter 18. Manual training schools as a part of the public school system. 

Chapter 19. The adoption of technical manual training by the authorities of 
Girard College. 

Chapter 20. An educational experiment, '-the free kindergarten and Y>'crking- 
man's school/'^ founded under the auspices of the Society for Ethical Culture in 
New York city. 

Numerous appendices. 

Art Education the True Industrial Education. By W. T. 
Harris, LL. D. 

A x)aper read before the dej)artment of art education, National Educational 
Association, Nashville, Tennessee, July 1889. 

Bench Work in Wood. By W. F. M. Goss. Ginn & Co., Boston, 

1888. 

A course of study and practice designed for the use of schools and colleges. 

CAjvibridge Manual Training School for Boys. By C. W. Par- 

meuter. Cambridge, 1892. 
Coeducation of Mind and Hand. By Cliaiies H. Ham. 

An educational monograph published by the New York College for the Training 
of Teachers. 

Cooking Schools. By Thomas Egleston, LL. D., Columbia College. 

An educational leaflet published. by the New York College for the Training of 
Teachers. 

Domestic Economy in Public Education. By Mrs. E. H. Eichards, 
instructor in sanitary cbemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Tecli- 
nology. 

This is an educational monograph published by the New York College for the 
Training of Teachers. The title sufiaciently indicates the nature of this essay. 
An appendix describes what has been done in the Boston public schools,^ in the 
grammar grades of New York city, in the New York College for the Training of 
Teachers, in the Institute of Technology at Boston, and in the girls' schools of 
Paris, in the direction of teachiug household sanitation, domestic economy, etc. 

Domestic Science in the Schools. By Mrs. Emma P. Ewing. 

Economic Aspects of Industrial Training. By Eicbard T. Ely, 
Pb. D. 

Educational Yalue of Manual Training, consisting of an exami- 
nation of tbe arguments presented, in tbe report of tbe national 
council committee on i3edagogics, at IS'asbville, July 1889, by Prof. 
C. M. Woodward; and a critical review of tbe same report by G. B. 
Morrison, of tbe- Kansas City bigb sebool, with an appendix contain- 
iog tbe council report in full. D. C. Heatb & Co., Boston, 1890. 



CHAP. XV. — lilBLIOGRAPIIY. 667 

Educational Value of the Typewriter in Schools. By AVm. 
A. Mowiy, Ph. D. 

Rcxiriatcd from Education for Jiiuc 1891 ; aud recommendiug the use of tlie 
typewriter in teaching punctuation, spelling-, capitalization, etc. 

Education in Europe, Eeport on. Made to the trustees of Girard 
College. By A. D. Bache, LL. D. Philadelphia, 1830. 

Education in its Eelation to Manual Industry. By Arthur 
MacArthur. D. Appleton & Co., l^ew Yorli, 1884. 

Education of the Jews. By H. M. Leipziger, Ph. D., director of 
the Hebrew Technical Institute of New York. 

This is one of the series of educational monographs published l>y the New 
York College for the Training of Teachers. The monograj)h is in the main an 
adaptation of Dr. Samuel Marcus' «6sav entitled; Zur Sclinl-Pddagogil: dcs Talmud. 

In this little work the writer describes the system of education which, has 
existed for twenty centuries among the Jews. It treats of (1) the importance of 
schools: (2) the rise and spread of schools; (3) school organization — the school- 
house and its arrangement; the teacher, qualifications, etc.; the pupil, school 
age, etc.; subjects of instruction; method, relation of instruction to life, etc.; 
school rules; (4) education of girls; (5) manual training. 

Extent of the Manual Trainings Field. By 0. M. Woodward, 

Ph. D., of the Saint Louis Manual Training School. 
Handcraft. By James Crichton BtowuC; M.D..r. E. S. 

This is of the educational monographs published by the New York College for 
the Training of Teachers. It discusses manual training from the i)oint of Adew of 
the physiologist, demonstrating the necessity of the early exercise of the hand 
if it is exi)ected that dexterity shall ever be acq^uired. After the fourteenth 
year of life (according to Dr. Browne) manual skill is rarely attainable, because 
the motor centres of the brain, if not responsive to tactile stimuli at that age, 
suffer an arrest of deyelopment and become atrophied. As a school discipline 
the author would restrict manual training to the two exercises, drawing and 
modelling. ^ 

History of Higher Education in Michigan. By Andrew C. 
McLaughlin. 

United States bureau of education circular of information No. 4, 1891. 

History of Pedagogy. A translation of Compayre's great work 
by Professor Payne of the University of Michigan. D. C. Heatli & 
Co., Boston. 

Industrial Education. By S. G. Love. Kellogg & Co., New Yorli, 
1887. 

Industrial Education: A PMagogic and Social Kecessity. By 
Eobert Seidel, Switzerland. Translated by Margaret K. Smith, 
State Isormal School, Oswego, New York. D. C. Heath & Co., Bos- 
ton. 

This work considers the subject in the following aspects : 

Chapter 1. The inner relation between industrial instruction and the social 
question. 

Chapter 2. Errors, contradictions, and inconsistencies of the opponents of 
industrial instruction. 

Chai)ter 3. The economic objections to industrial instruction. 



668 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Cliaiiter 4. The plausible and legal objections to industrial instruction. 
Ciiapter 5. The objections of educators and schoolmen to industrial instruc- 
tion. 

Chapter 6. What do the classic educators say of industrial instruction? 
Chapter 7. Educational and social necessity for industrial instruction. 

Industrial Education in the South. By Eev. A. D. Mayo. 

United States bureau of education circular of information No. 5, 1888. 

Industrial Education in the United States. Special report, 

United States bureau of educatiou, 1883. 
Industrial Education, Eeport op the Comjmission on. Made to 

the legislature of Pennsylvania, 1889. 

An elaborate report on the status of industrial education at that date in the 
United States, France, Germany, Great Britain, Russia, Sweden, and Switzer- 
land. ^ • 

Labor Bureau Eeports. 

The following labor bureau reports contain textual and statistical information 
relating to manual and trade instruction, technical education, etc. : 

California— third biennial, 1887-1888; Colorado— first biennial, 1887-1888; 
Iowa — first biennial, 1884-1885; Iowa — fourth biennial, 1890-1891; Kansas — 
fourth annual, 1888; Maryland — third biennial, 1888-1889; Massachusetts — 
seventeenth annual, 1886; Michigan — second annual, 1885; Michigan — sixth 
annual, 1889; Minnesota — second biennial, 1889-1890; Missouri — third annual, 
1881; Missouri — sixth annual, 1884; Nebraska — first biennial, 1887-1888; New 
Jersey — sixth annual, 1883; New Jersey — seventh annual, 1884; New York- 
second annual, 1884; New York — fourth annual, 1886; North Carolina — second 
annual, 1888 ; Ohio — twelfth annual, 1888 ; Pennsylvania — second annual, 1873- 
^74; Pennsylvania — thirteenth annual, 1885; Pennsylvania — sixteenth annual, 
1888; Rhode Island— second annual, 1888; Wisconsin— first biennial, 1883-1884. 

Manual Training, A Conference on. 

The papers read and a phonographic report of the discussions had at the sessions 
of a conference on manual training, held at Boston, April 8-11, 1891, to which 
is apjDended some account of the exhibits made of the methods and results of 
manual training, including also sewing, cooking, drawing, and the study of 
form and color. Edited by Mrs. Isabel C. Barrows. Published by the New Eng- 
land Conference of Educational Workers, Boston, 1891. Addresses, papers, and 
discussions on a wide range of subjects relating to manual instruction by some 
of the foremost educators in the United States. 

Manual Training and the Public School. By Henry H. Belfield, 
Pli. D. 

An educational monograph published by the New York College for the Train- 
ing of Teachers. 

Manual Training in the Public Schools. By Chas. R. Ricliards 
and Henry P. 0']!^eil. 

An educational monograph published by the New York College for the Train- 
ing of Teachers. 

Manual Training in the Public Schools of Philadelphia. By 
James MacAlister. 

An edncational monograph published by the New York College for the Train- 
ing of Teach iers. 

Manual Training, Objections to. By Francis W. Parker. 



CHAP. XV. — -BIBLIOGRAPHY. 669 

Manual Training- School, The. By C. M. Woodwardj Pli. D. 
D. C. Heatli & Co., Boston, 1887. 

This work was written, to sliow liow to orgauize and conduct tlie manual 
training scliool. After outlining a three years' course of study and shop exer- 
cises the author gives (Chap. V) record and testimony of graduates; (VI) what 
others who have seen it say of the results of manual training; (VII) the com- 
plementary nature of manual training; (VIII) the fruits of manual training; (IX) 
manual training a feature in general edacation; (X) the origin, aims, methods, 
anddignity of polytechnic training; (XI) manual education ; (XII) extracts from 
the prospectus of 1879; (XIII) the province of public education; (XIV) European 
schools; (XV) plans, shop discipline, teachers, reports^ etc.; appendices, giv- 
ing courses of study in the Saint Louis and Toledo manual training schools, ad- 
dress of Francis A. Walker on Manual Training in the High School, and Sir 
Philip Magnus' essay on Manual Training in School Education. 

Manual Training the Solution of Social and Industrial 

Problems. By Charles H. Ham. Harper & Bros., 'New York, 

1886. 

Manual Training, Two Papers on : (1) Tlie Intellectual Value of 

Tool Work. (2) The Educational Yalue of Manual Training. By 

W. T. Harris, LL. D. 

PajDcrs presented at the National Educational Association, Nashville, Ten- 
nessee, July 1889. 

:N"ational Association of Builders of the United States of 
America: Official Eeport of the Fifth Annual Convention. 
Held at ]tirew York city, February 9-14, 1891. 

President's address on trade schools and subsequent discussions at the dif- 
ferent sessions of the convention. 

IsTational Educational Association: Addresses and Proceed- 
ings. Session of 1887, held at Chicago, Illinois. 

Kew Jersey State Commission, Eeport ofj appointed to devise a 
plan for the encouragement of manufactures of ornamental and 
textile fabrics. Trenton, 1878. 

E^Ew York College for the Training of Teachers. 

Circular of information, 1892-"93. 

Physical and Industrial Training of Criminals. By H. D. 
Wey, M. D. 

An account of experiments designed to awaken the intellectual faculties of 
criminal dullards through the agency of manual exercises, together with an 
exposition of the general laws of cerebral development and the educative influ- 
ence of hand labor upon the motor centres of the brain, even in adult life. 

An educational monograph published by the New York College for the 
Training of Teachers. 

Place of Scientific and Technical Schools in American 
Education. Published in Technology Quarterly, Vol. lY, No. 4, 
December 1891. 

An address by Francis A. AValker at the convocation of the University of the 
State of New York, Albany, July 9, 1891. 



670 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Plea for the TraininCt of the Hand. By D. O. Gilman, LL. D., 
president of Jolius Hoi)kins University. 

An cducatioual monograpli i)ublislicd by tlie New York College for tlio 
Training of Teacliers. 

Psychology of Manual TEAiNiNa. By W. T. Harris, LL. D. 

Tliis pampblet is a repriut from Edncation for May 1889. It deals Avitli wliat 
its author deems certain fundamental errors in educational pliilosopliy, and 
especially with what he regards as the fallacies and false assumj/tions of over 
zealous neophytes in educational work. 

Rapport sub l'Instruction Publique a l'Exposition Uniyer- 

SELLE DE LA I^OUYELLE ORLEANS. By B. Buisson. Paris, 1880. 
EindctE Gifts, The. 

This is the title of a small volume published by order of the city council of 
Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1891, and •containing a description of the Manual 
Training School for Boys founded in that city by Mr. F. H. Eindge. 

Sloid in the Service of the School. By Dr. Otto Salomon, 
director of the IS'ormal School at Naiis, Sweden. 

An account of Swedish sloid by its best known exponent. The essay consti- 
tutes one of the educational monographs published by the New York College 
for the Training of Teachers. 

Systems of Education. By Gill. D. 0. Heath & Co., Boston. 
Technical Education. By Chas. B. Stetson. James E. Osgood & 

Co., Boston, 1874. 
Technical Education. United States consular report, l^o. 157. 

Reports from consuls of the United States at Rome, Saint Gall, Brussels, 
Rotterdam, and Stockholm, Saint Petersburg, Saint-Etienne, and Meutz on 
technical education and manual training schools. 

Technical Education in Industrial Pursuits. By Dr. ^Y. T. 
Barnard. Baltimore, 1887. 

Up to the date of its i)ublication this report, comx^iled for the information of 
the officials of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad company, presents in a very 
clear and concise manner a summary of the history of industrial education at 
home and abroad. The subject is treated with special reference to the railroad 
service, and particularly to the experiment of connecting shop work with school 
instruction at the establishment of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad at Mount 
Clare. ' The school, unfortunately, has been discontinued. 

Technical Instruction, Eeyiew of the Efforts of the 
British Koyal Commissioners on. With I^Totes. By the late 
Charles O. Thompson, A. M., Ph. D., president of Bose Polytechnic 
Institute, Terre Haute, Indiana. 

A circular of information of the bureau of education, 1885. The writer states 
that the object of his review of the five thick octavos of the commissioners is to 
extract the information which they furnish about the training of mechanical 
engineers and mechanics; i. e., to endeavor to smelt this mass of ore and extract 
the metal. This essential service the accomplished author most successfully 
performed. 

Technical Instruction. Special report of the commissioner of 
education to the United States House of Eepresentatives. 1870. 



CHAP. XV. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 671 

Twenty-two Years' Work of the Hampton Normal and Aaiii- 
CULTURAL Institute, at Hampton, Virginia. Hampton, 1893. 

An interesting record of the antecedents and x>ost-graduate history of the 
negro and Indian students educated at this school. 

Wood Workino, Exercises in. By Ivan Sickels. D. Appleton & 

Co., INe^Y York, 1890. 
Wood WorkinGt, First Lessons in. By A. G. Compton. Ivison, 

Blakeman & Co., :^ew York, 1888. 
Wood Working Tools: How to Use Them. By Prof. Glianning 

Wliitaker of the Massacliusetts Institute of Technology. D. 0. 

Heatk & Co., Boston. 

A course of lessons in the use of the hammer, knife, axe, plane, rule, chalk- 
line, square, saw, gauge, chisel, and auger. 

AUSTEIA. 

Arbeit als Erziehunosmittel. By Eckarclt. Vienna, 1875. 
Arbeitssciiule als Oroanischer Bestandteil der Yolks- 
SCHULE. By Dr. E. Schwab. Vienna, 1873. 

BEDEUTUNa DER ARBEITSSCHULE FtJR SCHULERZIEIIUNO. By 

Kissmann. Vienna, 1881. 
Beobachtunoen uber die Fortschritte auf DEM Gebiete der 

Industrie und des Gewerblichen Unterrichts. By Leop. 

riirstedler. Vienna, 1868. 
Bericht zur Feier des 25-Jahrioen Bestehens der Kaiser- 

LICH-KONiaLICHEN MeCIIANISCH-TECHNISCHEN LeHRWERKSTATTE 

IN Klagenfurt. 1861-1886. 
Frauen ARBEIT, ETC. Budapcsth, 1874. 

An account of women's work at the Vienna world's fair. 

Gewerbliche Fortbildunosschulen IN Deutschland, Beloien, 

UND DER ScHWEiz. By K. Gock. Vienna, 1882. 
Gewbrblioher IJnterricht im KoNiaREiCHE Belgien. By von 

Weigelsperg. Vienna, 3874. 
Handfertigkeitsunterricht IM Forden. ByE. Petzel. Vienna, 

1891. 
Kaiserlich-Konigliches Technologisches Gewerbe-Museum 

IN WiEN, 1879-1889. Vienna, 1890. 

An instructive historical sketch of the foundation and development of this 
notable museum. The institution, which is one of the hest equip7)ed in all 
Euroi^e, owes its existence to the Industrial Society of Lower Austria, wliose 
serai-centennial anniversary was celebrated and commemorated by the pub- 
lication of this account. 

KUNSTGEWERBE : DIE GEAVERBE- UND KUNSTaEWERBESCHULEN. 

By Prof. K. T. Richter. Vienna, 1869. 

l^ATIONALE HAUSINDUSTRIE AUF DER W^IENER WeLTAUSTELLUNG. 

By Dr. Eomer. 



672 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

PAPP TJND FeIIN^ERE HOLZARBEITEN IM HANDFERTiaKEITSUNTER- 

RicuTE. By Dr. Theodor Gelbe. Vienna, 1892. 

PR0aBAM3iIE DER VeRSUCHSANSTALT FUR ElEKTROTECHNIK. 

A brancli of tlie Teclinological Museum at Vienna. 

Prograimme Sammtlicher Special-Lehr curse am Technolo- 

aiscHEN Gewerbe-Museum in Wien. 
SajMjvilung von Modellen. 

A list of the models belonging to tlie Innsbruck Industrial Scbool; specially- 
designed for use in furniture ornamentation. 

SCHULGARTEN, Der. By Dr. Erasmus Scliwab. Vienna, 1870. 

An epoch making book. In it the author proposed to open school gardens 
mth vegetable beds, orchards, experiment fields, play grounds, etc., for chil- 
dren. The seed fell on good ground; for, says Herr Endxis, ^^by the end of the 
year 1870 one could count hundreds of school gardens in Austria laid out in ac- 
cordance with this plan." 

Schulwerkstatte, Die. By A. Briihns. Vienna, 1886. 
Special-Lehrcurse MIT Abend- und Sonntags-Unterricht. 
Statistik des Unterrichtswesens der Hauptstadt Budapesth. 

1888-'89. 
Statistisches Handbuch der Koniglichen Hauptstadt Prag. 

1887-'88. 
Training of Teachers in Austria. By E. Hannak, Pli. D., director 
of the Piidagogium at Vienna. 

One of the most useful of the educational monographs published by the New 
York College for the Training of Teachers. It is a translation from the German 
by Edgar D. Shimer, Ph. D., assistant in pedagogy in the University of the City 
of New York. 

'^In the United States, " writes the translator, " the provision made for the 
training of teachers is insufficient and lamentably defective." Hence, ''Dr. 
Hannak's masterly presentation of the nature, the necessity, and the conditions 
of professional training for public school teachers in Austria is peculiarly perti- 
nent to the vexed question of discriminating and synthetiziug the various plans 
of pedagogic training now in vogue in the United States." 

TJeber Schulwerkstatten. By Dr. E. Scliwab. Vienna, 1874. 
Ueber Zeickenunterricht, Kunstgewerbliche Fachschulen 

UND die Arbeitsschule UND DIE VoLKSSCHULE. By Eitclbex- 

ger von Edelberg. Vienna, 1883. 

BELGIUM. 

Administration de l'Enseignement Primaire. Programmes de 
I'enseignement a donner dans les ecoles normales et les sections 
normales prima ires de I'etat. Brnges. 

This is the full title of a work published by the minister of the interior and 
of public instruction in Belgium, under an order dated February 28, 1885. In 
this order Minister Thonissen directs that instruction shall be given in the nor- 
mal schools and in the normal sections of the primary schools of the state con- 
formably to the programmes annexed to the present decree. 



CHAP. XV. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 675 

The obligatory Lrauclies include religion and morals, constitutional system of 
government (Belgium), pedagogy, i)ractical didactics, notions of agiiciilture, 
hygiene of domestic animals, horticulture, arboriculture, needlework, writing, 
drawing, and music. 

The details of the programme above outlined are given in full in this publica- 
tion; and whoever wishes to understand the system of j)rimary education wliich 
exists in Belgium should carefully study M. Thonissen's monograph. 

A:^:i\'UAiRE Statistique de la Belgique. 1889. 

Ats^nuaire Statistique de la Belgique. 1890. 

Association pour l'Enseignement Pkofessionnel des Femmes: 

Ilistoire et organisation. Brussels, 1884. 
Association pour l'Enseignement Professionnel des Fe^imes: 

YiDgt-cinquieme auniversaire, 1865-1890. Briissels, 1890. 
Catalogue Detaille de l'Exposition Officielle d'Enseigne- 

ment Primaire. Brussels, 1881. Organized by tlie minister of 

public instruction. 
Enseignement Agricole aux Jeunes Filles. By Paul de Yuyst. 

Brussels, 1891. 

Prefacing his report with an essay on the need of agricultural education for 
young farmers the writer takes a ra]3id survey of what has been done in Ger- 
many, Austria, Denmark, and Holland for the instruction of girls in the si^eciai 
duties oT farmers' daughters. The work then gives a concise history of the or- 
ganization of the Belgian system of education for farmers' daughters. 

Enseigxement des Travaux du Menage dans les ^coles Pri- 
MAiRES DE Filles et les Ecoles Kor:\iales d'Institutrices. 
Brussels, 1887. 

This is a report made by A. J. Germain, director general of primary educa- 
tion, in July 1887, to the minister of public instruction. 

The work sets forth with admirable clearness and ability the actual state of 
education for housekeeping in Austria, Belgium, England, France, Germany, 
Switzerland, and the United States. 

The statistical value of this report is small, but it is full of details of the plans 
of instruction pursued in various cities for teaching the arts of cooking, sewing, 
domestic hygiene, and household economics. Hence the book must prove of 
great service to teachers in these branches. 

Enseignement des Tray aux Manuels pour GARgoNS. ByProi. 
van Kalken of the Brussels formal School. Brussels, 1883. 

A rei)ort to the minister of public instruction. 

Enseignement Professionnel dans ses Eapports avec l'En- 
SEiGNEMENT Primaire EN BELGIQUE. By M. de Bidder, irrofessor 
in the University of Ghent. 1883. 

Enseignement Special en Belgique. I. L'Enseignement Profes- 
sionnel. By H. Bertiaux. Brussels, 1892. 

The compiler of this volume proposes to himself a great work — nothing less 
than an account of all the institutions of learning that exist in Belgium. In 
the present book, however, his attention is confined to schools of technical 
education. Special or technical education, he says, includes three great diris- 
ions, viz., industrial education, professional education of boys and girls, and 
schools of domestic science {les ecoles m^nageres). Every existing Belgian school 
belonging to any of these categories is described in these ijagefi. 
S. Ex. 05 43 



674 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

EnseignejIENT SupjSrieur. ByDeYaux. 1852. 

Courses at tlie school of arts and manufactures connected with the University 
of Liege. 

Exeucices Methodiques de Travaux Manuels. By J. Boogaerts. 
Bnissely. 

The method of M. Boogaerts, \rhich has been adopted as the standard in 
Brussels, Antwerp, Liege, Mons, Yerviers, etc., is clearly explained in this vol- 
ume. This method continues in primary education the programme of instruc- 
tion hegun in the kindergartens by the method of Froebel. In the one, as in 
the other, geometry forms the basis of evolution for all ijedagogic work and ex- 
ercises. 

M. Sluys, director of the normal school, vrrote of this method, under date of 
December 21, 1888, describing it as ^'a system of excellent exercises for develop- 
ing manual skill, and for cultivating, at the same time, the taste for the beau- 
tiful." 

GeWERBLIGHE ERZIEHUIsa DURCH SCHXTLEN, LEHRWERKSTATTEN, 

MusEEN UND Yereine im KoNiaREiCH BELaiEN. Part I. Indus- 
trial Art. By Carl GenaLick, Keichenberg, 1886. 

Influence de l'Enseignement sur la Prosperite Industri- 
ELLE ET CoiviiViERCiALE. By Eugene Gauthy. 1860. 

Manual Trainings in Elementary Schools for Boys. By Prof. 
A. Sluys of tlie Brussels Xormal Scliool. 

This is one of the educational monographs published by the New York College 
for the Training of Teachers. 

Manuel des Sciences OojVOIERCiales. Used in the Brussels ficole 

Industrielle. 
MoDELAGE ScoLAiRE. By Stepman and Calozet. Brussels, 1891. 

^N'OTICE SUR LES INSTITUTIONS ET SeRYICES DES EtABLISSEMENTS 

OoCKERiLL. Liege, 1889. 

PR0GBAM3IE DE L'EnSEIGNE3IENT A DONNER DANS LES l^COLES 

Primaires Oommunales. Ostend, 1888. 
Rapports sur les Musees et les Ecoles d'Art Industriel 

EN Beloique ET HoLLANDE. By M. Yacliou. Paris, 1888. 
Eapport sur la Situation de l'Enseionement Industriel et 

Professionnel en Belgique, Presente aux Chambres Legis- 

LATIYES, May 7, 1886. By the minister of agriculture, industry, and 

public works. Brussels, 1886. 
Reyue IJni\^er sit aire, Brussels. Monthly parts, March 1891 to 

April 1892, inclusive. 
Troisieme Bulletin de la Societe :^ationale de Travail 

Manuel. Congres international de BruxelleSj August 30 and 31, 

1891. 

A report of the proceedings and discussious at the Brussels congress, together 
with a list of the members of the Belgian Society of Manual Training. The 
president, M. Calozet; refers to the years 1878 to 1882 as ''the period of purely 
theoretical discussion'^ of manual training; from 1882 to 1885 as "the iieriod of 



CHAP. XV. BIBLIOGRAniY. 675 

groping;" from 1881) to 1887 as ^"tlie period of practical experiment." Xo-iv, lio 
obserreS; "we possess a true national system of manual training." 



Annuaire de l'Instruction Publique, des Gultes et des 
Beaux Arts. Paris^ 1888. 

Als^NUAlRE StATISTIQUE DE LA FHANCE. 1890. 
ANNUAIRE StATISTIQUE DE LA YlLLE DE PARIS. 1886. 

Apprenticeship Schools in France. By Silvaiiiis P. Tiiomi^sou. 

Loudon, 1879. 
Code de l'Ej^seig-nement Primaire. By E. de Eesbecq. Paris, 

1887. 
CouRS d'I^conomie Domestique. By Mile. Marclief-Girard. Paris. 

A book designed for the use of Ij-ceums. colleges, normal schools, advanced 
primary schools, etc. 

COURS D'ENSEiaNEMENT C0M3IERCIAL (CLASSES DU SOIR) INSTITUES 
DANS LES ISCOLES OOMMUNALES DE LA YlLLE DE PARIS. 1890. 

OouRS Normal de Travail Manuel. By P. Martin. Paris, 1888. 
]ScoLE, L'. By Jules Simon. Paris, 1886. 

I^COLES d'Enseignement Primaire Sup:feRiEUR. Historique et leg- 
islation. Paris, 1886. 

ficOLES MANUELLES D'APPRENTISSAGE et l^COLES PrOPESSION- 

NELLES. Paris, 1887. 
Emile. (The Ideal Education for a Boy.) By Eousseau. (In English.) 

Boston, 1886. 
Enseignement Commercial et les jScoles de Commerce en 

France et dans le Monde Entier. By Eugene Leautey. Paris, 

1886. 
Enseignement de l' Agriculture. Paris, 1887. 
Enseigneiment du Travail Manuel a l'JScole Primaire. By 

iSmile Faivre. Paris, 1887. 
Enseignement Primaire. Paris, 1886. 

This is a resum6 of the discussions relative to manual training and the 
reorganization of tlie school system of France, in the Frencli senate and cham- 
ber of dex)uties. 

Enseigne^^ient Primaire a Paris, de 1867 1 1877. By M. Greard. 

In this report a list of former pupils of the Paris apprenticeship school is 
given with their ages, occupations, i)laces of employment, and salaries. The 
exLibit is most favorable to the scliool. 

Enseignement Primaire et Apprentissage. By G. Salicis. Paris, 

1878. 
Enseignement Proeessionnel. By A. Corbon. Paris. 
France as it Is. By Lebon and Pelet. London, Paris, and ^ew 

York, 1888. 



676 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Future Menagere, La. By Mile. Ernestine Wirtli. Paris. 

The housekeeper of the future will he thoroughly ecinipped for her duties if 
she learns all that is contained in these lectures on domestic economy, house- 
hold science, hygiene^ etc. For school use. 

Graxdes ficoLES DE Fraiv^ce, Les. By Mortimer D-Ocagne. Paris, 

1887. 
Guide Pratique des Trayaux Manuels. By G. Dumont and G. 

Pbilipx^on. Paris. 
HiSTOiRE DES ficoLES Imperiales d'Arts et Metiers. Liancourt. 

Compiegne, Beaupreau, Olialoiis, Angers, Aix. By A. Guettier. 

1865. 
Instruction Specials sur L'ENSEiaNEMENT du Dessin. Paris. 
Instruction Speciale sur l'Enseigne:ment du Travail Manuel 

DANS LES l^COLES i:s"ORMALES D'INSTITUTEURS ET LES [ficOLES 

Primaires, £le3ientaires et Superieures. Paris, 1886. 
Manual TRAiNiNa in France. By A. Salicis, late inspector general 
of manual training in France. 

This ATork is translated from the author's manuscript hy B. D. Woodward, 
of Columbia College, and published as an educational monograiih, in May 1890, 
by the New York College for the Training of Teachers. 

Memoire sur LES £coLES d'Apprentis. By M. Greard. 1871. 
Methode de Coupe et D'AssEMBLAaE pour Eobes de Femmes, 
Y]&tements d'Eneants, etc. By Mme. G. Scliefer. 1891. 

Used in the Paris s-chools. 

Organisation des £coles Pratiques Professionnelles en 
Allemagne, en Suede et en Eussie, etc. By Yan der Corput. 
Paris, 1866. 

Premiere Annee d'J^conomie Domestique, La. By E. El. Glialamet. 
Paris. 

This first year book is for pupils' use; an advanced work for teachers is in 
preioaration by the same author. 

Professions et Metiers : Guide pratique pour le clioix d'une carriere 
a Tusage des families et de la jeunesse. Paris. 

This work is i^rojected on a most liberal scale, and, when finished, it will con- 
stitute a complete treatise on the ]3rofessions (mamielles, industrielles, et com- 
merciaJes). It is published in parts, and treats the various subjects comprised 
within its scope in alphabetical order. The 48th part brings the work down 
to Fleurs Jriificiellcs. As in other cases a concise historical sketch of this 
industry is first given, followed by some statistics of the importance of the 
business, and a list of the x^rincipal centres of the manufacture. Fifteen thou- 
eand persons are said to have been engaged in this industry, in 1890, in Paris 
alone, and 30,000 more in the province. The treatise issued under the supervi- 
sion of M. Paul Jacquemart, inspector general of technical education, is to be 
a cyclopcedia of the trades and professions. 
EAPPORT sur la GrEATIOI^ D'ficOLES d'Apprentissage. By H. 

Tolain, senator. Paris, 1883. 
Soci^TE POUR l'Enseigneaient Professionnel des Femmes. 

(Ecoles filisa Lemonnier.) 1891. 



CHAP. XV. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 677 

Statistique de l'Enseignement PEI3IAIRE. Pails. 
Technical Education IN Europe. First part: Industrial Educa- 
tion in France. By J. Sclioenhof, consul at Tunstall. 1888. 

Piiblislied by tlie United States deijarfment of state, and containing a 
detailed account of the Frencli system, of industrial and teclinical education, 
the commercial schools, art schools, and industrial art museums of France. 

Travail Manuel. By Victor Brudeune. Paris, 1887. 

Travail Manuel a l']Ecole de la Eue Tournefort. By D. 

Laubier and A. Bougneret. Paris, 1888. 
Travail Manuel a l'£cole et dans la Famille. By Bertrand 

and Toussaint (school inspectors), and I. Gombert (school director). 

Paris, 1890. 

This hook comprises lessons in folding, Treaving, paper andpasteboard cutting, 
braiding of threads, straw, etc., cutting out of patterns, basket 'weaving, iron 
and TTOod work, and clay modelling. The last mentioned branch of construction 
work is of special interest, and among the 52-4 illustrations of this volume there 
are none more pleasing than those of clay models of eggs, plates, books, bottles, 
inkstands, hats, shoes, apples, leaves, flowers, and other objects, such as children 
from 5 to 10 years of age can be taught to make. The work contains withia 
the compass of 200 pages explicit instructions for making each of the articles 
named. 

Travaux 3IANUELS ET ficoNOMiE DoMESTiQUE. By Mnies. G. 
Scliefer and Soi}hie Amis. 1889. 

Used as a text book in the primary and normal schools. 

Trois ficoLES Rationales Professionnelles, Les. Paris, 1888. 
Uber Polytechnische Institute m AuLaEZMEiNEN und Anstal- 

TEN FtJR TeCHNISCHE BlLDUNft IN Frankreich. By Dr. F. B. 

Hermann. Nuremberg, 1828. 
Visit to a French Training College. 

An educational le-aflet published by the New York College for the Training of 
Teachers, describing a visit to VJilcole Xormale (VAuieull. 

Yolksschule und der Gewerbliche Unterricht in Frank- 
reich, MIT besonderer Berucksichtigung des Schulwesens 
VON Paris, is the full title of a valuable monograph by Dr. Max 
Weigert of Berlin. 1890. 

GEEMANY. 

ACHTER JAHRESBERICHT UBER DIE BERLINER FORTBILDUNGSSCHU- 
LEN, 1890-91. 

Ameisenbuchlein. By Salzmann. 

ANLEiTUNG ZUR Kerbschnitzerei. (42 illnstrations of the text.) 

By Clara Eoth. Leipsic, 1890. 
ANLEITUNG ZUR KERBSCHNITZEREI. By G. Yollers. Hambnrg, 

1890. 
Anweisung zum Modellieren aus Papier. By Rockstroh. 

Weimar, 1802. 
Arbeitsfrage, Die. By F. G. Schnlze. Jena, 1849. 



678 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Arbeitsschule als Oroanischei? Bestandtheil der Yolks- 

SCHULE. By Erasmus Schwab. 
Arbeitsschule neben der Lernschule und der Hausliche 

Gewerbefleiss. By Clauson-Kaas. Berlin^ 1S7C. 
Arbeitsschulen und Hausfeeissyereine. By Eaydt. 1879. 
Arbeits-Unterricht auf DEM Lande. By E. Yon Sell Click eiidorff. 

Gorlitz, 1891. 

Manual training in the country en counters obstacles of mucli the same kind 
everjTvliere. and the discussion in this i)amx:)hlet embraces subjects of common 
interest in Germany and in the United States. 

The writer treats the question under four heads : (1) What do the promoters 
of manual training seek? (2) Manual instruction in the country. (3) A far- 
ther reform of the country school. (4) Distribution of the cost of manual 
instruction. To check the congestion of the cities, to stay the depopulation of 
the country regions, and prevent this acute disease of the time, which is becoming 
more and more a public calamity, HerrSchonckendor£f'sj)anacea is manual train- 
ing. ^^Agriculture," he says, ^"is the most extensive industry in the country, 
so highly developed and extended as to outweigh all other interests." Hence 
he jileads for such schools in the country as will educate boys to become farmers, 

Arbeitsunterricht im Auslande und in Deutschland, seine 

WiRTSCHAFTLlCHE UND I^ATIONALE BeDEUTUNO. By Dr. Wolcle- 

mar Gotze. Leipsic, 1892. 

AUS DER LEHRERBILDUNaSANSTALT DES DeUTSCHEN YEREINS FUR 

Knabenhand ARBEIT. Leipsic. 

A series of practical lectures on manual exercises in metal work for puiiils 
and teachers; with a report concerning the teachers' school workshop in 1891. 

BeDEUTUNG DES KUNSTGEWERBLICHEN UnTERRICHTS FUR WURT- 

TEMBERGh. By Prof. Baumer. Stuttgart^ 1870. 
Belustigungen fur die Jugend Beiderlei Geschlechts, Durch 
Selbstanfertigung Mannigfacher Technischer Kunste- 
LEiEN UND Spielwerke. By Eockstroli. Berlin, 1836. 

BeRICHT iJBER DEN StAND UND DIE AUSBREITUNG DES ARBEITS- 

UNTERRiCHTS IN Deutschland. By Til. Soiiiitag. Leipsic, 1889. 
Bericht uber die Thatigkeit DES Yereins fur Knabenhand- 

arbeit zu Dantzig fur das erste Yereinsjahr. 1889-'90. 
Bilderwerkstatt (Manual Practice for Yoiitlij the Sclioolj the Home). 

By Dr. Georgens. 1857. 
Denkschrift Betreffend die Ereichtung einer Zweiten 

Handwerkerschule. Berlin, 1890. 
Denkschriften uber die Entwickelung der Gewerblioiien 

Fachschulen und der Fortbildungsschulen in Preussen 

wahrend der Jahre 1879 bis 1890. By Herr Lliders. Berlin, 1891. 

In this Avork of 318 pages the author recites the history of 52 trade aiid con- 
tinuation schools of Prussia. These schools have all been established within a 
recent period at A'arious points in the kingdom and they are of diverse charac- 
teristics, some being schools of industrial drawing, others building trade 
schools, art schools, schools of the metal industries, artisans' and laborers' 
schools, master workmen's schools, weaving schools, schools for locksmiths, 
machinists, etc. A concise description of each school is given, together with 
the statistics of attendance, expenditure, etc. 



CHAP. XV. — BIBLIOGRAPHY. 679 

Deutsche?? Kn^vben Handaveeksbuch, Des. By Bartli and Nie- 
derly. 1879. 

Deutsche Schule uis'D Deutsches Gewerbe. By Dr. Tli. Her- 
mann. Dresden, 1880. 

Education in Bavaria. By Sir Philii) Magnus, director of tlie City 
and Guilds of London Institute. 

This is ono of tlie educational monograplis puLlislied by the 'Kesv York College 
for the Training of Teachers. 

EiN Gesunder Geist in einem Gesunden Korpee. By H. Eaydt. 
Hanover, 1889. 

The hook treats of the correlation, of bodily health and mental vigor. It espe- 
cially emphasizes the hygienic value of exercise, games, etc., to the groAving 
child, and the importance of manual training as a means of intellectual devel- 
opment. 

Enseigne^^ient Manuel et Proeessionnel en Alle:\iacne. By 
G. Salicis and G. Jost. Paris, 1887. 

ENTSTEHUNa UND ENTWICKLUNa DER GEWERBLICHEN FORTBIL- 
DUNGSSCHUEEN UND FrAUENAEBEITSSCHULEN IN WURTTEMBERG-. 

1889. Publislied by the royal commission. 

ERGANZUN& DES SCHULUNTERRICHTS DURCH PrAKTISCHE BE- 

scHAFTiauNC. By Gotze. Leipsic, 1880. 
Erziehuno zur Arbeit. By .Karl Friedricli (the pseudonym of Prof. 
K. Biedermann). Leipsic, 1852. 

One of the earliest, as it is still one of the best, publications on this subject. 
Though, vrritten more than forty years ago it advocates the introduction of 
hand training in schools on the same ground now urged in favor of its ado]3tion, 
i. €., on account of its educational usefulness, not for any industrial end. Prof. 
Biedermann still lives and labors for the success of the cause which he has 
always sought to promote. 

ERZIEHUN& ZUR ARBEIT, EINE FORDERUNC DER ZeIT. By A. 

Endris. Leipsic, 1888. 

A history of the development of modern educational ideas and methods, includ 
ing the relation which the demand for manual training bears to pedagogics, and 
what pedagogical authorities of ancient and modern times say of this demand. 

FoRTBiLDUNGSSCHULE IN IJnserer Zeit, Die. By Prof. J. B. 

Meyer. Berlin, 1873. 
Frauenarbeitsschule in Eeutlincen, Die. By Eector Eeiniger. 

Eeutlingen, 1881. 
Frauenarbeitsschule in Eeutlingen, Die. Ihre EntsehuTig und 

ihre Wirksamkeit. By M. Z. Eeutlingen, 1873. 
German Boy's Experiment Book, The. By Emsmann and Dammer. 

Leipsic, 1881. 
Geschichte DER Arbeit UND KuLTUR. By Kirchmanu. Leipsic, 

1858. 
Geschichte der Methodik des Deutschen Yolksschulunter- 

RiCHTS. By Dr. C. Kehr. Gotha, 1889. 
Geschichte des Arbeitsunterrichtes in Deutschland. By 

Eissmann. Gotha, 1882. 



680 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

GeSCHICHTLICHE EnTWICKELLTNO DES HANDEERTiaKEITS-UNTER- 

RICHTS. By Joliaiines Meyer. 
Ge^vekbeschulwesen, Das. By Carl MelcMor. 
Gewerbe und Schule. By E. Wilcla. Brliun, 1882. 
Gewerbliche Erziehunq durch Schulen, Lehrwerkstatten, 

MUSEEN UND YeREINE IM KoNIOREICH Wt!RTTE3IBERa. By Carl 

Geiiauck. Eeielienberg, 1883. 
Gewerbliche Fortbildungsschulen. By H. Griiuow. Weimar, 

18G7. 
Ge^^tgrbliche Fortbildungsschulen Deutschlands. By Dr. 

E. Xagel. Eisenach^ 1877. 

Gewerblicher Unterricht in Wurttemberg. By Prof. Geii^ 
aiick. 1882. 

The status of industrial instruction in tlie kingdom of Wlirtemberg at tlio 
above date is very fully defined in this ^orh. 

Hand ARBEIT in der Knabenschule. By Hanschmann. 1876. 
Handarbeitsunterright. By Scliallenfeld. Frankfort, 18G1.* 
Handarbeitsunterright an den stadtischen Yolksschulen. 

(Anonymous.) Strasbnrg. 
Handarbeitsunterright fur die Mannliche Jugend. By 

Urban, May, Bauliofer, and Kreibicli. 
Handarbeitsunterright in den Madchenschulen Wurtte3i- 

BERGS. By E. Hory. Stuttgart, 1872. 
Hand7lRBEIT und Hausfleiss. By Herzfeld. Hanover, 1881. 
Handbildung und Hauseleiss. By Lammers. Berlin, 1881. 

Horr Lammers is editor of the Xord-West, the organ of the central committee 
of manual training. 

Handfertigkeits-Unterright. By Bausclier.* 

Handfertigkeits-Unterright. By Eudolf Petzel. 

Handfertigkeitsunterright fur Knaben. By Herse. 1882. 

Handfertigkeitsunterright in der Blindensghule. By Gustav 
Gorner, teacher in tlie Leipsic Institute for the Blind. 

Handfertigkeits-Unterright und die Hoiieren Sghulen. 
By Holm. 

Handfertigkeitsunterright und die Schule. By Meyer. Ber- 
lin, 1881. 

Handfertigkeit und Schule. By Kreyenberg. Frankfort. 

Handwerkersghulen, die Landesbaugewerksghule, und die 

KUNSTGEWERBESCHULEN IM GROSS-HeRZOGTHUM HESSEN. By 

F. Fink. 

A history of the development of the artisans' schools, the farm work school, and 
the schools of industrial art in the grand duchy of Hesse, from the year 1837; 
and their condition in 1886. 

Haushaltungskundb in der Dorfsghule und ihre Stellung 
zu DEM Unterricht in den Weiblighen Handarbeiten. By 
Maria Eebe. Gotlia. 



CHAP. XV. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 681 

HOUERER POLYTECHNISCIIER TJ]N'TERItICIIT IN DeUTSCHLAND, IN 
DER SCIIWEIZ, IN FrANKREICII, BeLGIENjUND ENGLAND. By Carl 

Ko.ristka.' Gotha. 

HousEftoLD Industry and the Emden Course of Manual Train- 
ing AS Conducted by Clauson-Kaas. (German.) By Giistav 
Oelsliorn. Leipsic. 

Illustriertes Spieleuch fur Knaben. By Herman Wagner. 
Leipsic. 

This "book for boys contains 1,001 games aud 533 illustrations. 

Illustriertes SpielbuchfurMadchen. By Marie Leske. Leipsic. 

A "book of l;oOO re-creationS; games, and exercises for body and mind, in the 
house and out of doors; with 500 illustrations. 

INDX^STRIELLE EnTWICKLUNG IM KoNIGREICH WURTTE?.rBERG, 

ETC. By L. Yisclier. Stuttgart^ 1875. 
Industrie und Schule. By A. Tylor. Stuttgart, 1865. 
JuNGE Kerbschnitzer, Der. By Max Sclimiedel. Leipsic, 1891 . 
A book of x)atterus for advanced wood -working pupils with explanatory toxt. 

JuNGE LaubsKgearbeiter, Der. By Carl Ereyer. Leipsic. 

This author gives (in 12 sections) full instructions, not only for scroll sawing, 
bat for carving, .mosaic work, wood xiainting, etching, etc. 

Junge Techniker, Der. By Emsmann and Dammer. Leipsic, 1876. 
Kerbschnitt, Der. (35 pattern sheets ^itli explanatory text.) By 

Prof. I. Koch. Carlsrulie, 1890. 
KiNDES Erstes Beschaftigungsbuch, Des. ByBartliandMederly. 

Leipsic, 1880. 
Kleine Eelief-Arbeiter, Der. By Wiget. Zurich, 1881. 
Kleingewerbe und der Gewerbliche Unterricht. By Prof. 

Ed. Tobisch. Eeichenberg, 1872. 
Knabenarbeitsschule zu Darmstadt. 1841. 
Krebsbuchlein. By Salzmann. 

Kunstgey/erbe als Beruf. By Dr. Julius Lessing. Berlin, 1891. 
KuRZE Anweisung im Linearzeichnen FtJR Yolks- und Arbeits- 

SCHULEN. By O. Salomon. Gothenburg, 1876. 
Laubsagearbeiter, Der. By Hugo Elm. Leipsic. 

An illustrated introduction to the practice of fret-sawing. 

Laubsagerei sowie die Einlege- und Sciinitzarbeit. By AVal- 

leneg. 
Lev ANA. (The Doctrine of Education.) J. P. Eichter. (In English.) 

Boston, 1886. 
Mehr Erziehung FtJR DIE DEUTSCHE JuGEND. By H. Eaydt. 

C. Mantz, HanoYer-Linden, 1890. 

MeNSCHLICIIE ErNAHRUNG und DIE CULTURHISTORICHE EnTWICK- 

LUNG DER KoCHKUNST. By Erau Lina Morgenstern. Berlin, 1882. 
MoDELLiEREN UND Zeichnen IN DER Blindenschule. By S. Hel- 
ler. Dilren, 1890. 



682 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIOTs^ER OF LABOR. 

MuSTEEBUCH fIte KiTNSTARBEiTEN. ByOitleb. Leipsic. 

:N^ERY0S1TAT UND MADCHENERZIEIIUNa IN SCHULE UND HAUS. By 

Herr Afer. J. F. Bergmann, Wiesbaden, 1891. 

A valuable book on one of tlic most perplexing of modern scbool i)roblems^ viz., 
the education of girls Avitbout impairment of the iiealtb. 

Witbin tbe compass of 106 pages tbe autbor^ ^vbo is connected Tritb tbe 
Girls' High School at Altenburg, discusses in a thoroughly 2->ractical way 
tbe causes of nervousness, tbe imi^ortance of recognizing its early manifesta- 
tions, the influence of study, the effects of examinations, of manual training, and 
of house^vorb:, gives advice concerning holidays, Sundays, private reading, piano 
X)laying, the duration of the school period, misuse of schooling, the supervision 
of schools and school systems by joint committees of teachers and ])hysicians, etc. 

l^ocii ETWAS TIBER Erziehung-. By Salzmann. Leipsic. 
Papparbeiter, Der. By Hugo Elm. 

An illustrated guide for making pasteboard work of all kinds (building of 
card boxes, doll houses, etc.). 

PrAKTISCHE ANWEISIJNa ZUR ERTEILUNa DES Handarbeitsunter- 
RICHTS NACH DER METHODE VON AaNES SCHAELENFELD. By 

Agnes Scliallenfeld. Erankfort-on-the-Main. 

PrAKTISCIIER UnTERRICHT EINE FoRDERUNG DES LeBENS AN DIE 

SCHULE. By E. Yon Schenckendorff. Breslau, 1880. 
Praktisches Hausbuch. By is . C. Eom. Leipsic, 1890. 

This is a work on wood carving. 

Eeform der Yolksschule. By Herr Ourtmann. Erankfort, 1851. 

Eeform der YoLKSSCnuLE. By J. Scliappi. 

Eeports on the Work of the German Society of Manual 
Training 5 and on tlie normal school nnder the management of this 
society for 1888, 1889, and 1890 (the last on the teachers' conrses at 
LeiiDsic)^ by Dr. W. Gotze, are of great Yalue. 

SCHULKONFERENZ, UND DIE KtJNFTIOE GeSTAETUNG DES HOHEREN 
SCHULWESENS YOM SOZIALPOLITISCHEN ST-ANDPUNKT. By E. YOn 

Schenckendorff. Berlin, 1891. 
SCHULWERKSTATT, DiE. By Barth and Mederly. Leipsic, 1882. 

A guide for the introduction of technical exercises into the school; with 103 
illustrations. 
SCHELWERKSTATTE IN IHRER YERBINDUNG- MIT DEM THEORE- 

TiscHEN Unterricht, Die. By Brnhns. 
Seele UND Hand. By Th. Pietsch. 
Statistik DES Unterrichts- UND Erziehungswesens im Konig- 

REICH WtJRTTEMBERG. 1889- '00. 
StELEUNG DES HANDARBEITSUNTERRICHTS in der BCHULE, UND 

SEINE Bedeutung FUR SCHULE UND Leben. By Anna Christiani, 
Bielefeld, 1892. 
Studien ZUR HausyvIRTHSCHAFT. By Eran Lina Morgenstern. 
Berlin. 

UbER die EiNRICHTUNG yon EEAL- UND GeAYERBESCHULEN MIT 

besonderer EiJOKSiCHT AUF Heilbronn. By Prof. H. 0. Kapff. 
Heilbronn, 1831. 



CHAP. Xy. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 683 

t^BER DIE EllRICHTUNa EINER HUTTENMANNISCHEN LeHRANSTALT 

IN Ober-Sghlesien. By A. Hiij^sseii. Breslaii, 1SC3. 

tJBER GeWERBESOHULBN TJND IHRE EiNRlCHTUNa IN WURTTE3I- 

BERa. By Prof. F. L. Finckli. Stuttgart, 1829. 

tJBER TECHNISCHE LEIIRANSTALTEN in IHREM ZUSAMMENHANa MIT 

DEM Gesammten Unterrichtswesen. By Dr. 0. E. :N"ebeniiis. 

Carlsrulie, 1833. 
Ueber Arbeitsschulen und Forderung- des Hausfleisses. By 

Clauson-Kaas. Bremen, 1881. 
Ueber die YERBiNDUNa der Praktischen Arbeit 3iit der Lern- 

sciiULE. By Cianson-Kaas. Dresden, 1875. 
Ueber die Ziele des Deutschen Vereins fur Knabenhand Ar- 
beit. By E. von Sclienckendorff. Bielefeld, 1892. 
Ueber Erziehun^ zur Arbeit, insbesondere in Anstalten. 

By Wichern. Hamburg, 1867. 
Ueber Handfertigkeitsunterricht und Hal^sfleiss. By 

Wolf, Wiirzburg, 1881. 
Unnatur der Modernen Schule, Die. By H. Wi gge and P. Martin. 

Eobt. Oppenlieim, Berlin, 1889. 
Vekhandlungen, etc. Proceedings of tlie congress of manual 

training and bouseliold industry. By Gotze. Gera. 
Yerwaltungsbericht des Bathes der Koniglichen Haupt- 

UND Eesidenzstadt DRESDEN FXJR DAS Jahr 3890. Dresden, 

1892. 

YiERTER JAHRESBERICHT DES HAUPTYEREINS FUR KnABEN-HAND- 

arbeit zu Berlin, 1890-'91. 
Yolks GEYfERBSCHULE. By Er. Eilcklin. Leipsic, 1888. 

YOLKSSCHULY^ESEN IN WURTTEMBERG. By K. H. YOU Stirm, D. D. 

Gotiia, 1873. 
Wahrnehmungen l^nd Gedanken ueber Technische-Gey^erb- 

LiciiES SCHULY'ESEN. By Wilda. Leipsic, 1879. 
Werkstatte der Kinder. In 4 parts. By Blasche. 1800-1802. 

The titles of other worlcs of this author (turned into Engiisli) are : The Indus- 
trial Education of Youth, and the Youth's Technological Friend^ published in 
1804; New Patterns of Pasteboard Y^ork, 1809; The Pasteboard ^Yorker, 1811; 
The Paper \Yorker, 1819; Handbook of Children's OccuT)ations. 

Wesen und Wert der Schuly^erkstatte. By Illiug. Municli, 

1880. 
Zy^eiter Bericht uber die Gesammten IJnterrichts- und 

ERZIEHUNaS-ANSTALTEN IM KoNIGREICIIE SACHSEN. 1889. 



GEEAT BEITAllS^. 

City of Manchester Technical Instruction Committee. Report 
of deputation appointed to Yisit educational institutions and schools 
on tlie continent. October 1891. J. E. Cornish, j)ublislier, Man- 
chester. 



684 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

Directory with Eegulations for EsTABLiSHma and Conduct- 
ing Science and Art Schools and Classes. London, 1890. 

Endowed School Acts, Eeports from the Select Committee 
ON. London, 1886-1887. 

Hand and Eye Training. By George Eicks, B. Sc. 2 vols. Cassell 
& Co., London, 1890. 

Industrial Education on the Continent. By Dr. Lyon Playfair. 
1853. 

London County Council. Eeport to the special committee on 
teclinical education. By H. Llewellyn Smith, M. A. 1892. 

Making of the Home. By Mrs. Samuel A. Barnett. London. 

A reading book of domestic economy for school and home use. 

Official' Handbook of the :N'ational Training School for 

Cookery. South Kensington, London. 
Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of Science, 

Eeports of the Eoyal Commission on. London, 1872-1875. 
Studies in Secondary Education. Edited by A. H. D. Acland, 

M. P., and H. Llewellyn Smith, M. A., with an introduction by James 

Bryce, M. P. Percival & Co., London, 1892. 

The contents of this work are divisible into tliree parts, viz., a hist-orical sur- 
vey, recent progress, and special district studies, as in London, Liverpool, Bir- 
mingliam, etc. 

Summer at I^aas, A. By J. B. B. London, 1889. 
Technical and Secondary Education, Eecord of. 

A journal of the progress made by county councils and other local authorities 
in the administration of the technical instruction acts. 

Technical Education. Proceedings of the international conference 

on education. London, 1884. 
Technical Education and Eoreign Competition. By Swire 

Smith. London, 1887. 
Technical Education in England and Wales. London, 1889. 
Technical Education, Prospectus of the E"ational Associa- 
tion FOR THE Promotion of. London, 1890. 
Technical Education: Where Should it be Given"? By Sil- 

vanus P. Thompson. Bristol. 
Technical Instruction Act, 1889. 

Technical Instruction, Eeports of the Eoyal Commissioners 
ON. 5 vols. London, 1882-188L 

The status of industrial education in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, 
Great Britain, Holland, Italy, Russia, Svritzerland, and the United States at that 
remote epoch, a decade ago, is set forth with great minuteness and fidelity in 
these volumes. Their chief value at present is to show the low water mark of 
pedagogic interest in technical instruction at that date. 

Technical Training. By Thomas Twining. London, 1874. 
Wood Work. By St. John. Wm. Blackwood & Sons, London and 
Edinburgh. 



CHAP. XV. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 685 

Wood Work (The Euglisli Sloid). By S. Barter, instructor of manual 
training in wood work to the London school board, etc. Whitta- 
ker & Co., London, 1892. 

Contents: Drawing, timber (its Tarious kinds, qualities, etc.), tools (how to 
adjust and use tliem), bench work, work room and its fittings, list of tools re- 
quired, etc. 



ITALY. 

Ats^nali di Statistica, Fascicolo XXX. 1801. 

Law Conges:n^its^g Schools of Arts and Trades and Special 
Schools for the Advancement of Industries and Commerce, 
proposed by the minister of agriculture, industry, and commerce, 
December 2, 1889. 

A very imx^orfcant bill for educational advancement in Italy. Its provisions 
are explained in tke text of this report. 

Method in Education. By Eosmini. (In English.) Boston. 
NoTiziE sull' Istituto Aldini-Yaleriani. Bologna, 1892. 
Keale Museo Industriale Italiano. By G. Jervis. Turin, 1809. 
Eeale Scuola d'Arti e Mestieri di Spezia. 1887. 
Statistica dell' Istruzione Second aria e Superiore. 1887. 
Statuti Orcanici della Pia Casa di Lavoro. Florence. 
Statuto Organico della Scuola Professionale Tipografica 

IN MiLANO. 1888. 

NOEWAY. 

Haandarbejdern. By J. G. Smith. Christiania. 

Handarbeit in der Schule. By W. Aubert. Christiania. 1874. 

EUSSIA. 

Eeview of the Present Condition of Middle and Lower Tech- 
nical AND Trade Education in Eussia. By J. A. Anapoff, 
director of the Tsarevitch Trade School, etc. 1889. 

Statistisk Arsbok for Finland. For the years 1889-1892. 

SWEDEN 

ElcoLE Pratique de Travail pour l'Enfance et la Jeunesse 1 

Stockholm. By K. E. Palmgren. 
Slojdskolan och Folkskolan, Parts 1, 2, 3. By Otto Salomon. 

Gothenburg, 1880. 

Also printed in German under tbe title HandfertiglieUsscluile und Toncsschule. 

SuR l'Importance du Travail Manuel dans l'Education. By 
K. E. Palmgren. Stockholm. 

This is a report of tbe conference of February 11, 1880. 



686 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 

SWITZEELAND. 

Elementar Unterricht in den Weiblichen Handarbeiten. 

By Susanna Mdller. Zuricli. 
Eortbildungsschulwesen, Das. By Dr. J. J. Kiimmer. Zuricli, 

1875. 
Fundamental Ideas of Pestalozzi and Froebel in their 

Application to the Elementary and Secondary School 

Grades. Zurich , 1881. 
Hand ARBEIT in der Schule. By KoUer. Zurich, 1881. 

This book describes the sj'Stem of instruction in vogue in the Swiss common 
and intermediate schools. 

Lebensfraoe der Europaischen Zivilisation und die Bedeit- 

TUNO DER FeLLENBERGSCHEN BiLDUNOSANSTALTEN ZU HoFWYL. 

By Scheidler. Jena, 1839. 
Leonard and Gertrude. By Pestalozzi. (In English.) Boston. 
Methode pour Enseioner la Geooraphie par l'Obseryation 

DES Formes de la Terre sur les Lieux Memes et leur 

Eeproduction en Belief. By Beust. Zurich, 1875. 
Belief Modelling- in the School. (Also in German.) Zurich, 

1881. 
YolkSwirthschafts-Lexikon der Schweiz. By A. Furrer. 

Bern, 1885-1889. 



INDEX 



A. 

Fage. 

Abbeville, Ala., Southeast Alabama Agricultural Scliool 114 

Aberdeen, Scotland, Robert Gordon's College 392 

Act autliorizing this iuvcstigation, construction of 15 

Acts relating to technical instruction in Great Britain, consideration- of 376, 377 

Adler's, i)r. Felix, Workingman's School, Kew York, 1\ . Y., manual training in 63, 04 

Advanced iwimary schoolsln France, consideration of 233-243 

Agricultural and horticultural schools in Belgium, consideration of 177-179 

Agricultural and ISfccbanical College of Kentucky, Lexington 119 

Agricultural and Mechanical College of Mississippi, Agricultural College P. O '. 121 

Agricviltural and Mechanical College of the University of the State of Missouri, Columbia. . . 121, 122 

Agricultural College and Training'Farm, TamAvorth, England 439 

Agricultural College, Cirencester, England 438 

Agricultural College, Downton, near Salisbury. England 438, 439 

Agricul*;ural College of Ke^^v Mexico, Las Cruces 122, 123 

Agricultural College of Utah Territory, Logan 128 

Agricultiu-al College P. O., Michigan Agricultural College 121 

Agricultural College P. O., Miss., Agricultural and Mechanical College of Mississippi 121 

Agricultural college?, consideration of 112-131 

Agricultural colleges in— 

Alabama - 113,114 

Arizona - 114 

Arkansas 114, 115 

California 115 

Colorado - 115,116 

Connecticut ^ 110 

Delaware ^ 110 

Florida 115,117 

Georgia 117,118 

Illinois 118 

Indian a 118 

Iowa - 118,119 

Kansas 119 

Kentucky 119 

Louisiana 119 

Maine 119,120 

Marvland 120 

Massachusetts 120, 121 

Michigan 121 

Minnesota 121 

Mississippi 1 21 

Missouri 121,122 

Nebraska 122 

If evada 122 

IsTew Hampshire 122 

Xew Jersey 122 

ISTew Mexico 122, 123 

^STew York 123 

Xorth Carolina 123 

K"orth Dakota 123 

Ohio 123 

Oregon 123 

Pennsylvania 123, 1 24 

Pvhode'lsland 124-127 

South Carolina 127, 128 

South Dakota 128 

Tennessee 128 

Texas 128 

Utah 128 

Vermont 128, 129 

Virginia 129 

West Virginia 129 

Wisconsin 129 

Agricultural colleges, manual labor in 130 

Agricultural colleges. United States : 

Abbeville, Ala., Southeast Alabama Agricultural School 114 

Agricultural and Mechanical College, Agricultural College P.O., Miss 121 

Agricultural and Mechanical College of Kentucky, Lexington 119 

687 



688 INDEX. 

Agrkiiltural colleges, United States— Continued. 

Agricultural and MeclLanical Scliool, Columbia, Mo 121, 122 

Agricultural College of New Mexico, Las Cruees 122^ 123 

Agricultural College of Utah Territory, Logan 128 

Agricultural College P. O., Michigan Agricultural College 121 

Agricultural College P. 0., Miss., Agricultural and Mechanical College 121 

Alabama Poly teclinic Institute, Auburn, Ala 113 

Alcorn Agricultural an<l Mechanical College, Rodney, Miss 121 

Ames, Iowa, State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts 118, 1 19 

Amherst, Mass., Agricultural College '. 120 

Arkansas Industrial University, Fayetteville, Ark , Ill, 115 

Athens, Ala., ISTortk Alabama Agricultural School 114 

Athens, Ga . , State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts 117 

Auburn, Ala*, Polytechnic Institute 113 

Baton Eouge, La., State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College 119 

I>e:pkeley, Cal., College of Agricultare 115 

Elacksburgh, Va., Agricultural and Mechanical College 129 

l>rooliings, S. Dale, Agi-icultural College 128 

Brown UniTersity, Providence, E. I., agricultural education in 124 

Burlington, Yt., State Agricultural College 128, 129 

Bussey Institution of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Mass 120, 121 

College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Columbia, S. C 127 

College of Agriculture and Mechanics' Institute, Orangeburgh, S. C 1 27, 128 

College of Agriculture, Berkeley, Cal 115 

College of Agriculture, Madison. Wis 129 

College of Agricidturc of Corsell UniA^erslty, Ithaca, N. Y 123 

College of Agriculture, Saint Anthony Park, Minn 121 

College Station, Tex., State Agricultural and Mechanical College 128 

Columbia, Mo., Agricultural and Mechanical School 121, 122 

Columbia, S. C, College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts 127 

Columbus, Ohio, State University, agricultural education in J 23 

Coi'vallis, Oreg., Starte Agricultural College 123 

Cuthbert, Ga., Soiathwest Georgia Agricultural College 118 

Dahlonega, Ga., If orth Georgia Agricultural College 118 

Delaware College, Newark, Del. , agricultural education in 116 

Fargo, N. Dak. , Agricultural College 123 

Fayetteville, Ark., Industrial University 114, 115 

Florida State Agricultural and Mechanical College, Lake Citv, Fla 116, 117 

Fort Collins, Colo., State Agricultural College ". 115, 116 

Georgia State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Athens, Ga 117 

Hamilton, Ga., West Georgia Agricultural and Mechanical College 118 

Hamilton Normal and Agricultural Institute, Hampton, Ya 129 

Hanover, N. H. , State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts 122 

Huntsville, Ala., State Colored Normal and Industrial School, agricultural education in. 113, 114 

Industrial CoUege, Lincoln, Nebr., agris-ultural education in ' 122 

Industrial University, Fayetteville, Ark 114, 115 

Iowa Stat^3 College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Ames, Iowa 118, 119 

Ithaca, N. T., College of Agricultxire of Cornell University 123 

Jamaica Plain, Mass., Bussey Institution of Harvard University 120, 121 

Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kans 119 

Kingston, E. I., College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts 124-127 

Knoxville, Tenn., State Agricultural and Mechanical College 128 

La Fayette, Ind., School of Agriculture of Purdue University 118 

Lake City, Fla., State Agricultural and Mechanical College 116, 117 

Las Cruees, N. Mex., Agricultural College of New Mexico 122, 123 

Lexington, Ky., Agricultural and Mechanical College 119 

Lincoln, Nebr., Industrial College, agiacultural education in 122 

Logan, Utah, Agricultural College of Utah Territory 128 

Louisiana State" University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Baton Eouge, La. 119 

Madison, Wis., College of Agriculture 129 

Maine State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, Orono, Me 119, 120 

Manhattan, Kans., State Agricultural College 119 

Mansfield, Conn., Storrs Agricultural School 116 

Maryland A gricultiiral College 120 

Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass 120 

Michigan Agricultural College, Agricultural College P. O., Mich 121 

Middle Georgia Military and Agricultural College, Milledgeville, Ga 117, 118 

Milledgeville, Ga., Middle Georgia Military and Agricultural College 117, 118 

Morgantown, W. Ya., West Yirgiuia University, agricultural education in 129 

Newark, Del., Delaware College, agricultural education in. 116 

New Brunswick, N. J., Eutgers Scientific School, agricultural education in 122 

New Haven, Cenn., Sheffield Scientific School, agricultural education in 116 

Normal and Agricultural Institute, Hampton, Ya 129 

Normal and Industrial School (Colored), Huntsville, Ala., agricultural education in 113, 114 

NcFi'th Alabama Agricultural School, Athens, Ala 114 

North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Ealoigh, N. C 123 

N©rth Dakota Agricultural College, Fargo, N. Dak 123 

North Georgia Agricultural College, Dahlonega, Ga 118 

Ohio State Uni versitj^ Columbus, Ohio, agricultural education in 123 

Orangeburgh, S. C, College of Agriculture and Mechanics' Institute 127, 128 

Oreg®n State Agricultural College, Corvallis, Oreg 123 

Ore-no, Me., State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts 119, 120 

• Pennsylvania State College, State College P. O., Pa., agricultural education in 123, 124 

Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala 113 

Providence, E. I., Brown University, agricultural education in 124 

Ealeigh. N. C, College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts 123 

Eeno, Nev., School oi Agriculture 122 



INDEX. 68^ 

Page. 
Agricultural colleges, United States— Concluded. 

Ehode Island College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Kingston, R. 1 124^127 

Kodney, Miss., Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College 121 

Rutgers Scientific School, l^ew Brunswick, 'N. J., agricultural education in 122 

Saint Anthony Park, Minn., College of Agriculture 121 

Saint Anthony Park, Minn., State School of Agriculture 121 

School of Agriculture of Purdue University, La Fayette, Ind 11& 

SchQol of Agriculture, Reno, Nev 122. 

Sheffield Scientific School of Tale University, New Haven, Conn., agricultural educa- 
tion in 116 

South Dakota Agricultural College, Brookings, S. Dak 128 

South Georgia Agricultural College, Thomas ville, Ga 118 

Southeast Alabama Agricultural School, Abbeville, Ala 114 

Southwest Georgia Agricultural College, Cuthbert, Ga 118. 

State Agricultural and Mechanical College, College Station, Tex 128 

State Agricultural and Mechanical College, Knoxville, Tenn 128. 

State Agricultural and Mechanical College, Lake City, Ela 116, 117 

State Agricultural CoUege, Burlington, Vt 128, r2a 

State Agricultural College, CorvaUis, Oreg „ 123 

State AgriCiultural College, Manhattan, Kans 11& 

State Agricultural College of Colorado, Fort Collins ,. 115,116 

State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Ames, Iowa 118, 119 

State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Athens, Ga 117 

State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, Hanover, S". H = . ■ 122 

State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, Orono, Me 119, 120 

State College, State College P. O., Pa 123,124 

State Colored I^onnal and Industrial School, Huntsville, Ala., agricultural educa- 
tion in 113,114 

State School of Agriculture, Saint Anthony Park, Minn 121 

State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Baton Rouge, La 119 

State University, Columbus, Ohio, agricultural education in 123 

Storrs Agricultural School, Mansfield, Conn 116 

Thomasville, Ga., South Georgia Agricultural College 118 

Tucson, Ariz., agricultural university 114 

University of Illinois, Urbana, agricultural education in „ 118 

Urbana, 111., University of Hlinols, agricultural education in 118 

Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College, Blacksburgh, Va 12& 

West Georgia Agricultural and Mechanical College, Hamilton, Ga 118 

West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va., agricultural education in 129 

Agricultural education, legislation for , 130, 131 

Agricultural experiment stations 130 

Agriculture, schools of, iii Great Britain, consideration of 437-440 

Aiken, S. C, manual training in 70 

Aix, Chalons, and Angers, France, ^National Schools of Arts and Trades at 286-290 

Alabama, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 113, 114 

Alabama, manual training schools in, consideration of 26-28 

Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala., an agricultural college 113 

Alais and Douai, France, schools for master miners 294, 295 

Albany High School, Albany, 'N. Y., a manual training school 57, 58 

Albemarle, Miller Manual Labor School of, Crozet, Va 71-76 

Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College, Rodney, Miss 121 

Aldini- Valerian! Institute, Bologna, Italy 451, 452 

Alsace-Lorraine, Industrial Society of Miilhausen 371 

American manual training schools generally superior to European ones 18, 19 

American technical and trade schools generally inferior to European ones 18, 19^ 

Ames, Iowa, State CoUecfe of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts 118, 119 

Amherst, Mass. , Agricultural College 120 

Angers, Chdlons, and Aix, France, STational Schools of Arts and Trades at 286-290 

Ann Arbor, Mich., University of Michigan, technical education in 13&. 

Antwerp, Belgium, Industrial School 200, 201 

Antwerp, Belgium, Trade School for Girls (intermediate) 187' 

Applied Mechanics, Watchmaking, and Electricity, IsTational School of, Brussels, Belgium... 196,197 

Apprentices, Diderot School for, Paris, France 247, 248 

Apprentices, School of, of the Industrial Society of I^Tantea, France 234 

Apprentices to tailoring trade, school for, Paris, France 280, 28i 

Apprenticeship in France, consideration of 275, 276 

Apprenticeship (Manual) , National School of, Armenti^res, France 262-265 

Apprenticeship (Manual) School, Boulogne-sur-Mer, France 26&- 

Apprenticeship (Manual) School for Boys, Reims, France 257-25&- 

Apprenticeship (Manual) School for Boys, Saint-Etienne, France 255-257 

Apprenticeship (Manual) School for the Book Publishing Industry, Paris, France 249-251 

Apprenticeship (Manual) School, Nantes, France 259- 

Apprenticeship (Manual) School of Furniture Making, Paris, Franc© 251, 252- 

Apprenticeship (Manual) School, Rouen, France 260 

Apprenticeship (Manual) School, Saint-Chamond, France 259 

Apprenticeship (manual) schools in France, consideration of 243-260 

Apprenticeship (manual) schools, Paris, France 246, 247 

Apprenticeship of Boya, Municipal School for the, Havre, Franco 253-25&- 

Apprenticeship schools in Belgium, consideration of 176, 177 

Arizona, agricultaral colleges m, consideration of 114 

Arkansas, agricultural colleges in, consideration of -. . 114, 115 

Arkan.sas Industrial University, FayetteviUe, Ark., an agricultural college 114, 115 

Armenti^res, France, National School of Manual Apprenticeship 262-265 

Armour Institute, Chicago, 111., consideration of 98,99- 

Art Academy, Cincinnati, Ohio, consideration of 110 

Art Academy, Dresden, Saxony 355, 356^ 

Art Academy, Leipsic, Saxony 358,35a. 

S. Ex. 65 44 



690 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Art and I^reerHe-svorlj:, School of, Zurioli, Switzerland 560-562 

Art School, Birmingham, England 39-4 

Art School (Indu strial), Dresden, Saxony ...^ 356, 357 

Art School (Industrial), Zurich, Switzerland... 569, 570 

Art School (Municipal), Geneva, Switzerland 'r>58 

Art schools (industrial) in Switzerland 568-571 

Artist-Artisans, Institute for, Xew York, I^. Y., consideration of 107-109 

Arts and Manufactures, Central School of. Paris, France 295, 296 

Arts and Tradea, Xational Conservatory of, Paris, France .■ 296, 297 

Arts and Trades, Xational Schools of, (jhalons. Angers, and Aix, France 286^290 

Athens, Ala^ Korth Alabama Agricultural School 114 

Athens, Ga., manual training in .' 29-31 

Athene's, Ga., State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts 117 

Atlanta, Ga., manual training for colored students in 31 

Atlanta Uni versi ty , Atlanta. Ga., a manual training school 29 

Auburn, Ala., Polytechnic Institute, an agiicuituxal college 113 

Aubusson, France, School of Tapestry 298 

Austria — 

continuation and trade schools in, consideration of 148-160 

manual training in, consideration of 143-148 

manual training schools for teachers in 144, 145 

present status of industrial education in 141-160 

Aversa, Italy, Seuola d' Art! e Mestieri neir Istituto Artistico di San Lorenzo 454, 455 

B. 

Baltimore, Md., manual training in 37, S8 

Baltimore School of Manual Training, Baltimore, Md 37, 38 

Basel, Switzerland, Trade School for Women 552-557 

Baton Rouge, La., State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College 1 19 

Battersea In.stitute, London, England 410 

Bavaria, industrial trade schools and continuation schools in 362-36S 

Beardstown, 111., manual training in 32 

Beaumont Institute, or the People s Palace, London, England 407, 408 

Belfast, Ireland, Techni<jal School 431 

Belfast Technical School, Belfast, Ireland 431 

Belgium — 

apprenticeship schools in, consideration of 176,177 

commercial institutes in, consideration of 214-216 

drawing schook in, consideration of 212-214 

housekeeping schools for girls in, consideration of 179-182 

industrial and technical schools in, consideration of.... i. 170-176 

industrial schools in, con.sideration of 198-211 

kindergartens in, consideration of 163, 164 

manual training for boys in the public schools in, consideration of 168-170 

manual training for girls in the public schools in, consideration of 164-168 

parochial trade schools in, consideration of „ 188. 189 

present status of industrial education in 161-216 

public school system in, consideration of 1<)3-170 

schools of agi-i culture and horticulture in, consideration of 177-179 

schools of industry and mines in, consideration of 21 6 

trade schools for girls in, consideration of 182-188 

trade schools founded by guilds and trades in, consideration ot 189-193 

trade schools in. consideration of 193-198 

Berkeley, Cal., College of Agriculture of the University of California 115 

Berlin, Prussia, various trade schools in 341-345 

Bern. Switzerland, School for Carpenters and Shoemakers , 53H-537 

Bern. Switzerland, School for Servants 557-560 

Bern, Switzerland, Trade School for Women 549-552 

Bern. Switzerland, Workingmen's School 574 

Bernard Palissy School. Pari3,France 301,302 

Bibliography 663-686 

Eienne. Switzerland, School of Tfatchmaking,: 525, 526 

Birkbeck Literary and Scientific Institution, LondoDj England 410, 411 

Birmingham, England, Mason Science College 421,422 

Birmingham, England, School of Art 394 

Birmingham, England, technical schools 392-394 

Bishop College, Marshall, Tex., manual training in 71 

Black sburgh, Va., Agricultural and Mechanical College 129 

Blankenberghe, Belgium, School for Fishermen 198 

Bologija. Italy, Aldi'ni-Valeriani Institute ^ 451,452 

Boh)gnas Italy, technical instruction at 445 

Book' Publishing Industry, Manual Apprenticeship School for the, Paris^ France 249-251 

Book work in conjunction with manual training - 59S-620 

Book work in relation to manual training in France, consideration of 260 

Boston, Mass., first general conference on manual trainiug held in, April 8-11, 1891 77-79 

Boston, Mass.. Lowell School of Practical Design, consideration of Ill, 112 

Boston, Mass., manual training schools 40-44 

Boston, Mass., Massachusetts Institute of Technology 132-134 

Boulogne-sur-Mer, France, Manual Apprenticeship School 260 

Bradford, England, Technical College 414-418 

Bradford Technical College. Bradford, Ehigland - 414-413 

Bremen, Germany, industrial trade schools in...... 362 

Brewing School, "Ghent, Belgium ...., 192. 193 

Bridges and Highways, National School of, Paris, France 292,293 

Brienz, Switzerland, School for Wood Carving 540, 541 

Bristol. England, Merchant Venturers' School. 481 

Brookings, S. Dak., Agricultural College 128 



INDEX. 691 

Page. 
Brootline, Mass., Manxial Training School 44,45 

Brooklyn. N. Y., Pratt Institute, a manual training school 58 

Brooklyn, X. T., Pratt Institute, as an industrial school 87-94 

Brown .University, Providence, II. I., agricultural educationin 124 

Bruck, Austria. Koyal School of the Wood Working Industry 149, 150 

Brussels, Belgium— 

Housekeeping School, rue Locquenghien 180, 181 

Industrial School 201 

Is ational School of Watchmaking, Electricity, and Applied Mechanics 196, 197 

School for Tailors 190,191 

School of Typography 191,192 

Trade School for Girts, rue des Terres Xeuves 186 

Trade School foi Girls, rue du Marais 182-185 

Trade School for Girls, rue du Poincon 185, 186 

Buchs, Switzerland, Housekeeping School 564-506 

Badapesth, Hungary, manual training in 146, 147 

Builders' Exchange school, PTiiladelphia. Pa., consideration of 83,84 

Building School, Royal, at Got ha, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 360,361 

Building Trade School at Xur^mberg, Bavaria 364, 3C5 

BurHngton, Vt., State Agricultural College of the Unirersit^' of Vermont 128,129 

Bussey Institution of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Mass., an agricultural college 120, 121 

C. 

California, agricultural colleges in, consideration of ." 115 

California, manual training schools in, consideration of 28 

Cambridge, Mass., Manual Training School 45-47 

Cantonal School of Industrial Arts, Geneva, Switzerland 568, 569 

Carpenters and Shoemakers, School for, Bern, Switzerland 5B3-5o7 

Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio ^ 138, 139 

Central Industrial School, Lyons, France 2'.30 

Central Institute, London. England 386, 387 

Central School of Arts and Manufactures, Paris, France 295, 'lOQ 

Central Tennessee College, Nashville, manual training in (colored) 71 

Ceramics. School of, Limoges, France 288,299 

Chaix Printing Company, Trade School of the, Paris, Prance 278, 279 

Chalons, Angers, and Aix, France, Xational Schools of Arts and Trades at 286-290 

Charleroi, Belgium, Industrial School 201-203 

Chanx-de-Fonds, Switzerland, School of Watchmaking and Mechanics 516-520 

Chelsea Institute, London, England 413 

Chemistry and Physics (Industrial), School of, Paris, France 248,249 

Chemistry (Industrial), School of, Lyons, France 2«5, 286 

Chemnitz", Saxony, industrial trade schools in 357, 358 

Chicago, lU., Armour Institute, consideration of 98, 99 

Chicago Manual Training School, Chicago, 111 32,33 

Chieti, Italy, Scuola d'Axti Applicata all' Industria 454 

Church schools for industrial education in France 286 

Cincinnati, Ohio, Art Academv, consideration of 110 

Cincinnati, Ohio, Mechanics' Institute, consideration of 110 

Cincinisati, Ohio, Technical School, a manual training school 64, 65 

Cincinnati, Oliio, University of Cincinnati, technical education in lH6 

Cirencester, England, Eoyal Agricultural College 438 

City of London College, London, England 412,413 

City Trade School, Leipsic, Saxony 359, 360 

Clark University, Atlanta, Ga., a manual training school 31 

Clas.^ification of" industrial schools in S-witzerland, consideration of 506 

ClerkenweU Polytechnic Institute, London, England 413 

Cleveland, Ohio," Case School of Applied Science 138. 139 

Cleveland, Ohio, Manual Training School 65, 66 

Cluny, France, Xational School for Training Foremen and Skilled Mechanics 291 

Cluses, France, National School for Watchmaking 265-267 

Cogswell Polytechnic College, San Francisco, Cal,, a manual training school 28 

College for Men and Women, London, England 411,412 

College for Working Women, London, England 412 

College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts of the University of South Carolina, Columbia 127 

College of Agriculture and Mechanics' Institute of Claflin University, Orangeburgh, S. C 127, 128 

College of Agriculture of Cornell University", Ithaca, N. Y 123 

College of Agriculture of the University of (California, Berkeley 115 

CoUege of Agriculture of the University of Minnesota, Saint Anthony Park 121 

College of Agriculture of the University of Wisconsin. Madison 129 

College of the City of New York, N. Y., manual training in 61, 62 

College Station, Tex., State Agricultural and Mechanic'al CoDege of Texas 128 

Cologne, Prussia, industrial educational establishment 347-849 

Colorado, agrictdtural colleges in, consideration of 115, 116 

Columbia,Mo., Agricultural and Mechanical School of the University of the State of MissoTiri. 121, 122 
Columbia, S. C, College of Agriculture and Mechanic Aits of the University of South Carolina. 127 

Cohimbia, S. C, manual training in 70 

Columbus. Ohio, State University, agricultural education in 123 

Commerce and Weaving, Advanced School of, Lyons, France 285 

Commercial institutes in Belgium, considerationof 214-216 

Concord, N. H., manual training in 54 

Conference on manual tn^ning 77-79 

Connecticut, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 116 

Connecticut, manual training schools in, consideration of 28, 29 

Conservatoj-y (National) of Arts and Trades, Paris, France 296.297 

Continuation and trade schools in Austria, consideration of 148-160 

Continuation schools and industrial trade schools in Bavaria 362-366 



692 



INDEX. 



Paga 

Continuation schools and industrial trade schools in Prussia, consideration of 336-350 

Continuation schools and industrial trade schools in Saxony, Hamburg, and Bremen, consid- 
eration of 350-362 

Continuation schools and industrial trade schools in Wiirtemberg, consideration of 366-370 

Cooking and sewing, training in the public schools of Philadelphia, Pa., in 660-662 

Corvallis, Oreg., State Agricultural College 123 

Coventry, England, Technical Institute 431, 432 

Coventry Technical Institute, Coventry, England 431, 432 

Crefeld, "Prussia, School of Weaving, Dyeing, and Einishing ^ 338-341 

Crozet, Va., manual training in 71-76 

Cuthbert, Ga., South^n^est Georgia Agricultural College ^ 118 

Cygnaeus, Uno, of Helsingfors, the originator of manual training 16 

D. 

Dahlonega, Ga., ITorth Georgia Agricultural College 118 

Dairy schools in Great Britain 439, 440 

Decorative Arts, ITational School of, Paris, France 297, 298 

Definition of the terms manual training school, trade school, technical school, and institute 

of technology 15, 16 

Delaware, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 116 

Delaware College, Newark, agricultural education in 116 

DeJimark, manual training in, consideration of 492-498 

Denmark, l^Torway, and Sweden. Bee Scandinavian countries. 

Design, In ational School of, for Girls, Paris, Erance 298 

Designing Academy at Hanau, Prussia^ 350 

Diderot School for Apprentices, Paris. Erance 247, 248 

District of Columbia, public schools of the 593-598 

Douai and Alais, Erance, schools for master miners 294, 295 

Down ton College of Agriculture, near Salisbury, England 438,439 

Drawing in the public schools of Paris, Erance 301 

Drawing School for Trades and Industries, Saint Gall, Switzerland 570, 571 

Drawing schools in Belgium, consideration of 212-214 

Drawing schools, municipal, in Erance 300 

Dresden, Saxony, Eoyal Academy of Arts 355,355 

Dresden, Saxony, Eoyal School of Industrial Art 356,357 

Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, Pa. , consideration of 94-98 

Duluth, Minn., manual training in 49 

Dundee, Scotland, Technical Institute 429,430 

Durfee, B. M. C, High School, Eall Eiver, Mass., manual training in 47 

Durham College of Science, Newcastle, England 424,425 

Dusseldorf, Prussia, School of Industrial Art 349 

Dyeing, Einishing, and "Weaving School, Crefeld, Prussia 338-341 

E. 

Eastern Eailway Company School, Paris, Erance 279, 280 

Easton, Pa., Lafayette College, technical education in 135, 136 

;ficole de Typographie, Brussels. Belgium 191, 192 

Edinburgh, Scotland, Heriot- Watt College 426-429 

Education, legislation for agricultural 130, 131 

Education, need of technical 102-105 

Education of a purely industrial character in Erance. consideration of 260-262 

Education of working people in Switzerland, institutions for the, consideration of , . . . 571-577 

Effect of manual training and trade instruction upon the individual - 651-662 

Electricity, Watchmaking, and Applied Mechanics, National School of, Brussels, Belgium 196, 197 

Elementary manual instruction in Great Britain, consideration of 384-386 

Elementary primary schools in Erance, consideration of 221-233 

Elephant and Castle Institute, London, England 410 

Elmira, N. Y., manual training and trade instruction in the reformatory at 621-650 

Emerson Institute, Mobile, Ala., a manual training school (colored) 20, 27 

Employers' opinions on technical education in Great Britain 434-437 

English High and Manual Training School, Chicago, lU 34 

Essen, Prussia, Krupp schools 349, 350 

European manual training schools generally inferior to American ones 18, 19 

European technical and trade schools generally superior to American ones • 18,19 

Experiment stations, agricultural , 130 

F. 

Fabriano, Italy, Scuola Professionale 451 

Eachschule fiir das Maschinengewerbe, Klagenfurth, Austria 152 

Eachschule fiir Holzindustrie, Bruck, Austria 149, 150 

Eachschule fiir Holzindustrie, Hall, Austria 151, 152 

Eachschule fiir Holzindustrie, Villach, Austria 156-158 

Eall River, Mass., manual training in 47 

Eargo, N. Dak., Agricultural College ^ 123 

Eayetteville, Ark., Industrial University, an agricultural college 114, 115 

Einishing, Dyeing, and Weaving School, Crefeld, Prussia 338-341 

Einland, Eussia, industrial education in, consideration of 464^-469 

Einsbury Technical College, London, England 387, 388 

Eishermen, School for, Blanken berghe, Belgium .' 198 

Eishermen, School for, Ostend, Belgium 197, 198 

Eisk University, Nashville, Tenn., manual training in (colored) 71 

Eleurier, Switzerland, School of Watchmaking 522, 523 

Elorence, Italy, Pia Casa di Lavoro 447 

Florida, agricultiiral colleges in, consideration of 116,117 



INDEX. 693 

Page. 

Florida, mannal traicicg schools in, consideration of ^.. 29 

Florida State Agricviltra-al and Mechanical College, Lake City, Fla 116, 117 

Foggia, Italy, Scuola Professionale 455 

Foiigno, Italy, School of Arts and Trades 448, 449 

Fortbildungsschtilen (continuation schools) in Austria, consideration of 148-160 

Fort Collins, Colo., State Agricuitui-al College 115,116 

France — 

advanced primary schools in, consideration of 233-243 

apprenticeship in, consideration of 275, 276 

hook work in relation to manual training in, consideration of 260 

church schools for industrial education in 286 

education of a purely industrial character in, consideration of 260-262 

elementary primary schools in, consideration of 221-233 

industrial art education in, consideration of 297-302 

industrial schools for national manufactories 295 

infant schools in, consideration of 220, 221 

manual apprenticeship schools in, consideration of ; 243-260 

manual training called manual labor in 17 

municipal drawing schools in 300 

present status of industrial education in 217-302 

primary industrial schools in, consideration of 262-286 

public school system in, consideration of 219-260 

secondary industrial schools in 286-291 

superior industrial schools in, consideration of 291-297 

travelling scholarships to graduates of industrial schools in, consideration of 302 

Frankfort on the Main, Prussia, Industrial Continuation School 345, 347 

Frankfort on the Main, Prussia, School of Industrial Art 345, 346 

Free School of Mechanical Tradles, "Williamson School P. O., Pa., consideratioa of 85-87 

Furniture Making, Manual Apprenticeship School of, Paris, Franco ,= 251, 252 

G. 

General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen, Ise-vf Tork, N. Y., consideration of 100, 101 

Geneva, Switzerland — 

Cantonal School of Indiistrial Arts 568,569 

kindergartens and manual training at 509-513 

Municipal School of Art 568 

Professional Academy 576, 577 

School of "Watchmaking and Mechanics 530-533 

Genoa, Italy, manual training at 444 

Georgia, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 117,118 

Georgia, manual training schools in, consideration of 29-32 

Georgia School of Technology, the manual training branch of the University of Georgia 30, 31 

Georgia State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Athens, Ga 117 

Germain Pilon School, Paris, France 301 

Germany — 

higher institutions for industrial education in, consideration of 328-336 

manual training called manual dexterity or workshop instruction in 17 

manual training in, consideration of 305-328 

present status of industrial education in 303-371 

Gewerbeschulen (trade schools) in Austria, consideration of 148-160 

Ghent, Belgium — 

Brewing School 192,193 

Industrial School 203-205 

Trade School 195,196 

Trade School for Girls 187 

Girard College, Philadelphia, Pa., manual training in 67, 68 

Girgenti, Italy, Scuola d' Art! e Mestieri Gioeni , 454 

Glasgow, Scotland, weaving school 430, 431 

Glasgow weaving school, Glasgow, Scotland 430, 431 

Goldsmiths' Company Institute, London, England 409, 410 

Gotha, Saxe-Coburg-(x.otha, Eoyal Building School 360, 361 

Grammar and high schools in the United States, manual training in 608-617 

Griit z, Austria, State Industrial School 150, 151 

Great Britain — 

acts relating to technical instruction in, consideration of 376, 377 

beginning of the movement for industrial education in, consideration of 375 

dairy schools in 439, 440 

elementary manual instruction in, consideration of 384-386 

means of support of industrial education in, consideration of .' 377-384 

if ational Association for the Promotion of Technical Education in, consideration of 384 

opinions of English employers on technical education in 434^437 

present status of industrial education in 373-440 

results of technical education in, consideration of 434-437 

schools of agriculture in, consideration of 437-440 

secondary and higher institutions for industrial education in, consideration of 386-396 

technical instruction in country districts in 432-434 

technical schools in, consideration of 396-434 

Gutenberg Typographical School, Paris, France 277,278 

H. 

Hall, Austria, school of the wood working industry 151,152 

Hamburg, Germany, industrial trade schools in 361, 362 

Hamilton,. G a.. West Georgia Agricultural and Mechanical College , 118 

Hampton formal and Agricultural Institute, Hampton, Va 129 

Hanau, Prussia, Eoyal Designing Academy 350 



694 



INDEX. 



Handicraft and Industrial School, Saint Petersburg, Enssia 463 

Hanover, N.H., State College of Agricultnre and the Meclianie Arts 122 

Hartshorn Memorial College, Richmond, Va., manual training in 76 

Havre, France, Municipal School for the Apprenticeship of Boys 253-255 

Hebrew Technical Institute of New York, N. Y., a manual training school 62, 63 

Heriot-"Watt College, Edinburgh, Scotland 426-429 

High and grammar schools in the United States, manual training in 608-617 

Higher institutions for industrial education in Germany, consideration of 328-336 

Hoboken, N. J., manual training in ^ 55,56 

Hoboken, K. J., Stevens Institute of Technology 138 

Hoe 6c Co.'s School, Isew York, N. Y., consideration of 101,102 

Horticultural and aOTicultural schools in Belgium, consideration of 177-179 

Horwich, England, Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company's ScIlooI 432 

Houghton, Mich., Mining School, consideration of 112 

Housekeeping and industrial schools for girls, Paris, Franc© 252, 253 

Housekeeping School, Buchs, Switzerland. 564-566 

Housekeeping School, Loavain, Belgium 181,182 

Housekeeping School, Morlanwelz. Belgium 181 

Housekeeping School, rue Lccquenghien, Brussels, Belgium 180, 181 

Housekeeping School, Worb, Switzerland 566-568 

Housekeeping schools for girls in Belgium, consideration of 179-182 

Huddersfield, England, Technical School 414 

Huddersiield Technical School, Huddersfield, England 414 

Hunts vilie, Ala., State Colored iiTormal and Industiial School, a^icultaral educsatioa in 113, 114 

I. 

Illinois, agricultural colleges in , consideration of , 118 

Hlinois, manual training schools in, consideration of 82-35 

Indiana, agricultural colleges in, con sideration of 118 

Indiana, manual training schools in, consideration of 85 

Indianapolis. Ind., manual training in 35 

Industrial and Drawing School, Soignies, Belgi'am 210, 211 

Industrial and Handicraft School, Saint Petersburg, Russia 462 

Industrial and housekeeping schools for girls, Paris, France 252,253 

Industrial and technical schools in Belgium, consideration of 170-173 

Industrial Art and Technical Design, School of, for Women, JS'ew York, IN". Y., Gonsideration of. 109. 110 

Industrial art education in France, consideration of 297-302 

Industrial Art, School of, Dresden, Saxony 356, 3.57 

Industrial Art, School of, Dusseldorf, Prussia 349 

Industrial Art, School of, Frankfort on the Main, Prussia 345.346 

Industrial Art School, Zurich, Switzerland 569, 570 

Industrial art schools in Switzerland 568-571 

Industrial Arts, Cantonal School of, Geneva, Switzerland 563,569 

Industrial Arts, National School of, Roubais, France 299 

Industrial Arts, School of, Reims, France 300 

Industrial Arts, School of, Saint-Etienne, France 299, 300 

Industrial Chemistry, School of, Lyons, France -. 285,286 

Industrial College of the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, agricultural education in 122 

Industrial Continuation School, Frankfort on the Main, Prussia 346, 347 

Industrial educational establishment at Cologne, Prussia 347-349 

Industrial Education Association of New York, N.Y., manual training in 63 

IiHiustrial education in — 

Austria, present status of - 141-160 

Belgium, present status of ' 161-216 

Finland, Russia, consideration of 464-469 

France, present status of 217-3U2 

Germany, higher institutions for, consideration of 328-336 

Germ;^y, present status of 303-371 

Great Britain, beginning of the movement for, consideration of 375 

Great Britain, present status of 373-440 

Great Britain, secondary and higher institutions for, consideration of 386-396 

Italy, present status of - 441-457 

Pragiie, Austria 159, 160 

Russia, present status of :. 459-483 

Scandinavian countries, present status of ^ 485-498 

Switzerland, national subsidies for, consideration of 501-505 

S wi tzerland, present status of 409- 586 

United States, present status of 21-139 

Industrial education, means of support in Great Britain of, consideration of 377-384 

Industrial Education of Women, schools of the Society for, Paris, France 281,282 

Industrial Institute of the North of France, Lille, France... 290,291 

Industrial Physics and Chemistry, School of, Paris, France 248, 249 

Industrial School at — 

Antwerp, Belgium.... - 200,201 

Brussels. Belgium - 201 

Cbarleroi, Belgium 201-203 

Ghent, Belgivun 203-205 

Gratz, Austria 150, 151 

Innsbruck, Austria 151, 152 

Jemniapo,3. Belgium , 205 

La Louviere, Belgium - - 205,206 

Liege. Belgium. 206,201 

Lou vain, Belgium - 207, 208 

Lyon .s. France ( Central) 290 

Marchiennes au Pont, Belgium 208 

Morlanwelz, Belgium 208-, 209 



INDEX. 695 

Page. 
Industrial School at— Concluded. 

OsTcnd, BelffinTn 209 

Eicsbach. Switzerland 572, 573 

Salzburg, Austria 152. 153 

Seraing-, Relgimn 209,210 

Stockport. England 391,392 

Tournay, Belgium 194,195 

Triest, Austria 153,154 

Verviers, Belgium 211 

Zurich, S^ri rzerland 574, 575 

Industrial schools for national manufactories, France 295 

Industrial schools in Belgium, consideration of 198-211 

Industrial schools in France, travelling scholarships to graduates of, consideration of. 302 

Industrial schools in Russia, official regulations for 479-483 

Industrial schools in Switzerland, classification of, consideration of 5t36 

Industrial schools (primary) in France, consideration of 262-286 

Industrial schools (secondary) in France, consideration of 286-291 

Indtistrial schools (superior) in France, consideration of 291-297 

Industrial Society of Miilhausen, Alsace-Lorraine 371 

Industrial Society, School of Apprentices of, Kantes, France 284 

Industrial Society, Trade School of. Saint- Quentin. France 283, 284 

Industrial trade schools and continuation schools in Bavaria 362-366 

Industi'ial trade schools and continuation schools in Prussia, consideration of 336-350 

Industrial trade schools and continuation schools in Saxony, Hamburg, and Bremen, considera- 
tion of 350-362 

Industrial trade schools and continuation schools in "Wiirtemberg, consideration of 366-370 

Industrial trade schools in Chemnitz, Saxony 357,358 

Industrial University, Fayetteville, Ark., an agricultural college 114,115 

Industry and mines, schools of, in Belgium, consideration of 216 

Infant schools in France, consideraton of 220, 221 

Innsbruck, Austria, State Industrial School 151. 152 

Ini=;titute for Artist-Artisans, Xew York, N. T., consideration of 107-109 

Institute for Colored Youth, PhiLidelphia, Pa., consideration of 84, 85 

Institute of technology, definition of term 16 

Institute Turgot (advanced primary school for boys), manual training in, Eonbaix, France .. 238-241 

Institutes of technology, consideration of 132-139 

Institutes of technology. United States : 

Ann Arbor, Mich., University of "if ichigan, technical education in. 139 

Boston, Mass., Massachusetts Institute of Technology 132-134 

Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio ". 138,139 

Cincinnati, Ohio, University of Cincinnati, technical education in 136 

Cleveland, Ohio, Case School of Applied Science 138,139 

Fasten, Pa., Lafayette College, technical education in 135, 136 

Hoboken, IST. J., Stevens Institnte of Technology .- 138 

Lafayette College, Easton, Pa., technical education in 135, 138 

Lawrence Scientific School, Cambridge, Mass 135 

Leland Stanford Junior University, Palo Alto, Cal., technical education in 136 

Massachusetts In.stitute of Technology, Boston, Mass 132-134 

Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy, RoUa, Mo ;. 139 

l^ashville, Tenn., Vanderbilt University, technical education in 134,135 

Palo Alto. Cal., Leland Stanford Junior University, technical education in 136 

Eensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, IST. Y 132 

EoUa, Mo., Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy 139 

Eose Polytechnic Institute. Terre Haute, Ind 137,138 

Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N.J 138 

Terre Haute, Ind., Eose Polytechnic Institute 137, 138 

Troy, N. Y., Eensselaer Polytechnic Institute .• 132 

University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, technical education in 136 

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, technical education in 139 

Yanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn., technical education in 134, 135 

Worcester, Mass., Worcester Polytechnic Institute 138, 137 

Worcester Polytechnic Institute. "Worcester, Mass 136, 137 

Institution Livet, Xantes, France , 272-275 

fnstitutions for the education of working people in Switzerland, consideration of 571-577 

Institutions (higher) for industrial education iu Germany, consideration of 323-338 

Introduction ._ 13-19 

Iowa, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 118. 119 

Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Ames, Iowa 118, 119 

Istituto Casanova, Naples, Italy 453 

Istituto Pio IX degli Artigianelli di San Giuseppe, Eome, Italy 456 

Istituto Professionale Maschile dell' Ospizio di San Michele a Eipa, Eome, Italy 456 

Italy, present status of industrial education in 441-457 

Ithaca, N. Y,, College of Agriculture of Cornell University 123 



Jacksonville, Fla. , manual training in 29 

Jamaica Plain, Mass., Bussey Institution of Harvard University, an agriciiltural college 120. 121 

Jamestown, N. Y., manual training in 59. 60 

Jemmapes, Belgium, Industrial School 205 



Kansas, agricultural colleges in, conaideration of 119 

Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kana Hi 

Kentucky, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 119 

Kentucky, manual training schools in, consideration of 35 



696 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Kindergarten in relation to manual training, the 587-598 

Kindergartens and manual training at Genera, STritzerland 509-513 

Kindergartens in Belgium, consideration of 1G3, 164 

Kindergartens in Switzerland, consideration of 506, 507 

King's College, London, England '4II 

Kingston, R. I., College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts 124-127 

Klagcnfurth, Austria, manual training in 147 

Klagenfurth, Austria, School for the Mechanic Arts 152 

Knoxville College, Knoxville, Tenn., a manual training school ^ 70 

Knoxville, Tenn., manual training in 70 

Knoxville, Tenn ., State Agricultural and Mechanical College of the "University of Tennessee. 128 

Komisarof Technical School, Mosco-w, Russia 461, 462 

Krupp's schools at Essen, Prussia 349, 350 

L, 

Ladies' Tailoring and i;i>'eedlework, Trade School for, Zurich, Switzerland 546-549 

Lafayette College, Easton, Pa., technical education in 135, 136 

La Eayette, Ind., manual training in , 35 

La Eayctte, Ind., School of Agriculture of Purdue University 118 

Lake City, Ela., State Agricultural andMechanical College 116, 117 

La Louviere, Belgium, Industrial School 205, 206 

La Martiniere School, Lyons, Erance 2G8-271 

Lamheth Polytechnic, London, England 409 

Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company's School, Horwich, England 432 

Las Cruces, 'N. Mex., Agricultural College of ISjJ'ew Mexico 122, 123 

La Spezia, Italy, Scuola d' Arti e Mestieri 448 

Lawrence Scientific School, Cambridge, Mass 135 

Leeds, England, Yorkshire College 423, 42-4 

Leeds Mechanics' Institution, Leeds, England 426 

Legislation for agricultural education 130, 131 

Leipsic, Saxony, City Trade School 359, 3G0 

Leipsic, Saxony, Royal Academy of Art 358, 359 

Leland Stanford Junior University, Palo Alto, Cal., technical education in 136 

Le Moyne Normal Institute, Memphis, Tenn., manual training in 70 

Lenzburg, Switzerland, School for Servants 562-564 

Lexington, Ky., Agricultural and Mechanical College of Kentucky ] 19 

Liege, Belgium, Industrial School 206, 207 

Liege, Belgium, School for Tailors 191 

Liege, Belgium, Trade School for Girls (intermediate) 188 

Lille, Erance, Industrial Institute of the j^orth of Erance 290, 291 

Lille, Erance, manual training in advanced primary school for girls in 242, 243 

Lille, France, manual training in elementary primary schools for hoys in 227, 228 

Liile, Erance, manual training in elementary primary schools for girls in 233 

Lille, Tourcoing, and Rouen, Erance, manual training in advanced primary schools for boys in. 241 

Limoges, Erance, School of Ceramics ^ 298, 299 

Lincoln, Nebr., Industrial College of the University of Is ebraska, agricultural education in. . . 1 122 

List of works relating to the subject of this report 663-686 

Literary and Scientiiic Institution (Birkbeck), London, England 410, 411 

Liverpool, England, School of Science and Technology 421 

Liverpool School of Science and Technology, Liverpool , England 421 

Locle, Switzerland, School of Watchmaking and Mechanics 513-516 

Logan, Utah, Agricultural College of Utah Territory 128 

London College for Men and 'Women, London, England 411, 412 

London, England — 

Battersea Institute . .•. 410 

Beaumont Institute (or the People's Palace) 407, 408 

Birkbeck Literary and Scientific Institution 410, 411 

Central Institute 386,387 

Chelsea Institute - 413 

City of London College 412,413 

ClerkenweU Polytechnic Institute 413 

College for Men and Women 411, 412 

College for Working Women 412 

Elephant and Castle Institute 410 

Einsbury Technical College 387, 388 

Goldsmiths' Company Institute 409, 410 

King's College. . . .^ 411 

Lambeth Polytechnic 409 

ISTorth London institutes 413 

People's Palace Day School 395, 396 

People's Palace (or'^Beaumont Institute; 407, 408 

Regentjjtreet Polytechnic School 394,395,397-407 

Royal V ictoria Hall Science Classes 408 

Louisiana, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 119 

Louisiana, manual training schools in, consideration of 35-37 

Louisiana State University and Agricultural andMechanical College, Baton Rouge, La 119 

Louisville, Ky., manual training in T. 35 

Louvain, Belgium — 

Housekeeping School 181, 182 

Industrial School 207,208 

Lowell, Mass., manual training in 47 

Lowell School of Practical Design, Boston, Mass., consideration of Ill, 112 

Lower Moseley Street Schools, Manchester, England 389 

Luzzara, Italy, Scuola d' Arte Applicata all'Industria 450 



INDEX. 697 

Pago. 
Lyons, France— 

Advanced School of Commerce and "Weaving = 2S5 

Central Indiisi rial School 200 

La Martiniere School 268-271 

School of Industrial Chemistry 285, 286 

M. 

Madison, Wis., College of Agriculture of the UniTersity of "Wisconsin 129 

Maine, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 119, 120 

Maine State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, Orono, Me 119, 12G 

Manchester, England — 

Lower Moseley Street Schools 389 

Manual Training School 389, 350 

Technical School 418-420 

Technical School of Messrs. Mather and Piatt 420 

Manchester Technical School, Manchester, England 418-420 

Manhattan, Kans., State Agricultural College 119 

Mansfield, Conn., Storrs Agricultural School. 116 

Manual Apprenticeship, National School of, Armenti^res, Franco 262-265 

Manual Apprenticeshi]? School, Boulogne- sur-Mer, France 260 

Manual Apprenticeship School for Boys, Eeims, France 257-259 

Manual Apprenticeship School for Boys, Saint-Etienne, France 255-257 

Manual Api^renticeship School for the Book Publishing Industry, Paris, Franco 249-251 

Manual Apprenticeship School, Nantes, France 259 

Manual Apprenticeship School of Furniture Making, Paris, France 251, 252 

Manual Apprenticeship School, Rouen, France 260 

Manual Apprenticeship School, Saint-Chamond, France 259 

Manual apprenticeship schools in France, consideration of 243-260 

Manual apprenticeship schools, Paris, France 246, 247 

Manual dexterity or workshop instruction, terma used in Germany for manual training 17 

Manual instruction (elementary) in Great Britain, consideration of 384-38G 

Manual labor in agricultural colleges 130 

Manual labor, term used for manual training in France 17 

Manual training and kindergartens at Geneva, Switzerland 509-513 

Manual training and trade instruction, effect of, upon the individual 651-662 

Manual training and trade instruction in reformatories 621-650 

Manual training at Genoa, Italy 444 

Manual training at E"aples, Italy 444 

Manual training, book work in relation to, in France, consideration of 260 

Manual training, called manual dexterity or workshop instruction in Germany 17 

Manual training, called manual labor in France 17 

Manual training, conference on 77-79 

Manual training for boys in the public schools of Belgium, consideration of 168-170 

Manual training for girls in the public schools of Belgium, consideration of 164-1^8 

Manual training in — 

advanced primary school for boys (Institute Turgot), Eoubaix, France 238-241 

advanced primary school for girls, Lille, France 242, 243 

advanced primary schools for boys at Tourcoing, Houen, and Lille, France 241 

advanced primary schools for boys, Paris, France 237, 238 

advanced primary schools for girls, Paris, France 241, 242 

Austria, consideration of , 143-148 

conjunction with book work 599-620 

Denmark, consideration of 492-498 

elementary primary schools for boys, Lille, France 227, 228 

elementary primary schools for boys, Paris, France 224-227 

elementary primary schools for girls, Lille, France 233 

elementary prim ary schools for girls, Paris, France 228-233 

Germany, consideration of 305-328 

grammar and high schools. United States 608-617 

Saint Petersburg, Kussia 462-464 

Sweden, called sloid 17 

Sweden, consideration of 490-492 

Switzerland, consideration of 507-509 

"United States, consideration of 24-79 

universities and technological schools. United States 618, 619 

Manual training, its relation to the kindergarten 587^598 

Manual training, origin of 16 

Manual training, Eussian method of, consideration of 16, 17 

Manual training school, definition of term 15 

Manual Training School, Manchester, England 389, 300 

Manual training schools for teachers in Austria 144, 145 

Manual training schools in America generally superior to those in Europe 18, 19 

Manual training schools, results of 653-657 

Manual training schools. United States : 

Adler's, Dr. Felix, "Workingman's School, N"ew York, 'N. Y., manual training in 63, 64 

Aiken, S. C, manual training in 70 

Albany High School, Albany, N.Y 57, 58 

Albemarle, Miller Manual Labor School of, Crozet, Va 71-76 

Athens, Ga., University of Georgia 29-31 

Atlanta, Ga., manual training for colored students in 31 

Atlanta University, Atlanta.^Ga 29 

Baltimore School of Manual Training, Baltimore, Md 37, 38 

Beardstown, 111., manual training in , 32 

Bishop College, Marshall, Tex., manual training in 71 

Boston, Mass., manual training schools 40-44 



698 INDEX. 

"Page. 
Manual traicing schools, United States— ContinneQ.. 

Brookline, Mass., Manual Training Scliool „ ,.... 44,45 

Brooklyn, N.Y., Pratt Institute 58 

Gambrid.ee, Mass., Manual Training School 45-47 

Central Tennessee College, IS^ashville, manual training for colored students in.... 71 

CMc;igo Manual Training School, Chicago, HI 32-34 

Cincinnati, Ohio, Technical School 64, 65 

Claxli Unirersity, Atlanta, Ga 31 

Cleveland, Ohio," Manual Training School 65, 66 

Cogswell Polytechnic College, San Francisco, Cal : 28 

College of the City of New York, manual training in 61, 62^^ 

Columbia, S. C, manual training in 70 

Concord, JS". H., manual training in 54 

Crozet, Va., manual training in 71-76 

Ihiluth, Minn., manual training in 49 

Durfee.B. M.CHigh School, FaU River, Mass 47 

Easton, Md., manual training in 38 

Emerson Institute. Mobile, Ala. (colored) 26, 27 

En sclish High and Manual Training School, Chicago. Ill 34 

FailRiver, Mass., B.M. C.Durfee High School ...1 47 

Fisk University, ISTashville, Tenn., manual training in (colored) 71 

Georgia School of Technology, Athens, Ga 30, 31 

Girard College, Philadelphia' Pa., manual training in 67, 68 

Hartshorn Memorial College, Richmond, Va., manual training in 76 

HebrewTechnicallnstituteof New York, N.Y.. '... 62,63 

Hoboken, N. J., manual training in ^ 55, 56 

Indianapolis, Ind., manual training in 35 

Industrial Education Association of New York, IT. Y., manual training in u3 

Jacksonville, Fla., manual training in 29 

Ja,mestown, N. Y., manual training in 59, GO 

Knoxville College, Knosville, Tenn 70 

Knox\^lle, Tenn., manual training in 70 

La Fayette, Ind., Purdue University 35 

Le MoVne Normal Institute, Memphis, Tenn., manual training in 70 

Louisville, Ky ., manual training in 35 

Lowell, Mass., manual training in 47 

Marshall. Tex. , man ual training in 71 

McDonogh School, near Baltimore, Md 38 

Memphis, Tenn,, manual training in 70 

Miller Manual Labor School of Albemarle, Crozet, Va 71-76 

Milwaukee, Wis., manual training in 77 

Minneapolis, Minn., manual training in 49 

Mobile. Ala., Emerson Institute , 26,27 

Mont Clair, N. J. , manual training in 56 

Morristown Norjual Academy, il- rristown, Tenn., manual training in 71 

New Britain. Conn.. Normal Training School 28 

Newburgh, N. Y., Manual Training School — 60 

Newcomb, H. Sophie, Memorial College, Now Orleans, La 35, 36 

New Haven, Conn., manual training in 28, 29 

New Orleans, La., manual training in 35-37 

New Orleans University, New Orleans, La - 35 

Newport, R. I., manual training in 69 

New York city, N. Y., manual training in 60-64 

Normal Training School, New Britain, Conn 28 

North Bennet Street Industrial School, Boston, Mass 40,41 

Northeast School, Philadelphia, Pa '. 67 

Oakland, Cal., manual training in 28 

Omaha, Nebr., manual training in 53, 54 

Orange, NT. J,, manual training^in 58, 57. 

Paterson, N. J., manual training in 57 

Peru, 111., manual training in 34,35 

Philadelphia, Pa.. Manual Training School 67 

Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., manual training in 58 

Providence. R. L, manual training in 69 

Purdue University, La Fayette, Ind 35 

Richmond, Va., manual training in , 76 

Saint Louis, Mo., Manual Training School 50-53 

Saint Paul, Minn., manual training in 49, 50 

San Francisco. Cal., Cogswell Polytechnic College 28 

Schofi^eld Normal and Industrial School, Aiken, S. C. (colored) 70 

Somerville, Mass., manual training in 47 

Spelman Seminary, Atlanta, Ga 31 

Sprin^eld, Mass., Manual Training School 47-49 

State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis., manual training in 77 

State Normal School, White Water, Wis., manual training in 76, 77 

Straight Universitv, New Orleans, La. (colored) 36, 37 

Talladega College, Talladega, Ala 27 

Technical School of Cincinnati, Ohio 64, 65 

Tidioute, Pa., manual training in 68 

Toledo, Ohio. Manual Training School - 66, 67 

Tulane High School, New Orleans, La , 36 

Tulane University of Louisiana, New Orleans 35, 36 

Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala. (colored) 27, 28 

University of Georsia, Athens 29-31 

Vineland, N. J., manual training in - 57 

Westerly, R. I., manual training in 69 

White Water, Wis., manual training in 78,77 



INDEX. 699 

Page. 
Manual training schools, United States — Concluded. 

"Wiley University, Marshall, Tex., manual training in 71 

"Wilkes Barre, Pa., manual training in 68, 69 

"Wiuthrop Training School for Teachers, Columbia, S. C. manual training in 70 

"Workingman's School, Dr. Felix Adlers, Xe-w York, N. Y., manual trainiiig in 63.64 

Manufactures and Arts, Central School of, Paris, France. 295, 296 

Marchienues au Pont, Belgium^ Industrial School . 208 

Marshall, Tex., manual training in . 71 

Maryland Agricultural College ^... 120 

Marylantl, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 120 

Maryland, manual training schools in. consideration of 37,38 

Mason Science College. Birmingham, England 421,422 

Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst. Mass 120 

Massachusetts, agricultural colleges in, considerntion of 120, 121 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston. Mass 152-1-34 

Massachusetts, manual training schools, consideration of 39-49 

Mather and Piatt's Technical School. Manchester, England , 420 

McDoucgh School, near Baltimore, Md., a manual training school 38 

Mechanic Arts, Trade School of the, Klagenfnrth, Austria 152 

Mechanical Handicraft School, Mosco-vr, Ituasia .^ 462 

Meclianlcs and Tradesmen, General Society of, ^e^r Y"ork;. I^. i ., consideration ef 100,101 

Mechanics and "Watchmaking, School of. Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland 516-520 

Mechanics and Watchmaking, School of, Geneva, Svritzerl and 530-533 

Mechanics and "Watchmaking, School of, Loole, Svritzerland 513-516 

Mechanics' Institute, Cincinnati, Ohio, consideration of 110 

Mechanics' Institution, Leeds, England 426 

Memphis, Tenn. , manual training in 70 

Merchant Venturers' School, Bristol, England 421 

Metal "Working. School of. "Winterthur, S-sritzerland 537-540 

Michigan Agricultural College, Agricultural College P. O., Mich 121 

Mii'higan, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 121 

Michigan Mining School, Houghton, Mich., consideration of.. 112 

Middle Georgia Military and Agricultural College. MiliedgeviUe, Ga 117,118 

Milan, Italy, Technical Institute of 445, 446 

Milan, Italy, lYP^graphical School at 447 

Military and Agricultural College of Middle Georgia. MiliedgeviUe 117,118 

Milledgeville, Ga., Middle Georgia Military and Agricultural College 117.118 

Miller Manual Labor School of "Albemarle', Crozet, Ya 71-76 

Milwaukee, "Wis., manual training in _. 77 

Miners, schools for master. Alais and Douai, France '294, 295 

Mines and industry, schools of. in Belgium, consideration of 216 

Mines. National High School of, Pari3,"FTance 293, 294 

Mines. School of. Saiot-Etienne. France 294 

Mining School, Houghton, Mich., consideration of 112 

Minneapolis, Minn., manual training in 49 

Minnesota, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 121 

Minnesota, manual training schools in, con.sideration of 49, 50 

Mississippi, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 121 

Missouri, agric ultural colleges in, consideration of 121. 122 

Missouri, manual training schools in, consideration of 50-53 

Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy, Eolla, Mo 139 

Mobile. Ala., manual training in ^ 26, 27 

Mont Clair, X. J., manual training in 56 

Mont Clair, JT. J., public schools , 589-59-3 

Morgantown, "W. Ya., "West Yiiginia University, agricultural education ±n 129 

Morlanwelz, Belgium, Housekeeping School 181 

Morlanweiz. Belgium, Industrial School 208,209 

Morristown Normal Academy, Tenn., manual training in 71 

Moscow, Eussia, Komisarof Technical School , 461,469 

Moscow, Eussia, Mechanical Handicraft School 462 

Moscow, Eussia, Strogonoff School of Technical Design and Museum of ^t and Industry.. .^ 462 

Miilhausen, Alsace-Lorraine, Industrial Society of .* 371 

Munich, Bavaria, Eoyal Technical School 362-3C4 

M unicipal drawing schools in France 300 

Municipal School Tor the Apprenticeship of Boys, Havre, France 253-255 

Municipal School of Art, Geneva, Switzerland 568 

Museo Artiistico Industriale e Scuole Officine, Naples, Italy 452 

Museo Artistico Industriale e Scuole Officine, Palermo, Italy 454 

F. 

Uamtir, Belgium, course for steam engineers - 197 

N: n*' 3. France, Institution Livet 272-275 

Nantes, France. Manual Apprenticeship School 259 

Na:tts. France, School of Apprentices of the Industrial Society of -— 284 

Ifaples Italy — 

Istitnto Casano-va >.. 453 

manual training at 444 

Museo Artistico Industriale e Seuole Officine -. 452 

Scuola di Chimica Applicata alle Arti della Societa Centrale Operaia Napolit.ina . 454 

Scuola di Lavoro della Society per I'Educazione del Popolo 453 

Seuola di Meccanica Pratica per gli Operai presso la Eeale University 454 

Scuola Gratuitadel Ritiro di Suor Orsola 454 

Scuola Indu-striale Alcssandro Yolta 452 

Scuola Professionale Femminile nel Ritiro del Santissimo Ecce Homo 454 

Stazione Sperimentale per la Industria delle PeUi 454 

Nashville, Tenn., manual training in r. 71 



700 



INDEX. 



Pago. 

2f asliYille, Tenn,, Yanderbilt University, technical education in 134, 135 

Irrational Association for tlie Promotion of Teclmical Education in Great Britain, considera- 
tion of 384 

National Conservatory of Arts and Trades, Paris, France 296,297 

National High School of Mines, Paris, France 293, 294 

National School for Training Foremen and Skilled Mechanics, Cluny, France '291 

National School for "Watchmaking, Cluses, France 255-267 

National School of Bridges and High-vraya, Paris, France 292, 293 

National School of Decorative Arts, Paris, France .- 297, 298 

National School of Design for Girls, Paris, France 298 

National School of Industrial Arts, Eouba-ix, France 299 

National School of Manual Apprenticeship, Armentiferes, France 262-265 

National School of "Watchmaking, Electricity, and Applied Mechanics, Brussels, Belgium 196, 197 

National Schools of Arts and Trades, Chalons, Angers, and Aix, Franco 286-290 

National subsidies for industrial education in Switzerland, consideration of 501-505 

Nebraska, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 122 

Nebraska, manual training schools in, consideration of 53, 54 

Need of technical education 102-105 

Needlework and Art, School of, Zurich, Switzerland 560-562 

Needlework and Ladies' Tailoring, Trade School for, Zurich, Switzerland 546-549 

NeiiChAtel, Switzerland, School of "Watchmaking 520-522 

Nevada, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 122 

Newark, Del. , Delaware College, agricultural education in 116 

Newark Technical School, Newark, N. J., consideration of 101 

New Britain, Conn., manual training in 23 

New Brunswick, N. J., E,utgers Scientific School, agricultural education in 122 

Newburgh, N. Y,, Manual Training School 60 

Newcastle, ^ngland, Durham College of Science 424, 425 

Newcomb, ii. Sophie, Memorial College, New Orleans, La., manual training in 35, 35 

New Cross Institute, London, England 409, 410 

New Hampshire, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 122 

New Hampshire, manual training schools in, consideration of 54 

New Haven, Conn., manual training in 28, 29 

New Haven, Conn., Shef&eld Scientific Scliool of Yale "LJniversity, agricultural education in.. 116 

New Jersey, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 122 

New Jerseyj manual training schools in, consideration of 54-57 

New Mexico, agricultural coUeges in, consideration of 122, 123 

New Orleans, La. , manual training in 35-37 

New Orleans University, New Orleans, La., manual training in 35 

Newport, E. I., manual training in 69 

New York, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 123 

New York city, N. Y., manual training in ^ 60-64 

New York, manual training schools in, consideration of 57-64 

New York, N. Y. — 

General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen, consideration of 100, 101 

Institute for Artist- Artisans, consideration of 107-109 

School of Industrial Art and Technical Design for "Women, consideration of 109, 110 

School of Messrs. Hoe & Co., consideration of 101,102 

New York Trade Schools, consideration of 80-83 

Nice, France, school at 299 

Normal and Agricultural Institute, Hampton, Va 129 

Normal and Indu.strial School (Colored), Hunts ville, Ala., agricultural education in.... 113,114 

Normal Training School, New Britain, Conn., a manual training school 28 

North Alabama Agricultural School, Athens, Ala 114 

North Bennet Street Industrial School, Boston, Mass., a manual training school 40, 41 

North Carolina, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 123 

North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Ealeigh, N. C 123 

North Dakota Agricultural College, Fargo, N.Dak 123 

North Dakota, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 123 

North Georgia Agricultural College, Dahlonega, Ga 118 

North London institutes, London, England 413 

Northeast School, Philadelphia, Pa., a manual training school 67 

Northern Eailway Company Trade School, Paris, France 280 

Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. See Scandinavian countries. 

Nottingham, England, University College 431 

Nuremberg, Bavaria, Building Trade School 364, 365 

Nuremberg, Bavaria, TVomen's "Work School 365, 366 

O. 

Oakland, Cal., manual training in 28 

Ohio, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 123 

Ohio, manual training schools in, consideration of 64-67 

Ohio Mechanics' Institute, Cincinnati, Ohio, consideration of 110 

Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, agricultural education in 123 

Omaha, Nebr ., manual training in 53, 54 

Opinions of English employers on technical education in Great Britain 434-437 

Orange, N.J. .manual training in 56,57 

Orangeburgh, S. C, College of Agriculture and Mechanics' Institute of Claflin University 127,128 

Oregon, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 123 

Oregon State Agricultural College, Ccrvallis, Oreg 123 

Origin of manual training 16 

Oroiio, Me., State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts 119, 120 

Ospizio degli ArtigianeUi Bonauni, Eome, Italy 456 

Ospizio di Tata Giovanni, Eome, Italy 456 

Ostend, Belgium, Industrial School 209 

Ostend, Belgium, School for Fishermen 197, 198 



INDEX. 701 

P. iRage. 

Padagogiiim, Yienna, Austria 147, 148 

Palermo, Italy, Museo Artistico Inclustriale e Scuole Officine 454 

Palo Alto, Cal, Leland Stanford Junior University, technical education in 136 

Paris, France — 

Bernard Palissy School in 301, 302 

Central School of Arts and Manufactures 295, 296 

Diderot School for Apprentices 247, 248 

drawing in the public schools of 301 

Germain Pilon School in 301 

Gutenberg Typographical School 277, 278 

industrial and housekeeping schools for girls 252,253 

Manual Apprenticeship School for the Book Publishing Industry in 249-251 

Manual Apprenticeship School of Furnitui'e Making 251, 252 

manual apprenticeship schools in 246, 247 

manual training in advanced primary schools for boys in 237, 238 

manual training in advanced primary schools for girls in 241,242 

manual training in elementary primary schools for boys in 224-227 

manual training in elementary primary schools for girls in 228-233 

!N"alional Conservatory of Arts and Trades 296, 297 

2^Tational High School of Mines 293, 294 

National School of Bridges and Highways 292, 2S3 

National School of Decorative Arts 297,298 

National School of Design for Girls 298 

Polytechnic School 2S2 

School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry 248, 249 

School of the Eastern Eailway Company 279, 280 

schools of the Society for the Industrial Education of Women 281,282 

Trade School for Tailors' Apprentices 280, 281 

Trade School for Watchmaking 281 

Trade School of the Chaix Printing Company 278,279 

Trade School of the Northern Eaii^vay Company 280 

trade schools at, consideration of 276, 277 

Parochial trade schools in Belgium, consideration of 188, 189 

Paterson, N. J., manual training in 57 

Pennsylvania, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 123, 124 

Pennsylvania, manual training schools in, consideration of 67-69 

Pennsylvania State College, State College P. O., agricultural education in 123, 124 

People's Palace Day School, London, England 395, 396 

People's Palace (or Beaumont Institute), London, England 407,408 

Peru, ni., manual training in 34,35 

Philadelphia Builders' Exchange school, consideration of 83, 84 

Philadelphia, Pa.— 

Drexel Institute, consideration of 94-98 

Institute for Colored Youth, consideration of 84, 85 

Manual Training School 67 

textile school, consideration of 105-107 

training in sewing and cooking in the public schools of 660-662 

Physics and Chemistry (Industrial), School of, Paris, Prance 248, 249 

Pia Casa di Lavoro, Florence, Italy 447 

Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala., an agricultural college 113 

Polytechnic Institute, Clerkenwell, London, England 413 

Polytechnic School (Lambeth), London, England 409 

Polytechnic School, Paris, Prance 292 

Polytechnic School, Pegent Street, London, England 394,395,397-407 

Polytechnic School, Zurich, Switzerland 584-586 

Porentruy, Switzerland, School of "Watchmaking 526-528 

Prague, Austria, industrial education in 159, 160 

Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., consideration of 87-94 

Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N, Y., manual training in 58 

Primary (advanced) schools in Prance, consideration of 233-243 

Primary (elementary) schools in France, consideration of 221-233 

Primary industrial schools in France, consideration of 262-286 

Printing, Trade School of the Chaix Printing Company, Paris, Franco 278,279 

Professional Academy, Geneva, Switzerland ". 576, 577 

Professional Improvement, School for, Saint Gall, Switzerland 575, 576 

Professional Improvement, School for, WintertLur, Switzerland 573, 574 

Professional school at Savona, Italy 449, 450 

Providence, R. I. — 

Brown University, agricultural education in .• 124 

manual training in 69 

School of Design, consideration of Ill 

Technical Drawing School, consideration of 110,111 

Prussia, industrial trade schools and continuation schools in, consideration of 336-350 

Public library classes, South Shields, near Newcastle, England 425, 426 

Public school system in Belgium, consideration of 163-170 

Public school system in France, consideration of 219-200 

Public schools, drawing in the, Paris, France 301 

Public schools of Mont Clair, N. J 589-593 

Public schools of Philadelphia, Pa., training in sewing and cooking in the 660-662 

Public schools of the District of Columbia 593-598 

Purdue University, La Fayette, Ind., manual training in 35 

Purdue University, School of Agriculture of, Jj& Fayette Ind 118 

E. 

Railway (Eastern) Company School, Paris, France 279,280 

Railway (Northern) Company Trade School, Paris, France 280 

Raleigh, N. C, College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts 123 



702 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Eeformatories, mannal training and trade instruction in 621-650 

Eegeut Street Polj^technic School, London, England 394,395,397-497 

Eegulations (oflicial) for industrial schools in Ilussia 479-483 

Eeims, France, Manual Apprenticeship Scliool for Boys 257-259 

Eeims, France, School of Industrial Arts 809 

Eeno, Nex., School of Agriculture of the Is'evada Stats University 122 

Eensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N. Y 132 

Pesults of manual training schools G53-G57 

Results of technical education in Great Britain, consideration of . . , - 434- 437 

Eesults of trade schools 657-660 

Hhode Island, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 124-1 27 

Ehode Island College of Agriculture and Mechanic Aj'ts, Kingston, R. 1 124-127 

Rhode Island, manual training in, consideration of 69 

Rhode Island School of Design, Providence, R. I., consideration of 11 1 

Richmond, Va , manual training in 76 

Rie.sbach, S^vitzerland, Industrial School , . 572, 573 

Robert Gordon's College, Aberdeen, Scotland 392 

Rodnev, Miss., Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College 121 

Rolla, Mo. , Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy' 139 

Rome, Italy — 

Istituto Pio IX degli Artigianelli di San G iuseppe 456 

Istituto Professionale Maschile dell' Ospizio di San Michele a Ripa 456 

Ospizio d'egli Artigianelli Bonanni : 456 

Ospizio di Tata Giovanni .'. 456 

Scuola Femminile Torlonia 457 

Scuola Professionale del Rione San Angelo 456 

Victoria Home ^ 456, 457 

Rose Polytechnic Institute, Terre Haute, Ind 137, 138 

Ronbaix, France, manual training in tlie advanced primary school for boys (Institute Turgot) 

in 238-241 

Ronbaix. France, ISTational School of Industrial Arts 299 

Rouen, France, Manual Apprenticeship School 260 

Rouen, Tourcoing, and Lille, France, manual training in. advanced primary sCiiools for boys in 241 

Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, England 438 

Royal Victoria Hall Science Classes, London, England 408 

Russia — 

official regulations for industrial schools in 479-483 

present status of industrial education in 459-483 

technical and trade education in, consideration of 470-479 

Russian method of manual training, consideration of 16, 17 

Rutgers Scientific School, Ncts^ BrunsT\-ick, N. J., agiicultural education in 122 



Saint Anthony Park, Minn., College of Agriculture of the University of Minnesota 121 

Saint Anthony Park. Minn., State School of Agriculture 121 

Saint-Chamond, France, Manual Apprenticeship School 259 

Saiiit-Etienne, France, Manual Apprenticeship Sckool for Boys 255-257 

Saint-E tienne, France, School of Industrial Arts 299, 300 

Saint- Etienns, France, School of Mines 294 

Saint Gall, Switzerland, Drawing School for Trades and Industries 570, 571 

Saint Gall, Switzeiland, School for Professional Improvement 575, 576 

Saint Imicr, Switzerland, School of Watchmaking 528-530 

Saint L,ouis Manual Training School, Saint Louis, Mo 50-53 

Saint Paul, Minn., manual training in - 49, 50 

Saint Petersburg, Russia, Handicraft and Industrial School 462 

Saint Petersburg, Russia, manual training in 462-464 

Saint-Quentin, France, Trade School of the Industrial Society of 283, 284 

Salzburg, Austria, State Industrial School 152, 153 

San Francisco, Cal., manual training in 28 

San Giovanni a Teduccio, Italy, Scuola di Disegno Industrialo ed Elementi di Meccanica 455 

Savona, Italy, professional school at 449, 450 

Saxony, Hamburg, and Bremen, industrial trade schools and continuation schools iJi, consid- 
eration of 350-362 

Scandinavian countries, present status of industrial education in 485-498 

Schotield Xormal and Industrial Scliool, Aiken, S. C, manual training in (colored) 70 

Scholarships, travelling, to graduates of industrial schools, in France, consideration of 302 

School (Advanced) of Commerce aijd Weaving, Lyons, France 285 

School at Nice, France 299 

School (Central) of Arts and Manufactures, Paris, France 295, 296 

School for — 

Carpenters and Shoemakers, Bern, Switzerland 533-537 

Fishermen, Blankenberghe, Belgiinn 1?8 

Fishermen, Ostend, Belgium 197, ] 98 

Professional Improvement, Saint Gall, Switzerland 575. 576 

Professional Improvement, Winterthux, Switzerland - 573, 574 

Servants, Bern, Switzerland 557-560 

Servants, Lenzburg, Switzerland 562-564 

Silk Weaving, Wipkingen, near Zurich, Switzerland 541-544 

Tailor.s. Brussels, Belgium 190,191 

Tailors, Liege, Belgium 191 

Wood Carving, Brienz, Switzerland : 540, 541 

School of— 

Agriculture of Purdue University, La Fayette, Ind 118 

A griculture of the Nevada State University, Reno, Nev 122 

Apprentices of the Industrial Society of Nantes, France 284 



INDEX. 703 

■Page. 
School of— Concluded. 

Art and iSTeedlework, Zuricli. Switzerland 56*0-562 

Arts and Trades. Foliguo, Italy 448. 449 

Ceramics, Limoges, Franco 298, 299 

Design, Providence, R. I., consideration of Ill 

Industrial Art and Technical Design for Women, Ne^v York, N". Y., consideration of . .. 109, 110 

Industrial Arts, Reims, France 300 

Industrial A^rta, Saint-Etienne, France 299,300 

Industrial Chemistry, Lyons, Franca 285, 286 

Industrial Physics and Chemistry, Paris, France 248, 249 

Messrs. Hoe & Co., New York, N.Y., consideration of 101,102 

Metal Working, Winterthur, Switzerland 537-540 

Mines, Saint-Etienne, France 294 

Tapestrj', Auhusson, France 298 

Technical Design and Museum of Art and Industry (Strogonoff) , Moscow, Russia 462 

The I'lastern Railway Company, Paris, France 279.280 

The Philadelphia Builders' Exchange, consideration of 83, 84 

Typogi-aphy, Brussels, Belgium 191, 192 

■Watchmaking and Mechanics, Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland 516-520 

Watchmaking and Mechanics, Geneva, Switzerland 530-533 

Watchmaking and Mechanics, Locle, Switzerland 513-516 

Watchmaking, Bienne, Switzerland 52.i, 526 

Watchmaking, Fleurier, Switzerland 522, 523 

Watchmaking, Neuchatel, Switzerland 520-522 

Watchmaking, Porentrny, Switzerland 526-528 

Watclunaking, Saint Imier, Switzerland 528-530 

Watchmaking, Soleure, Switzerland 524, 525 

Weaving, Wattwyl, Switzerland 544-546 

School shops m various" Austrian cities 144 

Schools for master miners, Alais and Douai, France 294, 295 

Schools of agriculture in Great Britain, consideration of. 437-440 

Scliools of industry and Laines in Belgium, consideration of... ,., 215 

Schools of the Society for the Industrial Education of Women, Paris, France] 281, 282 

Science and Technology, School of, Liverpool, England 421 

Science classes at Royal Victoria HaU, London, England 408 

Science College (Mason), Birqjiagham, England 421,422 

Scientific and Literary Institution (Birkbeck) , London, England 410, 411 

Scuola d'Arte Applicata all' Jndustria, Luzzara, Italy 450 

Scuola d' Arti Applicata aU' industria, Chieti, Italy 454 

Scuola d'Arti e Mestieri Gioeni, Girgenti, Italy 454 

Scuola d'Arti e Mestieri, La Spezia, Italy 448 

Scuola d'Arti e Mestieri nell' Istituto Artistico di San Lorenzo, Aversa, Italy 454, 455 

Scuola d' Arti e Mestieri, Trapani, Italy 454 

Scuola di Chimica Applicata alle Artidella Society Centrale OperaiaXapolitana, Naples, Italy. 454 

Scuola di Disegno Industriale ed Elementi di Meccanica, San Giovanni a Teduccio, Italy 455 

Scuola di Lavoro della Society per TEducazione del Popolo, Naples, Italy 453 

Scuola di Meccanica Pratica per gli Operai presso la Reale University, Naples, Italy 454 

Scuola d'Incisione sul Corallo, e d'Arti Decorative o Industriale, Torre del Greco, Italy 455 

Scuola Femminile Torlonia, Rome, Italy 457 

Scuola Gratuita del Ritiro di Suor Orsola. Naples, Italy 454 

Scuola Industriale Alessandi'o Volta, Naples, Italy 452 

Siuola Industriale, Triest, Austria 153, 154 

Scuola Professionale del Rione San Angelo, Rome, Italy 456 

Scuol a Professionale di Fabriano 451 

Scuola Professionale Femminile nel Ritiro del Santissimo Eoce Homo, Naples, Italy 454 

Scuola Professionale, Foggia, Italy 455 

Scuola Professionale Tipografica di Milano 447 

Scuole Officine e Museo Artistico Industriale, Naples, Italy 452 

Scuole Officine e Museo Artistico Industriale, Palermo, Italy 454 

Secondary and higher institutions for industrial education in Great Britain, consideration of. 386-396 

Secondary industrial schools in France, consideration of 286-291 

Seraing, Belgium, Industrial School 209, 210 

Servants. School for, Bern, Switzerland 557-500 

Servants, School for, Lenzburg, Switzerland 562-584 

Sewing and cooking, trainingln the public schools of Philadelphia, Pa., in 660-062 

Sheffield, England, Sheffield Technical School 390, 391, 422, 423 

Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University, New Haven, Conn., agricultural education in. . 116 

Sheffield Technical School, Sheffield, England 390, 391, 422, 423 

Shoemakers and Carpenters, School for, Bern, Switzerland 533-537 

Silk Weaving, School for, Wipkingen, near Zurich, Switzerland 541-544 

Simmering, Austria, manual training in 144 

Sloid, term used for manual training in Sweden 17 

Society for the Industrial Education of Women, schools of the, Paris, France 281, 282 

Soignies, Belgiuia, Industrial and Drawing School 210, 211 

Soleure, Switzerland, School of Watchmaliing 524,525 

Somerville, Mass., manual training in 47 

Sorau, Prussia, Weaving School 345 

South Carolina, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 127, 128 

South Carolina, manual training schools in, consideration of 70 

South Dakota Agricultural College, Brookings, ri. Dak, , 128 

South Dakota, agricultural colleges in, consideration of ^. 128 

South Georgia College. Thomasville, Ga 118 

South London School of Technical Art, London, England 389 

South Shields public library classes, near Nawcastle, England 425, 426 

Southeast Alabama Agricultural School, Abbeville, Ala 114 

Southwest Georgia Agricultural College, Cuthbert, Ga 118 

Special, industrial, and technical schools in Belgium, consideration of 170-176 



704 



INDEX. 



Pag& 
Sprcmborg, Prussia, School of Weaving 341 

Springfield Manual Training School, Springfield, Mass 47-49 

Staats-Gewerheschule, Griitz, Austria 150, 151 

Staats-Gcwcrbeschule, Innsbruck, Austria 151, 152 

Staats-Ge-werbeschule, Salzburg, Austria 152, 153 

Staats-GeTverheschule, Triest, Austria 153, 154 

Staats-Hand^verkerschule, Klagenfurth, Austria, a manual training school 147 

State Agricultural and Mechanical College, Lake City, Fla 116, 117 

State Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College Station ,. 128 

State Agricultural and Mechanical College of the Unirersity of Tennessee, Knoxville 128 

State Agricultural College, Corrallis, Oreg 123 

State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kans 119 

State Agricultural College of Colorado, Fort Collins 115, 116 

State A gricnltul-al College of the University of Yennont, Burlington 128, 129 

State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Ames, Iowa 118, 119 

State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Athens, Ga 117 

State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, Hanover, N. H ]22 

State College of Agriculture and the Mechaulc Arts, Orcuo, Me 119,120 

State College, State College P. 0., Pa., agricultural education in 123, 124 

State Colored Xormal and Industrial School, Huntsville, Ala., agricultural education in 113, 114 

State l^ormal School, Milwaukee, Wis., manual training in 77 

State Xormal School, White Water, Wis., manual training in 76, 77 

State School of Agriculture, Saint Anthony Park, Minn 121 

State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, Baton Eouge, La 119 

State University, Columbus, Ohio, agricultural education in 123 

Stazione Sperimentale per la Industria delle Pelii, Naples, Italy • 454 

Steam engineers, course for, iN'amur, Belgium 197 

Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N. J 138 

Stockport, England, Industrial School 391,392 

Storrs Agricultural School, Mansfield, Conn 116 

Stro^onolf School of Technical Design and Museum of Art and Industry, Moscow, Eussia 462 

Subsidies (national) for industrial education in Switzerland, consideration of 501-505 

Superior industrial schools in France, consideration of 291-297 

Sweden, manual training called sloid in 17 

Sweden, manual training in, consideration of 490-492 

Sweden, IS'"orway, and Denmark, i-ee Scandinavian countries. » 
Switzerland- 
classification of industrial schools in, consideration of 506 

industri-al art schools in 568-571 

industrial education in, present status of 499-586 

institutions for the education of working people in, consideration of 571-577 

kindergartens in, consideration of 506, 507 

manual training in, consideration of 507-509 

national subsidies for industrial education in, consideration of 501-505 

trade schools in, consideration of 513-568 

T. 

Tailors' Apprentices, Trade School for, Paris, France 280,281 

Tailors, School for, Brussels, Belgium 190, 191 

Tailors, School for, Liege, Belgium 191 

Talladega College, Talladega, Ala., a manual training school 27 

Tamworth Agricultural College and Training Farm, Tarn worth, England 439 

Tamworth, England, Agricultural College and Training Farm 439 

Tapestry, School of, Aubusson, France 298 

Teachers' manual training schools in Austria 144, 145 

Technical and industrial schools in Belgium, consideration of 170-176 

Technical and trade education in Eussia, consideration of, 470-479 

Technical and trade schools, consideration of 79-112 

Technical and trade schools in America generally inferior to those in Europe 18, 19 

Technical and trade schools, United States. See Trade and technical schools, United States. 

Technical Art School of South London, London, England 389 

Technical College, Bradford, England 414-418 

Technical College, Finsbury, London, England 387, 388 

Technical Drawing School, Providence, E. I,, consideration of 110, 111 

TechnicalEducation in Great Britain, jS'ationalAssociationforthePromotionof,consideration of 384 

Technical education in Great Britain, opinion of English employers on 434-437 

Technical education in Great Britain, results of, consideration of 434-437 

Technical education, need of 102-105 

Technical Institute, Coventrv, England 431, 432 

Technical Institute, Dundee,' Scotland 429, 430 

Technical Institute of Milan, Italy ,. 445,446 

Technical instruction acts of Grea't Britain, consideration of 376, 377 

Technical instruction at Bologna, Italy 445 

Technical instruction in country districts in Great Britain 432-434 

Technical School, Belfast, Ireland 431 

Techuical school, definition of term 15 

Technical School, Huddersfield, England 414 

Technical School (Komisarof), Moscow, Eu.ssia 461,462 

Technical School, Manchester, England 418-420 

Technical School, Munich, Bavaria 362-364 

Technical School, Newark, N. J., consideration of 101 

Technical School of Cincinnati, Ohio, a manual training school 64, 65 

Technical School of Messrs. Mather and Piatt, Manchester, England 420 

Technical School, Sheflield, England 390,391,422,423 

Technical schools at Birmingham, England 392-394 



INDEX. 705 



Pasa 

TecTmieal scliools in GJ-reat Britain , consideration of n96-434 

Tochnikum, tlie, Wiuterthnr, Switzerland 577-584 

Technological liuhistrial Museum, Vienna, Austria 154-] 56 

Technplogicnl schools and universities in the United States, manual trajning in 618, 619 

Technologisches Gewerbe-Museum. Vienna, Austria 154-156 

Technology and Science, School of, Liver]K)ol, England 421 

Technology, consideration of institutes of 132-139 

Technology, institute of, definition of term 16 

Tennessee, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 128 

Tennessee, manual training schools in, consideration of 70,71 

Terre Haute, lud., Eo.se Polytechnic Institute 137,138 

Texas, agricultural colleges'in, consideration of 128 

Texas, nianual training sM^-.hools in, consideration of 71 

Textile sciiool, Philadelphia, Pa., consideration of 105-107 

Thomasville, Ga., South Georgia Agricultural College 118 

Tidioute. Pa., manual training in 68 

Toledo. Oliio. Manual Training School ^ 66, 67 

Torre del Greco, Italy. Scuola d' Incisione .snl Corallo, e d'Arti Decorative e Iiidustriale 455 

Tourcoiug. Iloi-.en, and Lille, France, manual training in advanced primarj- schools for boys in. 241 

Tournay ." Belgium, Industrial School ."". 194^ 195 

Trade and continuation schools, Europe. See Continuation and trade s-cliools, Europe. 

Trade and continuation schools in Au.stria, consideration of - 148-160 

Trade and technical education in Pussia, consideration of 470-479 

Trade and technical schools, consideration of 79-112 

Trade and technical schools in Europe generally superior to tlioso in America 18, 19 

Trade and technical schools. United States: 

Armour Institute, Chicago, 111 88, §9 

Art Academy, Cincinnati, Ohio 110 

Artist-Artisans, Institute for, 'New York, X. Y 107-109 

Boston, Mass.. Lowell School of Practical Design — Ill, 112 

Brooklyn, jS". Y., Pratt Institute 87-94 

Builders' Exchange scliool, Philadelphia, Pa 83, 84 

Chicago, 111., Armour Institute 98; 09 

Cincinnati. Ohio, Art Academy 110 

Cincinnati. Ohio, Mechanics' Institute 110 

Drexel In.stitute, Philadelphia, Pa 94-98 

Free School of Mechanical Trades, "Williamson ScJiool P. O., Pa 85-87 

General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen, Xeyr York, N. Y 100, 101 

Hoe & Co.'s School, New York, X.Y 101,102 

Houghton, Mich., Mining School 112 

Industrial Art and Technical Design, School of, for Women, Xew York, X. Y 1G9, 110 

Institute for Artist- Artis.-vns, IS'ew York, IST. Y 107-109 

Institute for Colored Youth, Philadelphia, Pa 84, 85 

Lowell School of Practical Design. Boston, Mass Ill, 112 

Mechanics and Tradesmen, General Society of, New York, Is'. Y 100, 101 

Mechanics' Institute;, Cincinnati, Ohio 110 

Michigan Min:ng School. Houghton, Mich 112 

Mining School, Houghton, Mich 112 

Newark Technical School. Xewark, N.J 101 

New York, N. Y., General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen 100,101 

New York, N. Y. , Institute for Artist-Artisans 107-109 

New York, N. Y., School of Industrial Art and Technical Design for Women 109, 110 

New York, N. Y'.. School of Mes.srs. Hoe & Co 101,102 

Ohio Mechanics' Institute, Cincinnati, Ohio 110 

Philadelphia Builders' Exchange school, Pa . . . '. 83, 84 

Philadelphia, Pa., Drexel Institute 94-98 

Philadelphia, Pa., Institnte for Colored Youth 84, 85 

Philadelphia, Pa., textile school 105-107 

Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y 87-94 

Providence, P. I., School of Design Ill 

Providence, P. I., Technical Drawing School 110,111 

Phode Island School of Design, Providence, E.I Ill 

School of Design, Providence, E. I Ill 

School of Industrial Art and Technical Design for "Women, New \'"ork, N. Y 109, 110 

School of Messrs. Hoe <fc Co., New York, N. Y 101, 102 

School of tlie Philadelphia Builders' Exchange, Philadelphia, Pa 83, 84 

Technical Drawing School, Providence E. I 110, 111 

Technical School, Newark, N. J • 101 

Textile school, Philadelphia, Pa 105-107 

Watchmakin g schools in various localities in the United States 99, 1 00 

Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, AVilliarason School P. 0.,Pa 85-87 

Women's School of Industrial Art and Technical Design, New York, N. Y 109, 110 

Trade instruction and manual training, effect of, upon the individual 651-662 

Trade instruction and manual training in reformatories 621-650 

Trade School for — 

Girls, Ghent, Belgium 187 

Girls (intermediate), Antwerp. Belgium 187 

Girls (intermediate), Liege, Belgiimi , 188 

Girls, ruedes Terres Neiives, Brussels. Belgium 186 

Girls, rue du Marais, Brussels, Belgium 182-185 

Girls, rue du Poin9on, Brussels, Belgium 185,186 

Girls, Verviers, Belgium 187 

Ladies' Tailoring and Needlework, Zurich, Switzerland 546-549 

Tailors' Apprentices, Paris, France 280, 281 

Watchmaking, Paris, France 281 

Women, Basel, Switzerland 552-557 

Women, Bern, Switzerland 549-552 

S. Ex. 66 45 



706 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Trade School, Ghent, Belgium 3 95, 196 

Trade School, Leipsic, Saxony 350, 360 

Tr?de School of the Chaix Printing Company, Paris, France 278, 279 

Trade School of the Industrial Society of Saint-Quentin, France 283, 284 

Trade School of the Xorthern liailway Company, Paris, France 280 

Trade schools at Paris, France, consideration of 276, 277 

Trade schools, definition of terra 15 

Trade schools for girls in Eelgium 182-188 

Trade schools founded hy guilds and trades in Pelgimn, consideration of 189-193 

Trade schools in Belgiuni, consideration of .~ ] 93-198 

Trade schools in Berlin, Prussia 341-345 

Trade schools in Switzerland, consideration of '. 513-568 

Trade schools (industrial) and continuation schools in Bavaria 362-366 

Trade schools (industrial) and continuation schools in Prussia, consideration of 336-350 

Trade schools (industrial) and continuation schools in Saxon}-, Uamhurg, and Bremen, consid- 
eration of 350-36'i 

Trade schools (industrial) and continuation schools in "Wiirtemherg, consideration of 3G6-370 

Trade schools (industrial) in Chemnitz, Saxony 357, 358 

Trade schools (parochial) in Belgium, consideration of 188, 189 

Trade schools, results of C57-660 

Trades and Arts, National Conservatory of, Paris, France 236, 297 

Trades and Arts,Xational Schools of, Chalons, Angers, and Aix, France 286-290 

Training in sewing and cooking in the public schools of Philadelphia, Pa 6u0-G62 

Trapani^ Italy, Scuola d' Arti e Mestieri 454 

Travelling scholarships to graduates of industrial schools in France, consideration of .... 302 

Triest, Austria, State Industrial School , 153, 154 

Troy, N. Y., Eensselaer Polytechnic Institute 132 

Tucson, Ariz. , agricultural university 114 

Tulane High School. Xew Orleans, La., a manual training school 36 

Tulane University of Louisiana, iSTe-sv Orleans, manual training in 35, 36 

Tuskegee Xormal and Indtistrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala., manual training school (colored) . 27, 28 

Typographical School at Milan, Italy 447 

Typographical School, Gutenberg, Paris, France 277, 278 

Typography, School of, Brussels,"Be]gium 191 , 192 

IT. 
United States- 
manual training in, consideration of f 24-79 

manual training in grammar and high schools in the 608-617 

manual training in universities and technological schools in the 618, 619 

present status of industrial education in the 21-139 

TJniA'ersities and technological schools in the United States, manual training in 6 18, 619 

University College, Xottingham, England 1 431 

University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, technical education in 136 

Univcrsitj" of Georgia, Athens, a manual training school 29-31 

University of Illinois, Urbana. agricultural education in 118 

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, technical education in 139 

Urbana, 111.. University of Illinois, agricultural education in . 118 

Utah, consideration of agricultural colleges in 128 

Y. 

Yanderbilt University, Xashville, Tenn., technical education in 134, 135 

Yermont. agricultural colleges in, consideration of 128,129 

Yerviers, Belgium, Industrial School 211 

Yerviers, Belguim, Trade School for Girls 187 

Yictoria Home, Home, Italy 456, 457 

Yienna, Austria, manual training in 144 

Yienna, Austria, Technological rndustrial Museum -. 154-156 

Yiliach, Austria, school of the wood working industr}- 156-158 

Yineland, ^^. J., manual training in 57 

Yirginia Agricultural and Mechanical College, Blacksburgh, Ya 129 

Yirginia, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 129 

Yirginia. manual training schools in, consideration of 71-76 

W. 

"Watchmaking and Mechanics, School of, Chatix-de-Fonds. Switzerland 516-520 

TVatchniaking and Mechanics, School of, Geneva, Switzerland 530-533 

"Watchmaking and Mechanics, School of, Locle, Switzerland 513-516 

"Watchmaking, Electricity, and Applied Mechanics, Xational School of, Brussels, Belgium 196, 197 

"Watchmaking, National School for, Cluses, France 2G5-267 

"Watchmaking, School of. Bienne, Switzerland 525, 526 

"Watchmaking, School of. Fleurier, Switzerland 522,523 

"Watchmaking, School of, Xeuchatel, Switzerland 520-522 

Y'atchmaking, School of, Poreniruy, Switzerland 526-528 

"Watchmaking, School of Saint Tmier, Switzerland 528-530 

"Watchmaking, School of, Soleure, Switzerland 524, 525 

Watchmaking schools in the United States, consideration of 99, 100 

"Watchmakmir. Trade School for.Paris, France 281 

"Wattwyl, Switzerland, School of "\Yeaving 544-546 

"Weaving and Commerce. Advanced School of, Lv(.ns, France 285 

"Weaving, Dyeing, and Finishing, School of, at Orefeld, Prussia 338-341 

TTeaving school, Glasgow, Scotland 430, 431 



INDEX. 707 

Page. 

"Weaving School, Sorau, Prussia 345 

"Weaving School, Spreraherg, Prussia 341 

"Weaving School, Wattwj'l, Switzerland 514-546 

"Westerly, R. I., in anu;4 training in 69 

West Georgia A gricultural and Mechanical College, Hamilton, Ga 118 

"West "Virginia, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 129 

"West Virginia University, Morgantown, W.Va., agricultural education in 129 

"White "Water, Wis., manual training in 76, 77 

"Wiener-Keiist adt, Austria, manual training in 144 

"Wiley University, Marshall, Tex., manual training in (colored) 71 

Wilkes Barre, Pa., manual training in 68, 69 

"Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, Williamson School P. 0., Pa., consideration of. 85-87 

"Winterthiu', Switzerland, School for Professional Improvement 573, 574 

"Winterthur, Switzerland, School of Metal AYorking 537-540 

Winterthur, Switzerland, the Technikum 577-584 

"Winthrop Training School for Teachers, Columbia, S. C, manual training in 70 

"Wipkingen, near Zurich, Switzerland, School lor Silk "Weaving 541-544 

"Wisconsin, agricultural colleges in, consideration of 129 

"Wisconsin, manual training schools in, consideration of 76, 77 

"Women, schools of the Society for the Industrial Education of, Paris, Prance 281, 282 

Women, Trade School for, Basel, Switzerland 552-557 

"Women, Trade School for, Bern, Switzerland 519-552 

AVomen's School of Industrial Art and Technical Design, IN"ew York, IN". Y., consideration of . 109, 110 

Women's Work School at IN'uremherg, Bavaria 305, 366 

Wood Carving, School for, Brienz, Switzerland 540, 541 

Wood working industry, trade school of tlie. Brack, Austria ] 49, 150 

Wood working industry, trade school of the. Hall, Austria 151 , 152 

Wood working industry, trade school of the, A^illach, Austria 156-158 

Worb, Switzerland, Housekeeping School 506-508 

Worcester, Mass., Worcester Polytechnic Institute 136, 137 

Worcester Polytechnic Institiite, Worcester, Mass 130, 137 

Workingraan's School, Dr. Pclix Adler"s, "JSTew York, IST. Y., manual training in 03. 64 

Workingmen's School, Bern, Switzerland '. 574 

Working people in Switzerland, institutions for the education of, consideration of 571-577 

Working Women, College for, London, England 412 

AVorkshop instructi(m or manual dexterity^ terms used in Germany for manual training 17 

Wiirtemberg, industrial trade schools and continuation schools in, consideration of 366-370 

Y. 
Yorkshire College, Leeds, England 423, 424 

Z. 
Zurich, Switzerland- 
Industrial Art School 569, 570 

Industrial School 574, 575 

Polytechnic School 584-5S6 

School of Art and Needlework 500-562 

Trade School for Ladies' Tailoring aud Needlework 546-549 



